Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ABSTRACT
selector for 3-phase power supply. It provides a means of switching from one
phase of AC mains to another in the case of failure in the existing phase; This
Hence this has been achieved by the use of operational amplifier, timing
circuit and high current relay switches and it is powered by 12V dc power
supply.
The aim of this work is to design and construct an Auto Phase Selector
interruption by selecting next most healthy available phase from three phase
ii
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
this could sometimes be the cause of one phase going out with respect to the
other.
It may surprise one to note that in an attempt to solve this problems, so many
been lost in this act. This is an undesirable condition to consumers and the
need now arises to design a device that can automatically select among the
However, this can only be possible if one have a three phase met or and there
is supply from any of the service line or the entire line, this project known as a
three phase automatic phase selector has been constructed with a view of
solving the problems stated above. The design and construction was based on
iii
the principle of Electro magneto-Dynamism and alignment as demonstrated in
contactors and indicator bulbs, the ease with which the device is operated is
In order to ease the effort of technicians in restoring the devices should there
Faults and how they are cleared is presented, however, there are no user
iv
1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
The objective of this work is to design a device that will overcome power
Industries require three phases power to run their machinery. Some of them
selector unit for those equipment whose supply is single phase. The single
In every home, office or industries, automatic phase selector plays a vital role,
another in the case of failure in the existing phase; This project has been
v
improved on the existing types of electromechanical device that has being in
In the course of designing this project, different kinds of problem was notice
such as:
This work covers only a three phase automatic phase selector which can only
vi
CHAPTER TWO
explanation -phases. A DC circuit has two wires through which the current in
the circuit flows from a source of electricity through a load and back to the
source. A single-phase AC circuit also has two wires connected to the source
electric current does not change, the direction of the current changes many
times per second in the AC circuit. The 220 volt electricity supplied to our
homes is single phase AC electricity and has two wires - an "active" and a
"neutral".
The distribution line supplying your home may be single phase and have only
two wires strung between the poles (we will use the overhead power lines as
examples because they can be easily seen). However, the distribution line
may be made up of 4 lines. What are the others? The other lines carry the
vii
currents from two other electrical circuits, making a total of three circuits or
phases. The reason why there are only 4 lines is because the 3 phases have a
common neutral line (i.e. 3 active lines and 1 common neutral line).
Because the magnitude and direction of the electricity flowing in each of the
phases is slightly displaced in time from the electricity flowing in the other
phases, the current flowing in the common neutral will be the sum of the
neutral currents from the 3 phases. The resultant current in the common
phases. This ability to use a common neutral of relatively small capacity has
large economic advantages and is the main reason why 3 phases are used.
Canada, the voltage between the active and neutral in the single phase, low
voltage supply to our homes is 220 volts and that this phase is only one of the
phases in the 3 phase system. The voltage between the phases of a 120/208V
3 phase system is 208 volts (in Canada). A 208 volt, 3 phase supply is able to
deliver more energy than a 120 volt, single phase supply. 3 phase supplies are
viii
normally restricted to large electrical loads, such as large electric motors.
Commercial buildings are often wired for three phase power. Air conditioners
for instance are run on the three phase power while single phase power is
A single phase supply must have a neutral, whereas a 3 phase supply does not
require a neutral. More complicated reasons deal with fixing the voltage of
the single phase supply relative to the ground (because domestic appliances
have their metal enclosures connected to ground) and for fault protection
transmission systems therefore use one wire for each phase and no neutral.
being the means to convey the electricity. One type of system uses the ground
as the return path, with only the active being conveyed by a wire conductor.
This type of single-phase supply system is called the Single Wire Ground
Return system and is use to supply small loads which are located far from the
ix
2.2 REVIEW OF THREE-PHASE ELECTRIC POWER
system and is the most common method used by electrical grids worldwide to
transfer power. It is also used to power large motors and other heavy loads. A
or two-phase system at the same line to ground voltage because it uses less
In a balanced three-phase power supply system (by far, the most common
type), three conductors each carry an alternating current of the same frequency
neutral) but with a phase difference of one third the period; hence the voltage
on any conductor reaches its peak at one third of a cycle after one of the other
conductors and one third of a cycle before the third conductor. From any of the
x
three conductors, the peak voltage on the other two conductors is delayed by
one third and two thirds of one cycle respectively. This phase delay gives
constant power transfer over each cycle. It also makes it possible to produce a
Scott-T transformer).
