AUTOMATIC PHASE SELECTOR FOR 3-PHASE POWER SUPPLY

ABSTRACT

This project work is on the design and construction of automatic phase

selector for 3-phase power supply. It provides a means of switching from one

phase of AC mains to another in the case of failure in the existing phase; This

project has been improved on the existing types of electromechanical device

that has being in use over the years.

Hence this has been achieved by the use of operational amplifier, timing

circuit and high current relay switches and it is powered by 12V dc power

supply.

The aim of this work is to design and construct an Auto Phase Selector

introduces an automatic solution to overcome power fluctuation/phase

interruption by selecting next most healthy available phase from three phase

supply to feed the equipment without any notice of power outage.

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In Nigeria today the problems of power outage across phases is so rampant

thus leading to some sensitive equipment and appliances being redundant,

this could sometimes be the cause of one phase going out with respect to the

other.

It may surprise one to note that in an attempt to solve this problems, so many

unskilled electricity consumers has in recent past resorted to some crude

means of swapping between phases to obtain power. So many souls have

been lost in this act. This is an undesirable condition to consumers and the

need now arises to design a device that can automatically select among the

phases and make power supply available at the consumers terminal.

However, this can only be possible if one have a three phase met or and there

is supply from any of the service line or the entire line, this project known as a

three phase automatic phase selector has been constructed with a view of

solving the problems stated above. The design and construction was based on

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the principle of Electro magneto-Dynamism and alignment as demonstrated in

the contactor arrangement.

Among other components are the timers miniature-circuit breakers the

contactors and indicator bulbs, the ease with which the device is operated is

well elaborated to ensure simplicity effort were made to present a stop by

step operation of the project. As much as there is no project without

limitation and applications, we have as well dedicated a section of this paper

to look into it.

In order to ease the effort of technicians in restoring the devices should there

be any malfunction associated.

Faults and how they are cleared is presented, however, there are no user

serviceable parts in the device therefore all maintenance should be referred

to a qualified electrical personnel.

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1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

The objective of this work is to design a device that will overcome power

fluctuation phase interruption by selecting next most healthy available phase

to feed the equipment.

1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

Industries require three phases power to run their machinery. Some of them

require continuous \ uninterrupted power to maintain their data. Auto phase

selector unit for those equipment whose supply is single phase. The single

phase supply is selected automatically from three phases supply.

Auto Phase Selector introduces an automatic solution to overcome power

fluctuation \ phase interruption by selecting next most healthy available

phase to feed the equipment.

1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS

In every home, office or industries, automatic phase selector plays a vital role,

that is, It provides a means of switching from one phase of AC mains to

another in the case of failure in the existing phase; This project has been

v
improved on the existing types of electromechanical device that has being in

use over the years.

In the course of designing this project, different kinds of problem was notice

such as:

 Difficulty in troubleshooting with circuit without the circuit diagram

 Difficulty in connecting the output without the three phases short-

circuiting, until a multiplexing circuit was gotten.

 Difficult in wiring because of the strong wiring the project required..

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This work covers only a three phase automatic phase selector which can only

be used for providing a means of switching from one phase of AC mains to

another in the case of failure in the existing phase

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 REVIEW OF ELECTRICAL PHASES

There is a major characteristic of an AC electricity supply that requires

explanation -phases. A DC circuit has two wires through which the current in

the circuit flows from a source of electricity through a load and back to the

source. A single-phase AC circuit also has two wires connected to the source

of electricity. However, unlike the DC circuit in which the direction of the

electric current does not change, the direction of the current changes many

times per second in the AC circuit. The 220 volt electricity supplied to our

homes is single phase AC electricity and has two wires - an "active" and a

"neutral".

The distribution line supplying your home may be single phase and have only

two wires strung between the poles (we will use the overhead power lines as

examples because they can be easily seen). However, the distribution line

may be made up of 4 lines. What are the others? The other lines carry the

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currents from two other electrical circuits, making a total of three circuits or

phases. The reason why there are only 4 lines is because the 3 phases have a

common neutral line (i.e. 3 active lines and 1 common neutral line).

Because the magnitude and direction of the electricity flowing in each of the

phases is slightly displaced in time from the electricity flowing in the other

phases, the current flowing in the common neutral will be the sum of the

neutral currents from the 3 phases. The resultant current in the common

neutral is smaller in a 3 phase system than in systems with other numbers of

phases. This ability to use a common neutral of relatively small capacity has

large economic advantages and is the main reason why 3 phases are used.

3 phase electricity has another advantage. We mentioned above that, in

Canada, the voltage between the active and neutral in the single phase, low

voltage supply to our homes is 220 volts and that this phase is only one of the

phases in the 3 phase system. The voltage between the phases of a 120/208V

3 phase system is 208 volts (in Canada). A 208 volt, 3 phase supply is able to

deliver more energy than a 120 volt, single phase supply. 3 phase supplies are

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normally restricted to large electrical loads, such as large electric motors.

