2016-CIV-80

LAB MANUAL
STRUCTURE
MECHANICS

SUBMITTED TO:
DR. NAUMAN KHURRAM

SUBMITTED BY:
SAMAR RAMZAN TIWANA
2016-CIV-80
SECTION B

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LHR.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXPERIMENT 1
1.1.OBJECTIVE……………………………………………………………………………........3
1.2.MACHINES AND EQUIPMENTS……………………………………………………........3
1.3.RELATED THEORY…………………………………………………….…………..….......3
1.3.1.FORK LIFTER………………………………………………..…………………3
1.3.2.STRAIN ROSETTE APPARATUS………………………….…………………4
1.3.3.REACTION FRAMES…………………………………………………………..4
1.3.4.ELECTRIC HOIST CRANE……………………………………….……….......5
1.3.5.DIGITAL DATA ACQUISITION APPARATUS……………………………..6
1.3.6.SHEAR CENTRE DETERMINATION APPARATUS……….…………........7
1.3.7.SHIMADZU UTM COMPUTER CONTROLLED – HYDRAULIC
SERVO…................................................................................................................8
1.3.8.200 TON SHIMADZU UTM UHM SERIES ………………………………...10
1.3.9.HI-PLAN UNIVERSAL TESTING FRAME AND STANDARD WITH
CONTINUOUS BEAM.……………………….……………………………….11
1.3.10.Z-SECTION BEAM APPARATUS………………………………………….11
1.3.11.TESTING FLOOR………...………………………………………………….11
1.3.12.COLUMN END CONDITION APPARATUS……...……………………….12
1.3.13.BASEMENT……………..………………………………………………….....13
1.3.14.MODELS………………...…………………………………………………….13

EXPERIMENT 2………………………………………………………………………15
EXPERIMENT 3………………………………………………………………………41
EXPERIMENT 4………………………………………………………………………55
EXPERIMENT 5………………………………………………………………………66

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ExpERIMENT NO.1
TITLE:
TO STUDY THE LAYOUT OF TEST FLOOR LAB:
1.1.OBJECTIVE:
The purpose of this job is to know about the location and function of
different machines and tools in lab.

This lab facilitates to perform different types of test on constructional material (especially steel
bars, different steel sections) and on different structural components including beams, columns
and concrete pipes etc. In this lab we can perform tensile test, compression test, shear test, critical
buckling and torsion test etc.

1.2.MACHINES AND EQUIPMENTS:

1. Steel section models
2. Stairs towards basement
3. Truss roofing model and shear wall model
4. 3D-truss model
5. Fork lifter
6. Strain rosette apparatus
7. Z-section beam apparatus and Column end condition apparatus
8. 200 Ton Shimadzu UTM
9. Manual operating system of 200 ton Shimadzu UTM
10. Lab Admin cabin
11. 1000kN Shimadzu UTM
12. Data acquisition apparatus
13. Reaction frames
14. Shear center determination apparatus
15. Reaction floor

1.3.RELATED THEORY:
1.3.1.FORK LIFTER:
Its function is to move the heavy weight in the lab from one place to
another with ease. It is almost 8 inches above the ground.

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FIGURE 1.1. FORK LIFTER

1.3.2.STRAIN ROSETTE APPARATUS:

It is used to determine the principal stresses both in
magnitude and direction.

FIGURE 2.2. STRAIN ROSETTE APPARATUS

1.3.3.REACTION FRAMES:
 Capacity:
200 tons and 300 tons
 Manufacturer:
Locally manufactured
 Purpose:
 For testing pre-cast reinforced concrete girder and slab panels.
 For testing brick wall panels.
 For testing columns of various categories.
 For testing elastomeric rubber bearing pads.
 For R.C pipe testing.

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 Scale:
600 psi
410 kg/cm³
 Operation:
Hydraulically

FIGURE 3.3. REACTION FRAMES

1.3.4.ELECTRIC HOIST CRANE:

 Capacity:
3 tons
 Manufacturer:
Japan
 Purpose:
For shifting heavy test samples within permissible range of laboratory
in all the directions.
 Operation:
Remote control

FIGURE 4.4. ELECTRIC HOIST CRANE

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1.3.5.DIGITAL DATA ACQUISITION APPARATUS:
 Capacity:
It can record data for 20 Channels or sensors.
LVDTs (Linear Variable Displacement Transducers) of range 50mm to 100mm.
Digital load cells up to 10 tons.
 Manufacturer:
Yishey Micro-Measurement
 Purpose:
It is used for measurement of change in length and the applied load
values and calculating strain and stress values via computer software.
 Software used:
Strain smart software
 Operation:
Electrical Signals.
 Properties:
This system is usually used with 1000 kN Shimadzu UTM. It can
record 100 readings per second per sensor.