With a perfectly balanced three phase supply the instantaneous voltage of any
phase is exactly equal in magnitude but opposite to the sum of the other two
phases. This means that if the load on the three phases is balanced as well, the
return path for the current in any phase conductor is the other two phase
conductors.
Hence, the sum of the currents in the three conductors is always zero and the
current in each conductor is equal to and in the opposite direction as the sum of
the currents in the other two. Thus, each conductor acts as the return path for
While a single phase AC power supply requires two conductors (Go and
Return), a three phase supply can transmit three times the power by using only
xi
one extra conductor. This means that a 50% increase in transmission cost
distribution. This is the neutral wire. The neutral allows three separate single-
The connections are arranged so that, as far as possible in each group, equal
power is drawn from each phase. Further up the supply chain in high-voltage
distribution the currents are usually well balanced and it is therefore normal to
Three-phase supplies have properties that make them very desirable in electric
The phase currents tend to cancel out one another, summing to zero in
the case of a linear balanced load. This makes it possible to reduce the
size of the neutral conductor because it carries little to no current; all the
phase conductors carry the same current and so can be the same size, for
a balanced load.
xii
Power transfer into a linear balanced load is constant, which helps to
of electric motors.
phase power might feed a multiple-unit apartment block, but the household
loads are connected only as single phase. In lower-density areas, only a single
phase might be used for distribution. Some large European appliances may be
Wiring for the three phases is typically identified by color codes which vary by
country. Connection of the phases in the right order is required to ensure the
fans may not work in reverse. Maintaining the identity of phases is required if
there is any possibility two sources can be connected at the same time; a direct
xiii
At the power station, an electrical generator converts mechanical power into a
set of three AC electric currents, one from each coil (or winding) of the
generator. The windings are arranged such that the currents vary sinusoidally at
the same frequency but with the peaks and troughs of their wave forms offset
varying by country.
customers.
a diode bridge.
xiv
A transformer for a “high-leg delta” system; (Assuming a 200 V, 3-Phase
supply) 200 V 3-phase motors would be connected to L1, L2 and L3. 200 V
Single-phase load would be connected between L1 and L2. Single phase 100 V
L2 and the neutral (N). L3 (wild or high leg) will be 173.2 V with respect to
the neutral.
There are two basic three-phase configurations: delta and wye (star). As shown
on the left, a delta configuration requires only 3 wires for transmission but a
wye (star) configuration may tilize a fourth wire. The fourth wire, if present, is
designations do not count the ground wire used above many transmission lines
which is solely for fault protection and does not carry current under non-fault
conditions.
obtained when the neutral is connected to the “common star point” of all
supply windings. In such a system, all three phases will have the same
xv
magnitude of voltage relative to the Neutral. Other non-symmetrical systems
The four-wire wye system is used when ground referenced voltages or the
ground will cause a protection event (fuse or breaker open) locally and not
from one phase and the neutral (which is common to the three phases). When a
group of customers sharing the neutral draw unequal phase currents, the
common neutral wire carries the currents resulting from these imbalances.
Electrical engineers try to design the system so the loads are balanced as much
Hence, every effort is made by supply authorities to distribute all three phases
xvi
In North America, a high-leg delta supply is sometimes used, where one
that center tap is grounded and connected as a Neutral, as shown on the right.
This setup produces three different voltages. If the voltage between the center
tap (neutral) and each of the two adjacent phases is 120 V (100%), the voltage
across any two phases is 240 V (200%) and the Neutral to “high leg” voltage is
≈ 208 V (173%).[7]
The reason for providing the delta connected supply is usually to power large
motors requiring a rotating field. However, the premises concerned will also
require the “normal” North American 120 V supplies, two of which are derived
(180 degrees “out of phase”) between the “Neutral” and either of the center
Single-phase loads
Single-phase loads may be connected across any two phases, or a load can be
phases of a three-phase system balances the load and makes most economical
xvii
In a symmetrical three-phase four-wire, wye system, the three phase
conductors have the same voltage to the system neutral. The voltage between
VL-L = √3 VL-N
The currents returning from the customers’ premises to the supply transformer
all share the neutral wire. If the loads are evenly distributed on all three phases,
the sum of the returning currents in the neutral wire is approximately zero. Any
unbalanced phase loading on the secondary side of the transformer will use the
voltage and phases with lower relative loading will experience elevated
xviii
√3 is ≈ 1.73, so if VL-N was defined as 100%, VL-L would be ≈ 100% × 1.73 =
Unbalanced loads
When the currents on the three live wires of a three-phase system are not equal
or are not at an exact 120° phase angle, the power-loss is greater than for a
Non-linear loads
With linear loads, the neutral only carries the current due to imbalance between
mode power supplies, computers, office equipment and such produce third
order harmonics that are in-phase on all the supply phases. Consequently, such
harmonic currents add in the neutral which can cause the neutral current to
xix
An important class of three-phase load is the electric motor. A three-phase
induction motor has a simple design, inherently high starting torque and high
efficiency. Such motors are applied in industry for many applications. A three-
phase motor is more compact and less costly than a single-phase motor of the
(7.5 kW) are uncommon. Three-phase motors also vibrate less and hence last
longer than single-phase motors of the same power used under the same
conditions.