Commercial buildings are often wired for three phase power. Air conditioners

for instance are run on the three phase power while single phase power is

typically used for most electrical, electronic and lighting equipment.

A single phase supply must have a neutral, whereas a 3 phase supply does not

require a neutral. More complicated reasons deal with fixing the voltage of

the single phase supply relative to the ground (because domestic appliances

have their metal enclosures connected to ground) and for fault protection

purposes. 3 phase, medium voltage, distribution systems and high voltage

transmission systems therefore use one wire for each phase and no neutral.

The above discussions focused on active and neutral conductors (wires) as

being the means to convey the electricity. One type of system uses the ground

as the return path, with only the active being conveyed by a wire conductor.

This type of single-phase supply system is called the Single Wire Ground

Return system and is use to supply small loads which are located far from the

main distribution networks.

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2.2 REVIEW OF THREE-PHASE ELECTRIC POWER

Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating-current electric

power generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a type of poly phase

system and is the most common method used by electrical grids worldwide to

transfer power. It is also used to power large motors and other heavy loads. A

three-phase system is usually more economical than an equivalent single-phase

or two-phase system at the same line to ground voltage because it uses less

conductor material to transmit electrical power. The three-phase system was

independently invented by Galileo Ferraris, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and

Nikola Tesla in the late 1880s.

In a balanced three-phase power supply system (by far, the most common

type), three conductors each carry an alternating current of the same frequency

and voltage relative to a common reference (Typically such a reference is

connected to ground and often to a current-carrying conductor called the

neutral) but with a phase difference of one third the period; hence the voltage

on any conductor reaches its peak at one third of a cycle after one of the other

conductors and one third of a cycle before the third conductor. From any of the

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three conductors, the peak voltage on the other two conductors is delayed by

one third and two thirds of one cycle respectively. This phase delay gives

constant power transfer over each cycle. It also makes it possible to produce a

rotating magnetic field in an electric motor and generate other phase

arrangements using transformers (For instance, a two phase system using a

Scott-T transformer).

With a perfectly balanced three phase supply the instantaneous voltage of any

phase is exactly equal in magnitude but opposite to the sum of the other two

phases. This means that if the load on the three phases is balanced as well, the

return path for the current in any phase conductor is the other two phase

conductors.

Hence, the sum of the currents in the three conductors is always zero and the

current in each conductor is equal to and in the opposite direction as the sum of

the currents in the other two. Thus, each conductor acts as the return path for

the currents from the other two.

While a single phase AC power supply requires two conductors (Go and

Return), a three phase supply can transmit three times the power by using only

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one extra conductor. This means that a 50% increase in transmission cost

yields a 200% increase in the power transmitted.

Three-phase systems may also utilize a fourth wire, particularly in low-voltage

distribution. This is the neutral wire. The neutral allows three separate single-

phase supplies to be provided at a constant voltage and is commonly used for

supplying groups of domestic properties which are each single-phase loads.

The connections are arranged so that, as far as possible in each group, equal

power is drawn from each phase. Further up the supply chain in high-voltage

distribution the currents are usually well balanced and it is therefore normal to

omit the neutral conductor.

Three-phase supplies have properties that make them very desirable in electric

power distribution systems:

 The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in

the case of a linear balanced load. This makes it possible to reduce the

size of the neutral conductor because it carries little to no current; all the

phase conductors carry the same current and so can be the same size, for

a balanced load.

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  Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to

reduce generator and motor vibrations.

 Three-phase systems can produce a rotating magnetic field with a

specified direction and constant magnitude, which simplifies the design

of electric motors.

Most household loads are single-phase. In North American residences, three-

phase power might feed a multiple-unit apartment block, but the household

loads are connected only as single phase. In lower-density areas, only a single

phase might be used for distribution. Some large European appliances may be

powered by three-phase power, such as electric stoves and clothes dryers.

Wiring for the three phases is typically identified by color codes which vary by

country. Connection of the phases in the right order is required to ensure the

intended direction of rotation of three-phase motors. For example, pumps and

fans may not work in reverse. Maintaining the identity of phases is required if

there is any possibility two sources can be connected at the same time; a direct

interconnection between two different phases is a short-circuit.

2.3 REVIEW OF THREE PHASE GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION

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At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a

set of three AC electric currents, one from each coil (or winding) of the

generator. The windings are arranged such that the currents vary sinusoidally at

the same frequency but with the peaks and troughs of their wave forms offset

to provide three complementary currents with a phase separation of one-third

cycle (120° or 2π⁄3 radians). The generator frequency is typically 50 or 60 Hz,

varying by country.

At the power station, transformers change the voltage from generators to a

level suitable for transmission minimizing losses.

After further voltage conversions in the transmission network, the voltage is

finally transformed to the standard utilization before power is supplied to

customers.