FIGURE 5.5. SENSOR FOR DATA ACQUISITION

FIGURE 6.6. DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

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FIGURE 7.7. SENSOR FOR DATA ACQUISITION

1.3.6.SHEAR CENTRE DETERMINATION APPARATUS:

 Shear center:
It is the point in or around a section along which if load is applied
there will be bending without twisting. In C-section, we have this point outside the section.

V×e=H×h
e = (H × h)/V
e = (q × b × h) / (2×V)
e = b²h²t/4I
 Purpose:
To determine the shear center of channel section by hanging load at
different positions. It is a cantilevered channel section beam.

How to Determine Shear Center?

On the apparatus two deflection gauges (G1 and G2) are installed B mm apart. There are
five location available for the load hanger. On each location the load is applied in the increment of
20 kgs and deflection is noted on the two gauges. Then the angle of rotation is calculated by the
use of difference of deflection values of two gauges. Graph is to be plotted between the load
location and angle of rotation for each load value individually. The graph line will intersect the
axis of load location (where the rotation will be zero) note this value of location which will be the
location of shear center for the channel section.

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FIGURE 8.8. SHEAR CENTRE DETERMINATION APPARATUS

1.3.7.SHIMADZU UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE COMPUTER CONTROLLED –

HYDRAULIC SERVO:
 Manufacturer:
Shimadzu Japan
 Model Number:
UH-I Series [1000kN]
 Working Principal:
 It contains load frame and measurement controller.
 It employs hydraulic loading servo valve for smooth loading.
 It contains high performance 32-bit CPU for detailed data acquisition and
tests conditions control.

 Properties:
 It can perform tensile and compression tests on metallic samples.
 With optional attachments (related to the shape of samples) tests can be
performed on lumber, concrete and ceramics etc.
 The maximum capacity of the machine is 1000kN.
 Upper jaw is fixed and lower jaw is moveable.
 One Ton load is controlled in 5 seconds.
 It has linear variable differential transducer.
 Along with load there is a graph between load and deflection i.e. direct
stress strain plot.
 Its Least Count is 1.0 N.
 Purpose:
 For high strength concrete testing using reinforced fibers and steel bars
under static and cyclic loads.

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 For column test.
 For RC beam bending test.
 For pre-stressed beam tests.

FIGURE 9.9. SPECIMEN TESTING UNIT

FIGURE 10.10. CONTROLLING UNIT

FIGURE 11.11. BENDING JACK

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1.3.8.200 TON SHIMADZU UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE UHM SERIES:
 Manufacturer:
Shimadzu Japan
 Model Number:
UMH 200 A
 Working Principal:
It employs a load weighing mechanism. Load is transformed
into oil pressure and it is balanced with lever system and moment of a force of the pendulum.
 Properties:
 It can perform tensile and compression tests on metallic samples. Also it
can perform bending test.
 With optional attachments (related to the shape of sample) tests can be
performed on lumber, concrete and ceramics etc.
 Its capacity is 200 Tons.
 Red needle moves to show failure load point.
 Black needle moves showing the increase in load.
 It contains five different scales for achieving more precision:
1- 10 Tons for L.C = 20 kg f
2- 20 Tons for L.C = 40 kg f
3- 50 Tons for L.C = 100 kg f
4- 100 Tons for L.C = 200 kg f
5- 200 Tons for L.C = 400 kg f
 Its upper part is rigid and lower is moveable.

FIGURE 12.12. PARTS OF 200 TON SHIMADZU UTM

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1.3.9.HI-PLAN UNIVERSAL TESTING FRAME AND STANDARD WITH

CONTINUOUS BEAM:
 Manufacturer / Model No.
HST-1 [5000N capacity]
 Working Principal:
It provides the stand/frame to assemble the components of
continuous beam or any other structure (arch, frame) having redundancies and with sinking
supports.
 Properties:
 It can investigate the Castigliano’s method of calculating beam
displacements and to observe the reciprocity of displacement as stated by
Maxwell.
 With optional attachments, it can also use to compare the experimental and
theoretical values of deflection of frames.
1.3.10.Z-SECTION BEAM APPARATUS:
 Purpose:
To provide uniaxial bending of the Z-section beam when load is applied
along principal axis.