Line frequency flicker in light can be reduced by evenly spreading three phases
across line frequency operated light sources so that illuminated area is provided
light from all three phases. The effect of line frequency flicker is detrimental to
super slow motion cameras used in sports event broadcasting. Three phase
lighting has been applied successfully at the 2008 Beijing Olympics to provide
consistent light level for each frame for SSM cameras. Resistance heating
xx
Rectifiers may use a three-phase source to produce a six-pulse DC output. The
output of such rectifiers is much smoother than rectified single phase and,
unlike single-phase, does not drop to zero between pulses. Such rectifiers may
the equivalent of six-phase full-wave rectification, twelve pulses per cycle, and
In Germany, a 1965 publication shows some "full size" stoves are designed for
between phase and neutral to allow for connection by three individual circuits
Phase converters
xxi
Phase converters are used when three-phase equipment needs to be operated on
a single-phase power source. They are used when three-phase power is not
available or cost is not justifiable. Such converters may also allow the
an electronic drive.
xxii
CHAPTER THREE
This work started with the studying of the block diagram, followed by the the
studying of the circuit diagram and gathering of the parts used in the
construction.
xxiii
3.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE
switching from one phase of AC mains to another in the case of failure, low or
xxiv
In three-phase applications, if low voltage is available in any one or two
phases, and you want your equipment to work on normal voltage, this circuit
the input lines (R, Y and B) of each phase. The circuit provides correct voltage
in the same power supply lines through relays from the other phase where
correct voltage is available. Using it you can operate all your equipment even
Three identical sets of this circuit, one each for three phases, are used.
The aim of this work is to provide a means of switching from one phase of AC
mains to another in the case of failure, low or over voltage in the existing
phase.
xxv
produce the operating voltage for the operational amplifier (IC1). The voltage
at inverting pin 2 of operational amplifier IC1 is taken from the voltage divider
circuit of resistor R1 and preset resistor VR1. VR1 is used to set the reference
pin 3 is fixed to 5.1V through zener diode ZD1. Till the supply voltage available
remains high, i.e., more than reference voltage of 5.1V, and its output pin 6
also remains high. As a result, transistor T1 does not conduct, relay RL1
remains de-energised and phase ‘R’ supplies power to load L1 via normally
closed(N/C) contact of relay RL1.As soon as phase-R voltage goes below 200V,
the voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 goes below reference voltage of 5.1V, and
its output goes low.As a result, transistor T1 conducts and relay RL1 energises
and load L1 is disconnected from phase ‘R’ and connected to phase ‘Y’
xxvi
THREE PHASE INPUT TO SINGLE PHASE OUTPUT
We have three phase input and the voltages in the three input is not the same
always. Sometimes, one or two or three phase will be off. I would like to
connect the phase to output which lies within the range (110 - 290).
I need to select Phase 1 in this case. Ampere rating would be 60A on the
selected output.
xxvii
This is the cheapest solution, if the input voltage is constant. With the varying
xxviii
3.5 DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR COMPONENTS USED
TRANSFORMERS
and secondary windings) such that when a magnetizing current is fed to the
when a load is coupled to the output of the secondary winding a voltage will
inductive coils, which are electrically separated, but are magnetically linked.
Through a path of low reluctance, the two coils posies high mutual
inductances.
is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in
xxix
electromagnetic induction, E = Mdi/dt.
Transformers generally are of two types basically in the manner in which the
primary and secondary coils are placed around the laminated core. The two
types include.
In the core types transformer, the windings is our rounds a considerable part
In the core type impression is created that the coil has been wound around
the core.
In the shell type, both windings are on the center limbs. The impression is
created that the core has been built around the coil.
Voltage Ratio
Equation.
xxx
VP /VS NP/ NS
Where
turns of wire is known as the turn’s ratio (TR). By substituting into the
Equation (above), we find that the voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio.
that for every 5 volts on the primary, there will only be 1 volt on the
xxxi
transformer is referred to as a "step-down" transformer.