Most automotive alternators generate three phase AC and rectify it to DC with

a diode bridge.

2.4 REVIEW OF THREE-WIRE AND FOUR-WIRE CIRCUITS

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A transformer for a “high-leg delta” system; (Assuming a 200 V, 3-Phase

supply) 200 V 3-phase motors would be connected to L1, L2 and L3. 200 V

Single-phase load would be connected between L1 and L2. Single phase 100 V

supplies (180 degrees “out of phase”) would be obtained between either L1 or

L2 and the neutral (N). L3 (wild or high leg) will be 173.2 V with respect to

the neutral.

There are two basic three-phase configurations: delta and wye (star). As shown

on the left, a delta configuration requires only 3 wires for transmission but a

wye (star) configuration may tilize a fourth wire. The fourth wire, if present, is

provided as a Neutral and is normally Grounded. The ‘3-wire’ and ‘4-wire’

designations do not count the ground wire used above many transmission lines

which is solely for fault protection and does not carry current under non-fault

conditions.

A four-wire system with symmetrical voltages between phase and neutral is

obtained when the neutral is connected to the “common star point” of all

supply windings. In such a system, all three phases will have the same

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magnitude of voltage relative to the Neutral. Other non-symmetrical systems

have been used.

The four-wire wye system is used when ground referenced voltages or the

flexibility of more voltage selections are required. Faults on one phase to

ground will cause a protection event (fuse or breaker open) locally and not

involve other phases or other connected equipment. An example of application

is a local distribution in Europe (and elsewhere), where each customer is fed

from one phase and the neutral (which is common to the three phases). When a

group of customers sharing the neutral draw unequal phase currents, the

common neutral wire carries the currents resulting from these imbalances.

Electrical engineers try to design the system so the loads are balanced as much

as possible within premises where 3-phase power is utilized. These same

principles apply to the wide scale distribution of power to individual premises.

Hence, every effort is made by supply authorities to distribute all three phases

over a large number of premises so that, on average, as nearly as possible a

balanced load is seen at the point of supply.

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In North America, a high-leg delta supply is sometimes used, where one

winding of a delta connected transformer feeding the load is center-tapped and

that center tap is grounded and connected as a Neutral, as shown on the right.

This setup produces three different voltages. If the voltage between the center

tap (neutral) and each of the two adjacent phases is 120 V (100%), the voltage

across any two phases is 240 V (200%) and the Neutral to “high leg” voltage is

≈ 208 V (173%).[7]

The reason for providing the delta connected supply is usually to power large

motors requiring a rotating field. However, the premises concerned will also

require the “normal” North American 120 V supplies, two of which are derived

(180 degrees “out of phase”) between the “Neutral” and either of the center

tapped phase points.

Single-phase loads

Single-phase loads may be connected across any two phases, or a load can be

connected from phase to neutral. Distributing single-phase loads among the

phases of a three-phase system balances the load and makes most economical

use of conductors and transformers.

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In a symmetrical three-phase four-wire, wye system, the three phase

conductors have the same voltage to the system neutral. The voltage between

line conductors is √3 times the phase conductor to neutral voltage.

VL-L = √3 VL-N

The currents returning from the customers’ premises to the supply transformer

all share the neutral wire. If the loads are evenly distributed on all three phases,

the sum of the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately zero. Any

unbalanced phase loading on the secondary side of the transformer will use the

transformer capacity inefficiently.

If the supply neutral is broken, phase-to-neutral voltage is no longer

maintained. Phases with higher relative loading will experience reduced

voltage and phases with lower relative loading will experience elevated

voltage, up to the phase-to-phase voltage.

A high-leg delta provides phase-to-neutral relationship of VL-L = 2 VL-N ,

however, L-N load is imposed on one phase. A transformer manufacturer’s

page suggests that L-N loading to not exceed 5% of transformer capacity.

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√3 is ≈ 1.73, so if VL-N was defined as 100%, VL-L would be ≈ 100% × 1.73 =

173% If VL-L was set as 100%, then VL-N ≈ 57.7%

Unbalanced loads

When the currents on the three live wires of a three-phase system are not equal

or are not at an exact 120° phase angle, the power-loss is greater than for a

perfectly balanced system. The method of symmetrical components is used to

analyze unbalanced systems.

Non-linear loads

With linear loads, the neutral only carries the current due to imbalance between

the phases. Devices that utilize rectifier-capacitor front-end such as switch-

mode power supplies, computers, office equipment and such produce third

order harmonics that are in-phase on all the supply phases. Consequently, such

harmonic currents add in the neutral which can cause the neutral current to

exceed the phase current.

2.5 REVIEW OF THREE-PHASE LOADS

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An important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A three-phase

induction motor has a simple design, inherently high starting torque and high

efficiency. Such motors are applied in industry for many applications. A three-

phase motor is more compact and less costly than a single-phase motor of the

same voltage class and rating and single-phase AC motors above 10 HP

(7.5 kW) are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and hence last

longer than single-phase motors of the same power used under the same

conditions.