FIGURE 13.13. Z-SECTION BEAM APPARATUS

1.3.11.TESTING FLOOR:
These are shown in the figure below. This is a specially made floor
for the fitting of reaction frame. For the bolts of the columns of the reaction frame it has many
holes in it at different locations so that reaction frame can be fitted at any location. Due to this
specially made floor this lab is known as test floor lab.

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FIGURE 14.14. LARGE COLUMNS

FIGURE 15.15. TESTING FLOOR

1.3.12.COLUMN END CONDITION APPARATUS:

These are the columns having extra
bearing capacity than that of normal columns fitted with reaction frame due to heavy I-section
used in them.
 Purpose:
To find out critical buckling loads of columns of different end conditions
i.e. both ends are fixed or hinged or one is fixed and other is hinged or one is free and other is free.

FIGURE 16.16. COLUMN END CONDITION APPARATUS

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1.3.13.BASEMENT:
There is a basement below the testing floor. Its main purpose is to provide
space for the testing person working at reaction frame to tight the bolt of reaction frame column at
different places. But at the same time it is being used for the scrap of testing materials and samples.
1.3.14.MODELS:
 Purpose:
There are models present in the laboratory whose main purpose is the
physical understanding. These models include ducts, pipes, trusses etc.

FIGURE 17.17. TESTING SAMPLE TABLE

FIGURE 18.18. RCC COLUMN MODEL

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FIGURE 19.19. STEEL STRUCTURES SAMPLES

FIGURE 20.20. SHEAR WALL SAMPLE

FIGURE 21.21. TRUSS ROOFING SYSTEM

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ExpERIMENT NO.2
TITLE:
TO PERFORM THE TENSION TEST ON:
a) HOT ROLLED DEFORMED STEEL BAR
b) COLD TWISTED DEFORMED BAR
c) CAST IRON

2.1.OBJECTIVE:
 To study the stress-strain behavior of three steel specimens.
 To check the adequacy of the specimens according as per Standard.
 To determine the different Mechanical properties of steel bars.
 To verify the theory of elasticity.
 To verify the failure pattern of different steel specimen (ductile and brittle).

2.2.STANDARD REFERENCE:
 BS-4449:1998-For Hot Rolled Mild Steel Bar
 Bs-4461:1978- For Cold Twisted Deformed Steel Bar OR TOR Steel Bar

2.3.RELATED THEORY:
2.3.1.STEEL:
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements primarily carbon. It is widely used in
construction industry due to its useful properties. The material should be classified as steel if
carbon contents are from 0% to 2%.
Iron is available in abundance in the Earth’s crust in the form of Iron ore and Iron oxides. Iron has
to be extracted from the Iron ores in the molten form. The four main Iron ores are as follow .
2.3.2.MANUFACTURING OF STEEL:
For a material to be classified as steel there should be
no free graphite in its composition and carbon contents are always less than 2%. The
manufacturing process of steel comprises of reduction or extraction process.
2.3.3.EXTRACTION PROCESS:
Iron is melted in the form of oxide at a high temperature of
2300oC in a flux with coke and we will get Pig Iron + Water + admixtures (Limestone, coke) and
we will get steel in molten form. The molten steel is pour into mold. After cooling billets are

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formed. Billets are heated at temperature 1600oC and passing through the rolling mills get the
required diameter of Steel bars.

Iron Oxide Heated Molten Iron +

+Lime Water+
Stone at 2300oC admixtures

Pour in Mold
Billets (75x75 Steel
or 100x100
mm)
(Molten
form)
At 1600oC
Required
Diameter
Steel bars

FIGURE 2.1. REACTION FOR THE MANUFACTURING OF STEEL BAR

2.3.4.IRON ORES:
There are four main iron ores.

Magnetite Hematite Iron Pyrite Siderite

Fe2O4 Fe2O FeS2 FeCO3

(70 – 75% (70% Iron) (45% Iron) (40%
Iron) Iron)

FIGURE 2.2. IRON ORES AND THEIR COMPOSITION

2.3.5.COMMERCIAL FORMS OF IRON:

Iron is available commercially in three forms:

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TABLE 2.1: COMMERCIAL F0RMS OF IRON

Pig or Cast Iron 2.5 to 4.5 % Carbon

Wrought Iron 0.12 to 0.25% Carbon
Steel 0.25 to 2.5% Carbon

2.3.6.BILLETS/INGOTS:
An ingot is a piece of relatively pure material, usually metal, that is
cast into a shape suitable for further processing.