If the primary winding has 300 turns and the secondary has 15 turns,
Solution:
Rev.
xxxii
TRANSISTOR
a way that the current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by
current gain than each transistor taken separately and, in the case of
integrated devices, can take less space than two individual transistors
because they can use a shared collector. Integrated Darlington pairs come
ZENER DIODE
xxxiii
Zener diode
direction in the same manner as an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in
the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the
The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical
are used with the Zener effect predominating under 5.6 V and avalanche
xxxiv
LM741 IC
available. It is very cheap especially keeping in mind the fact that it contains
several hundred components. The most common Op-Amp is the 741 and it is
Darlington Pair.
A LM741 is a 8-pin op amp, meaning it has 8 pins all having their different
functions.
xxxv
Pin 1: Offset Null- This is the pin where we add voltage to if we want to
Pin 2: Inverting Input- This is where the positive part of the input signal
don't want it inverted, we place the positve part of the signal into the Non-
inverting terminal and place the negative or ground part of our signal here.
Pin 3: Non-inverting Input- This is where the positive part of the input
xxxvi
signal that we want amplified goes if we want our signal non-inverted.
Pin 4: V-- The LM741 Op amp is a dual power supply op amp, meaning it
Pin 5: Offset Null- This is the pin where we add voltage to if we want to
Pin 6: Output- This is the terminal where the output, the amplified signal,
comes out of. Whatever output the amplifier will drive gets connected to this
terminal.
Pin 7: V+- This is the terminal which receives the positive DC voltage.
Pin 8: NC- This pin stands for Not Connected. It is not used for anything
RESISTOR
It is a component that opposes the flow of current through it. A pure resistor
xxxvii
resistors possess some small amount of capacitance or inductance. Usually
They can also be connected to protect devices such as transistor and diode
TYPES OF RESISTOR
variable resistor
rheostat resistor
potentiometer resistor
xxxviii
fixed resistor.
BLACK _ 0 X10
BROWN 1 0 ±1%
RED 2 00 ±2%
ORANGE 3 000
YELLOW 4 0000
GREEN 5 00000
BLUE 6 000000
VIOLET 7 0000000
GREY 8 00000000
WHITE 9 000000000
xxxix
The symbol is as below:
CAPACITOR
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to
used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but
Capacitance
xl
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance
symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller
values.
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups,
polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
xli
Fig1.1: showing circuit symbol of polarised capacitor
Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct
way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are
attached to each end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the
same end (10µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and
Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round.
They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type
xlii
(polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or
so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier,
so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be!
the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
xliii
For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are
sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values,
typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001µF). The type illustrated
usually has trimmers built in (for making small adjustments - see below) as
Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for
the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be
capacitor.
Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their
capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values available is very
xliv
limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it
Trimmer capacitor
designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when
of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the
tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the
trimmer!
Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally
less than 100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are
usually specified by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.
xlv
Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable
resistors.
as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for general
emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the
with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This
to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated
optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[9] LEDs have
faster switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are
xlvi
relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat management
have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their
Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial
RECTIFYING DIODE
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
xlvii
synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early
radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of
xlviii
RELAY
mechanically operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used,
by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as
amplifiers: they repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an
xlix
perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and
sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from
Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied
to relays; a relay switches one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be
l
Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is
activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called
as "late-break" or NCLB, which means that the contacts stay closed until
NPN TRANSISTOR
leaving the base is amplified in the collector output. That is, a PNP transistor is
li
The arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and
point in the direction of the conventional current flow when the device is in
the name.
The emitter is at +2V, and the base and collector voltages can be controlled
using the sliders at right. Move the mouse over the transistor to see labels for
The emitter-base junction acts like a diode. Unlike an NPN transistor, current
flows out of the base, not into it. Little current flows out of the base unless it is
below about 1.4V (0.6V below the emitter). Assuming the collector is at a
lower voltage than the base, the emitter-collector current is 100 times the base
current. So, this transistor has a beta (current gain) of 100. Moving the
collector voltage higher or lower won't have any effect as long as it's lower
lii
A transistor is often considered to be in saturation mode when the collector is
higher than the base. But it still acts like forward active mode unless the
voltage difference, Vcb, is on the order of a diode drop (.6 V). If the base is at
1.3V and the collector is raised to about 1.86V or higher, the base current will
go up and the collector current will go down, so it will no longer be 100 times
the base current. This is saturation, where the transistor acts like a low-
resistance switch, with a small voltage drop from the emitter to the collector.