Line frequency flicker in light can be reduced by evenly spreading three phases

across line frequency operated light sources so that illuminated area is provided

light from all three phases. The effect of line frequency flicker is detrimental to

super slow motion cameras used in sports event broadcasting. Three phase

lighting has been applied successfully at the 2008 Beijing Olympics to provide

consistent light level for each frame for SSM cameras. Resistance heating

loads such as electric boilers or space heating may be connected to three-phase

systems. Electric lighting may also be similarly connected.

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Rectifiers may use a three-phase source to produce a six-pulse DC output. The

output of such rectifiers is much smoother than rectified single phase and,

unlike single-phase, does not drop to zero between pulses. Such rectifiers may

be used for battery charging, electrolysis processes such as aluminium

production or for operation of DC motors. "Zig-zag" transformers may make

the equivalent of six-phase full-wave rectification, twelve pulses per cycle, and

this method is occasionally employed to reduce the cost of the filtering

components, while improving the quality of the resulting DC.

One example of a three-phase load is the electric arc furnace used in

steelmaking and in refining of ores.

In Germany, a 1965 publication shows some "full size" stoves are designed for

a three-phase feed. However, the individual heating units may be connected

between phase and neutral to allow for connection by three individual circuits

on the same single-phase supply.

Phase converters

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Phase converters are used when three-phase equipment needs to be operated on

a single-phase power source. They are used when three-phase power is not

available or cost is not justifiable. Such converters may also allow the

frequency to be varied (resynthesis) allowing speed control. Some railway

locomotives use a single-phase source to drive three-phase motors fed through

an electronic drive.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/CONSTRUCTION

This work started with the studying of the block diagram, followed by the the

studying of the circuit diagram and gathering of the parts used in the

construction.

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

The block diagram of the system is as below:

3.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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3.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE

An automatic phase selector for three power supply provides a means of

switching from one phase of AC mains to another in the case of failure, low or

over voltage in the existing phase.

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In three-phase applications, if low voltage is available in any one or two

phases, and you want your equipment to work on normal voltage, this circuit

will solve your problem. However, a proper-rating fuse needs to be used in

the input lines (R, Y and B) of each phase. The circuit provides correct voltage

in the same power supply lines through relays from the other phase where

correct voltage is available. Using it you can operate all your equipment even

when correct voltage is available on a single phase in the building.

3.4 CIRCUIT OPERATION

The circuit is built around a transformer, comparator, transistor and relay.

Three identical sets of this circuit, one each for three phases, are used.

The aim of this work is to provide a means of switching from one phase of AC

mains to another in the case of failure, low or over voltage in the existing

phase.

The mains power supply phase R is stepped down by transformer X1 to deliver

12V, 300 mA, which is rectified by diode D1 and filtered by capacitor C1 to

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produce the operating voltage for the operational amplifier (IC1). The voltage

at inverting pin 2 of operational amplifier IC1 is taken from the voltage divider

circuit of resistor R1 and preset resistor VR1. VR1 is used to set the reference

voltage according to the requirement. The reference voltage at non-inverting

pin 3 is fixed to 5.1V through zener diode ZD1. Till the supply voltage available

in phase R is in the range of 200V-230V, the voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1

remains high, i.e., more than reference voltage of 5.1V, and its output pin 6

also remains high. As a result, transistor T1 does not conduct, relay RL1

remains de-energised and phase ‘R’ supplies power to load L1 via normally

closed(N/C) contact of relay RL1.As soon as phase-R voltage goes below 200V,

the voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 goes below reference voltage of 5.1V, and

its output goes low.As a result, transistor T1 conducts and relay RL1 energises

and load L1 is disconnected from phase ‘R’ and connected to phase ‘Y’

through relay RL2.Similarly, the auto phase-change of the remaining two

phases, viz, phase‘Y’ and phase ‘B,’ can be explained.

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THREE PHASE INPUT TO SINGLE PHASE OUTPUT

We have three phase input and the voltages in the three input is not the same

always. Sometimes, one or two or three phase will be off. I would like to

connect the phase to output which lies within the range (110 - 290).

Below will be the example,

Phase 1 (290v), Phase 2 (245v), Phase 3 (190v)

I need to select Phase 1 in this case. Ampere rating would be 60A on the

selected output.

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This is the cheapest solution, if the input voltage is constant. With the varying

voltage, the coil does not seem to take a varying voltage.

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3.5 DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR COMPONENTS USED

The major components used in this work are as below:

TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is simply device comprising of two windings (i.e. the primary

and secondary windings) such that when a magnetizing current is fed to the

primary winding a magnetic flux is generated in the winding. This magnetic

flux produces an electromotive force (emf) which is induced in the

secondary winding he through a process of electromagnetic induction then

when a load is coupled to the output of the secondary winding a voltage will

be produced across the load.

The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits

linked by a common magnetic flux. In its simplest form it consist two

inductive coils, which are electrically separated, but are magnetically linked.

Through a path of low reluctance, the two coils posies high mutual

inductances.

If one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage, an alternating flux

is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in

which it produces mutually induced EMF. According to faradays law of

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electromagnetic induction, E = Mdi/dt.

Transformers generally are of two types basically in the manner in which the

primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated core. The two

types include.

a. The core type transformer and

b. The shell type transformer

In the core types transformer, the windings is our rounds a considerable part

of the core or magnetic circuit surrounds a considerable portion of the

windings as represented in the diagrams below.

In the core type impression is created that the coil has been wound around

the core.

In the shell type, both windings are on the center limbs. The impression is

created that the core has been built around the coil.

Voltage Ratio

The voltage of the windings in a transformer is directly proportional

to the number of turns on the coils. This relationship is expressed in

Equation.

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 VP /VS NP/ NS

Where

VP = voltage on primary coil

VS = voltage on secondary coil

NP = number of turns on the primary coil

NS = number of turns on the secondary coil

The ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is known as

the voltage ratio (VR).

As mentioned previously, the ratio of primary turns of wire to secondary

turns of wire is known as the turn’s ratio (TR). By substituting into the

Equation (above), we find that the voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio.

VR = TR A voltage ratio of 1:5 means that for each volt on the

primary, there will be 5 volts on the secondary. If the secondary

voltage of a transformer is greater than the primary voltage, the

transformer is referred to as a "step-up" transformer. A ratio of 5:1 means

that for every 5 volts on the primary, there will only be 1 volt on the

secondary. When secondary voltage is less than primary voltage, the

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transformer is referred to as a "step-down" transformer.

Example 1: A transformer reduces voltage from 120 volts in the primary to

6 volts in the secondary.

If the primary winding has 300 turns and the secondary has 15 turns,

find the voltage and turns ratio.

Solution:

VR =VP /VS =120/ 60= 20/ 1= 20:1

TR= NP /NS =300/ 15 = 20/ 1= 20:1

Rev.

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TRANSISTOR

In this project, a Darlington transistor was used. The Darlington transistor

(often called a Darlington pair) is a compound structure consisting of two

bipolar transistors (either integrated or separated devices) connected in such

a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by

the second one. This configuration gives a much higher common/emitter

current gain than each transistor taken separately and, in the case of

integrated devices, can take less space than two individual transistors

because they can use a shared collector. Integrated Darlington pairs come

packaged singly in transistor-like packages or as an array of devices (usually

eight) in an integrated circuit.

ZENER DIODE

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Zener diode

A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward

direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in

the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the

breakdown voltage, "Zener knee voltage", "Zener voltage", "avalanche

point", or "peak inverse voltage".

The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical

property. Strictly speaking, a Zener diode is one in which the reverse

breakdown is due to electron quantum tunnelling under high electric field

strength—the Zener effect. However, many diodes described as "Zener"

diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdown as the mechanism. Both types

are used with the Zener effect predominating under 5.6 V and avalanche

breakdown above. Common applications include providing a reference

voltage for voltage regulators, or to protect other semiconductor devices

from momentary voltage pulses.

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LM741 IC

The Operational Amplifier is probably the most versatile Integrated Circuit

available. It is very cheap especially keeping in mind the fact that it contains

several hundred components. The most common Op-Amp is the 741 and it is

used in many circuits.

The OP AMP is a ‘Linear Amplifier’ with an amazing variety of uses. Its

main purpose is to amplify (increase) a weak signal - a little like a

Darlington Pair.

A LM741 is a 8-pin op amp, meaning it has 8 pins all having their different

functions.

Below is the pinout diagram of a LM741 Op amp chip:

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Pin 1: Offset Null- This is the pin where we add voltage to if we want to

eliminate the offset voltage. This is if we want to completely balance the

input voltages. More on this at offset terminals

Pin 2: Inverting Input- This is where the positive part of the input signal

that we want to amplify goes if we want our amplified signal inverted. If we

don't want it inverted, we place the positve part of the signal into the Non-

inverting terminal and place the negative or ground part of our signal here.

Pin 3: Non-inverting Input- This is where the positive part of the input

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signal that we want amplified goes if we want our signal non-inverted.

Pin 4: V-- The LM741 Op amp is a dual power supply op amp, meaning it

must be supplied positive DC voltage and negative DC voltage. Pin 4 is

where the op amp gets supplied with negative DC voltage.

Pin 5: Offset Null- This is the pin where we add voltage to if we want to

eliminate the offset voltage. This is if we want to completely balance the

input voltages. More on this at offset terminals

Pin 6: Output- This is the terminal where the output, the amplified signal,

comes out of. Whatever output the amplifier will drive gets connected to this

terminal.