liii
CHAPTER FOUR
This project could be used to signify when there is power failure. This system
The system has a toggle switch, and power indicator, and also input plug are
also made available and all mounted on the body of the casing. The toggle
ii. Resistance check of the components bought with the help of ohmmeter
components.
iv. Testing the completed system to see if the design works and
liv
Having procured all the materials, I processed into the arrangement of the
components into the Vero board, proper soldering of the components then
followed. The components were all soldered into the board after which it was
Internal parts of the circuit was soldered and fixed inside the case. Then after
Having provided the casing and having finished the construction of the sections
of this system, the assembling into the casing followed. The sections were
properly laid out and assembled into the casing where the general coupling and
Finally; the indicator, switch were carefully brought out from the internal part
of the casing through the holes made on the body of the casing, the input cable
plug outlet mounted on the body of the casing where power source terminals
lv
In this stage, the system was due for testing and operation. The system
operation was tested where all its required performance was maintained.
First; the device was connected and switch ON with the toggle switch, then the
system is set for operation. The indicator light is also connected whose
During testing, we used a 12V, 200-ohm, single phase change over relay with
2. If the input voltage is low in two phases, loads L1 and L2 may also be
required at the input of the third phase which is taking the total load.
As we all know that every engineering work goes with one or more problem,
lvi
i. Mechanical problem: we found it difficult to install all the external
components. But after the effort was made, our aim was later
achieved.
iii.
4.7 PRECAUSIONS
Use relay contacts of proper rating and fuses should be able to take-on the
load when transferred from other phases. While wiring, assembly and
current requirement.
lvii
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY
lviii
Phase selector provides a means of switching from one phase of AC mains to
phases, and you want your equipment to work on normal voltage, this circuit
the input lines (R, Y and B) of each phase. The circuit provides correct voltage
in the same power supply lines through relays from the other phase where
The distribution line supplying your home may be single phase and have only
two wires strung between the poles (we will use the overhead power lines as
examples because they can be easily seen). However, the distribution line
may be made up of 4 lines. What are the others? The other lines carry the
currents from two other electrical circuits, making a total of three circuits or
phases. The reason why there are only 4 lines is because the 3 phases have a
common neutral line (i.e. 3 active lines and 1 common neutral line).
lix
Because the magnitude and direction of the electricity flowing in each of the
phases is slightly displaced in time from the electricity flowing in the other
phases, the current flowing in the common neutral will be the sum of the
neutral currents from the 3 phases. The resultant current in the common
phases. This ability to use a common neutral of relatively small capacity has
large economic advantages and is the main reason why 3 phases are used.
Canada, the voltage between the active and neutral in the single phase, low
voltage supply to our homes is 220 volts and that this phase is only one of the
phases in the 3 phase system. The voltage between the phases of a 220/220V
3 phase system is 240 volts (in Canada). A 240 volt, 3 phase supply is able to
deliver more energy than a 120 volt, single phase supply. 3 phase supplies are
Commercial buildings are often wired for three phase power. Air conditioners
lx
for instance are run on the three phase power while single phase power is
A single phase supply must have a neutral, whereas a 3 phase supply does not
require a neutral. More complicated reasons deal with fixing the voltage of
the single phase supply relative to the ground (because domestic appliances
have their metal enclosures connected to ground) and for fault protection
transmission systems therefore use one wire for each phase and no neutral.
5.2 CONCLUSION
The mains supply in Nigeria fluctuates widely due to overloading, ageing and
substation transformer.
lxi
Appliances such as video cassette player, television as well as those containing
below the desired range is ignored. This device is designed to work with a 3-
5.3 RECOMMENDATION
Carrying-out this work by final year student is a right thing and at the right
time.
lxii
This work was built with quality wiring and contains many connections, I
This project was built for Educational purposes. If one want to use it for
to the casing that would allow fixing the system on the wall.
5.4 REFERENCES
Hawkins Electrical Guide, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed., 1917, vol. 4, Ch.
lxiii
Hawkins Electrical Guide, Theo. Audel and Co., 2nd ed., 1917, vol. 4, Ch.
Power System Analysis & Design. Cengage Learning. pp. 60–68. ISBN 978-1-
111-42579-1.
lxiv
Enjeti, Prasad. "Harmonics in Low Voltage Three-Phase Four-Wire Electric
Hui, Sun. "Sports Lighting – Design Considerations For The Beijing 2008
Japan Railway & Transport Review. No. 58: 58. Oct 2011
lxv