Pin 7: V+- This is the terminal which receives the positive DC voltage.

Pin 8: NC- This pin stands for Not Connected. It is not used for anything

and should be left open.

RESISTOR

It is a component that opposes the flow of current through it. A pure resistor

possesses only resistance, no capacitor or inductance, but all practical

xxxvii
resistors possess some small amount of capacitance or inductance. Usually

these are sufficiently small to be negligible.

They are constructed from a mixture of carbon of the materials in

proportions that give the required amount of resistance. They can be

connected on series, parallel or the combination of the both.

They can also be connected to protect devices such as transistor and diode

against excess current.

Resistor can be fixed or variable. It is measured in ohms.

Fig.1.0. showing the circuit symbol of a resistor

TYPES OF RESISTOR

 variable resistor

 rheostat resistor

 potentiometer resistor

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  fixed resistor.

Table 1.0: A table showing the resistor colour code

FIRST SECOND THIRD TOLERANCE

COLOUR
BAND BAND BAND

BLACK _ 0 X10

BROWN 1 0 ±1%

RED 2 00 ±2%

ORANGE 3 000

YELLOW 4 0000

GREEN 5 00000

BLUE 6 000000

VIOLET 7 0000000

GREY 8 00000000

WHITE 9 000000000

GOLD _ _ X0.1 ±5%

SILIVER _ _ X0.01 ±10%

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 The symbol is as below:

CAPACITOR

Function

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits

because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to

smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also

used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but

they block DC (constant) signals.

Capacitance

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This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance

means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads,

symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller

values.

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

 µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

 n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF

 p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of

capacitor with different labelling systems!

There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups,

polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

Polarised capacitors (large values, 1µF +)

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Fig1.1: showing circuit symbol of polarised capacitor

Electrolytic Capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct

way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not

damaged by heat when soldering.

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are

attached to each end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the

same end (10µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and

they stand upright on the circuit board.

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)

Fig 1.2: showing the circuit symbol of an unpolarised capacitor.

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round.

They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type

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(polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or

so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there

are many types of them and several different labeling systems!

Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier,

so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be!

For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.

Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:

For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Capacitor Number Code

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:

 the 1st number is the 1st digit,

 the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,

 the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.

 Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.

For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)

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For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).

Variable capacitors

Fig 1.3 showing the circuit symbol of Variable capacitor

Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are

sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values,

typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001µF). The type illustrated

usually has trimmers built in (for making small adjustments - see below) as

well as the main variable capacitor.

Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for

the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be

wise to check that a suitable knob is available before ordering a variable

capacitor.

Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their

capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values available is very

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limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it

is necessary to vary the time period.

Trimmer capacitor

Fig.1.4 showing the circuit symbol of Trimmer Capacitor.

Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are

designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when

the circuit is built.

A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The process

of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the

tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the

trimmer!

Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally

less than 100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are

usually specified by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.

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Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable

resistors.

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used

as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for general

lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs

emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the

visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine

with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This

effect is called electroluminescence, and the colour of the light (corresponding

to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the

semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated

optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[9] LEDs have

many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy

consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and

faster switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are

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relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat management

than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting,

automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs

have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their

high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.

Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial

products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances.

LEDs are also used in seven-segment display.

RECTIFYING DIODE

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one

direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a

number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper

and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled

rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even

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synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early

radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire

pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulphide) to serve as a point-contact

rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC

power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.

Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use

as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In

gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of flame.

Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of

rectification alone produces a DC current which, although unidirectional,

consists of pulses of current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power

supplies for radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady

constant DC current (as would by produced by a battery). In these applications

the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter to produce a

steady current. The symbol is as below:

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RELAY

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to

mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used,

such as solid-state relays. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a

circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between

control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled

by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as

amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-

transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone

exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an

electric motor or other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control

power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to

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perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and

sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from

overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are

performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays"

Pole and throw

Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT.)

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied

to relays; a relay switches one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be

thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:

 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is

activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also

called a Form A contact or "make" contact. NO contacts may also be

distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means that the contacts

close before the button or switch is fully engaged.

l
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is

activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called

a Form B contact or "break" contact. NC contacts may also be distinguished

as "late-break" or NCLB, which means that the contacts stay closed until

the button or switch is fully disengaged.

 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits:

one normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common

terminal. It is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break

before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make before break"

functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

NPN TRANSISTOR

The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped

semiconductor between two layers of P-doped material. A small current

leaving the base is amplified in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is

"on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter.

li
The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and

point in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in

forward active mode.

A mnemonic device for the PNP transistor symbol is "pointing in

(proudly/permanently)", based on the arrows in the symbol and the letters in

the name.

The emitter is at +2V, and the base and collector voltages can be controlled

using the sliders at right. Move the mouse over the transistor to see labels for

the three terminals. Compare it to the NPN example.

The emitter-base junction acts like a diode. Unlike an NPN transistor, current

flows out of the base, not into it. Little current flows out of the base unless it is

below about 1.4V (0.6V below the emitter). Assuming the collector is at a

lower voltage than the base, the emitter-collector current is 100 times the base

current. So, this transistor has a beta (current gain) of 100. Moving the

collector voltage higher or lower won't have any effect as long as it's lower

than the base voltage. This is forward active mode.

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A transistor is often considered to be in saturation mode when the collector is

higher than the base. But it still acts like forward active mode unless the

voltage difference, Vcb, is on the order of a diode drop (.6 V). If the base is at

1.3V and the collector is raised to about 1.86V or higher, the base current will

go up and the collector current will go down, so it will no longer be 100 times

the base current. This is saturation, where the transistor acts like a low-

resistance switch, with a small voltage drop from the emitter to the collector.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT ANALYSIS

4.1 INSTALLATION OF THE COMPLETED DESIGN

This project could be used to signify when there is power failure. This system

alerts the user to switch off his/her appliances.

The system has a toggle switch, and power indicator, and also input plug are

also made available and all mounted on the body of the casing. The toggle

switch is used to switch the system ON.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE AND TESTING

In building this project, the following procedures were properly considered,

I. Purposing of the entire materials / Components needed

ii. Resistance check of the components bought with the help of ohmmeter

before making the necessary connection with the components

iii. Drafting out a schematic diagram or how to arrange the materials /

components.

iv. Testing the completed system to see if the design works and

v. Finally, implementation of design of the project.

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Having procured all the materials, I processed into the arrangement of the

components into the Vero board, proper soldering of the components then

followed. The components were all soldered into the board after which it was

correctly confirmed done.

4.3 CASING AND PACKAGING

The casing of this project comprises of internal and external packaging.

Internal parts of the circuit was soldered and fixed inside the case. Then after

that, follow by external components such as indicators, switch.

4.4 ASSEMBLING OF SECTIONS

Having provided the casing and having finished the construction of the sections

of this system, the assembling into the casing followed. The sections were

properly laid out and assembled into the casing where the general coupling and

linkages into the peripheral devices took place.

Finally; the indicator, switch were carefully brought out from the internal part

of the casing through the holes made on the body of the casing, the input cable

plug outlet mounted on the body of the casing where power source terminals

will be connected to.

4.5 TESTING OF SYSTEM OPERATION

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In this stage, the system was due for testing and operation. The system

operation was tested where all its required performance was maintained.

First; the device was connected and switch ON with the toggle switch, then the

system is set for operation. The indicator light is also connected whose

function is mainly to indicate the presence of voltage into the system.

During testing, we used a 12V, 200-ohm, single phase change over relay with

6A current rating. Similarly, ampere-rated fuses were used.

2. If the input voltage is low in two phases, loads L1 and L2 may also be

connected to the third phase. In that situation, a high-rating fuse will be

required at the input of the third phase which is taking the total load.

4.6 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED

As we all know that every engineering work goes with one or more problem,

which enhances research and probably technological advancement to engineers

while endeavoring to resolve such problem. Therefore the project on discussion

suffers some noticeable drawback, which includes:

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 i. Mechanical problem: we found it difficult to install all the external

components. But after the effort was made, our aim was later

achieved.

ii. we found it difficult to select the right potentiometer that will be

used to control the voltage of the op-amp.

iii.

4.7 PRECAUSIONS

Use relay contacts of proper rating and fuses should be able to take-on the

load when transferred from other phases. While wiring, assembly and

installation of the circuit, make sure that you:

1. Use good-quality, multi-strand insulated copper wire suitable for your

current requirement.

2. Use good-quality relays with proper contact and current rating.

3. Mount the transformer(s) and relays on a suitable cabinet. Use a Tag

Block(TB) for incoming/out going connections from mains.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY

lviii
Phase selector provides a means of switching from one phase of AC mains to

another in the case of failure in the existing phase; it also changeover to

generator if there is failure in all the three phases of the AC mains.

In three-phase applications, if low voltage is available in any one or two

phases, and you want your equipment to work on normal voltage, this circuit

will solve your problem. However, a proper-rating fuse needs to be used in

the input lines (R, Y and B) of each phase. The circuit provides correct voltage

in the same power supply lines through relays from the other phase where

correct voltage is available.

The distribution line supplying your home may be single phase and have only

two wires strung between the poles (we will use the overhead power lines as

examples because they can be easily seen). However, the distribution line

may be made up of 4 lines. What are the others? The other lines carry the

currents from two other electrical circuits, making a total of three circuits or

phases. The reason why there are only 4 lines is because the 3 phases have a

common neutral line (i.e. 3 active lines and 1 common neutral line).

lix
Because the magnitude and direction of the electricity flowing in each of the

phases is slightly displaced in time from the electricity flowing in the other

phases, the current flowing in the common neutral will be the sum of the

neutral currents from the 3 phases. The resultant current in the common

neutral is smaller in a 3 phase system than in systems with other numbers of

phases. This ability to use a common neutral of relatively small capacity has

large economic advantages and is the main reason why 3 phases are used.

3 phase electricity has another advantage. We mentioned above that, in

Canada, the voltage between the active and neutral in the single phase, low

voltage supply to our homes is 220 volts and that this phase is only one of the

phases in the 3 phase system. The voltage between the phases of a 220/220V

3 phase system is 240 volts (in Canada). A 240 volt, 3 phase supply is able to

deliver more energy than a 120 volt, single phase supply. 3 phase supplies are

normally restricted to large electrical loads, such as large electric motors.

Commercial buildings are often wired for three phase power. Air conditioners

lx
for instance are run on the three phase power while single phase power is

typically used for most electrical, electronic and lighting equipment.

A single phase supply must have a neutral, whereas a 3 phase supply does not

require a neutral. More complicated reasons deal with fixing the voltage of

the single phase supply relative to the ground (because domestic appliances

have their metal enclosures connected to ground) and for fault protection

purposes. 3 phase, medium voltage, distribution systems and high voltage

transmission systems therefore use one wire for each phase and no neutral.

5.2 CONCLUSION

The mains supply in Nigeria fluctuates widely due to overloading, ageing and

improper distribution of loads among the three phases of the consumers'

substation transformer.

lxi
Appliances such as video cassette player, television as well as those containing

compressors like air conditioners, refrigerators, etc could be damaged due to

this variation and fluctuation in voltage mains.

The automatic three-phase selector is an electronic circuit that is capable of

detecting voltage levels by means of a controller that does some level of

comparison before initializing a logic combinational circuit that does some

logic combination before initializing an electronic relay switch action. The

relay is energize only when the mains voltage is within an accepted

predetermined limit, outside of which relay remains dormant .voltage levels

below the desired range is ignored. This device is designed to work with a 3-

phase input signal. The device functions in the form of an automatic

electronic switch, switching between three potentials, with the aim of

supplying the highest potential to the load.

5.3 RECOMMENDATION

Carrying-out this work by final year student is a right thing and at the right

time.

lxii
This work was built with quality wiring and contains many connections, I

recommend that if failure occur, it should be troubleshoot by a qualify

personnel along with the circuits diagram.

This project was built for Educational purposes. If one want to use it for

industrial or home applications, I recommend that a hook should be attached

to the casing that would allow fixing the system on the wall.

5.4 REFERENCES

 William D. Stevenson, Jr. Elements of Power System Analysis Third

Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York (1975). ISBN 0-07-061285-4, p. 2

 Cotton, H, Electrical Technology, 6th Ed., Pitman, London, 1950, p. 268

 Hawkins Electrical Guide, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed., 1917, vol. 4, Ch.

46: Alternating Currents, p. 1026, fig. 1260.

lxiii
 Hawkins Electrical Guide, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed., 1917, vol. 4, Ch.

46: Alternating Currents, p. 1026, fig. 1261.

 Fowler, Nick (2011). Electrician's Calculations Manual 2nd Edition.

McGraw-Hill. pp. 3–5. ISBN 9780071770170.

 H. W. Beaty, D.G.Fink (ed) Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers

Fifteenth Edition,McGraw-Hill, 2007 ISBN 0-07-144146-8, p. 10–11

 J. Duncan Glover; Mulukutla S. Sarma; Thomas J. Overbye (April 2011).

Power System Analysis & Design. Cengage Learning. pp. 60–68. ISBN 978-1-

111-42579-1.

 Lowenstein, Michael. "The 3rd Harmonic Blocking Filter: A Well

Established Approach to Harmonic Current Mitigation". IAEI Magazine.

Retrieved 24 November 2012.

lxiv
 Enjeti, Prasad. "Harmonics in Low Voltage Three-Phase Four-Wire Electric

Distribution Systems and Filtering Solutions". Texas A&M University Power

Electronics and Power Quality Laboratory. Retrieved 24 November 2012

 Hui, Sun. "Sports Lighting – Design Considerations For The Beijing 2008

Olympic Games". GE Lighting. Retrieved 18 December 2012.

 "British and European practices for domestic appliances compared",

Electrical Times, volume 148, page 691, 1965.

 Japan Railway & Transport Review. No. 58: 58. Oct 2011

http://www.jrtr.net/jrtr58/pdf/51-60web.pdf |url= missing title (help).

 Brittain, J. E. (2007). "Electrical Engineering Hall of Fame: Charles F.

Scott". Proceedings of the IEEE 95 (4): 836–839.

 Canadian Electrical Code Part I, 23rd Edition, (2002) ISBN 1-55324-690-X,

rule 4-036 (3)

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