75 x 75 mm for Grade 40
100 x 100 mm for Grade 60

2.3.7.CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL:
Steel is classified in the percentage of carbon in it.
TABLE 2.2: CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL

Serial No. Type of steel Carbon Contents (%)

1- Low Carbon steel 0.05 - 0.25
2- Medium Carbon steel 0.3 - 0.59
3- High Carbon steel 0.6 - 0.99
4- Ultra high carbon steel 1-2
5- Mild Carbon steel 0.16 - 0.29

Most of the time Contamination (addition of different compositions to enhance properties of

material) is done. For example Chemical composition of mild carbon steel is,

TABLE 2.3: COMPOSITION OF STEEL

Carbon C 0.16 - 0.25%

Sulphur S 0.04% - 0.06%
Silica Si 0.4%
Phosphorous P 0.04% - 0.06%
Manganese Mn 0.04%

For Cast iron Carbon contents are from 2% to 4.5%.

For Steel Carbon contents are less than 2%.

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FIGURE 2.3. STEEL BARS

2.3.8.MILD STEEL:
It is a steel in which carbon content ranges from 0.15 to 0.3%. Chemical
composition of mild steel is:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Phosphorous Manganese
Iron Carbon Sulphur
98% 0.2 % 0.06%
0.06 % 1%

FIGURE 2.4. COMPOSITION OF MILD STEEL

2.3.9.PROPERTIES:
There are three type of properties:
 Physical Properties:
These are related to Size, shape, texture etc.
 Chemical Properties:
These are related with chemical composition of material.
 Mechanical Properties:
These are directly related with loading behavior e.g. yield
strength, ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of resilience (MOR), %age
elongation etc.

2.3.10.EFFECT OF CHANGE OF CARBON CONTENT ON MECHANCAL

PROPERTIES:
Increase in Carbon Content cause,
 Decrease in ductility of steel.
 Increase in the tensile strength of steel.
 Increases the hardness of steel.

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 Decrease the ease with which steel can be machined.
 Lowers the melting point of steel.
 Makes steel easier to harden with heat treatments.
 Lowers the temperature required to heat treat steel.
 Increase the difficulty of welding steel.
 With increase in Carbon contents the cross-sectional area and %age elongation decreases
while ultimate stress increases.

FIGURE 2.5. EFFECT OF CARBON CONTENT ON DIFFERENT MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

 Elastic limit ↑ Ultimate Tensile Stress↑ Strain ↑

 Carbon Content ↑ Plastic Limit↑ Yielding Stress↑ Ductility↓

2.3.11.ULTIMATE AND YIELD STRESSES AT DIFFERENT GRADES OF STEEL:

1 MPa = 145 psi

TABLE 2.4: ULTIMATE AND YIELD STRESSES

Grade 40 Grade 60 Grade 75

σu (Psi) 70,000 90,000 100,000
σy (Psi) 40,000 60,000 75,000

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2.3.12.% ELONGATION BASED ON 8” GAUGE LENGTH:
This is the change in length with
reference to per unit original length expressed in %age.

𝐋 𝒇 𝑳𝒐
%age elongation = x 100
𝑳𝒐
Where,
L = Final length after rupture
L = Original length before test

TABLE 2.5: PERCENTAGE ELONGATION

Diameter of steel bar Elongation

Grade 40 Grade 60 Grade 75
#3 = 3/8” = 9mm 11 9 -
#4 = 4/8” =12.5mm 12 9 -
#5 = 5/8” = 15mm 12 9 -
#6 = 6/8” = 19mm 12 9 7
#7 = 7/8” = 22mm - 8 7
#8 = 8/8” = 25mm - 7 6

2.3.13.MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL:

 Tensile Strength:
Tensile strength of the steel bar is its ability to resist any pulling force
acting along the longitudinal axis of member/bars.

 Hardness:
Hardness is the property the enables to resist plastic deformation usually by
penetration. There are many types or methods to measure hardness of a material.

 Scratch Hardness (resistance to scratching)

 Indentation Hardness (resistance to punching)
 Rebound Hardness (rebounding of some specified balls from specified height)

 Ductility:
It is the mechanical property of the material indicating the extent to which a
material can be deformed plastically without fracture. Ductility gives the warning before failure
for any steel specimen. Ductility is a qualitative measure of

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 %age Elongation (The strain at fracture)

 %age Reduction in Area

These are the conventional measures of ductility that are obtained from tension test. Both of the
properties are obtained after fracture by putting the tested specimen back to its original shape and
measuring the elongated length and reduced X-sectional area.

 Final strain < 5% --- Brittle material

 Final strain ≥ 5% --- Ductile material
2.3.14.TYPICAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL:
A typical stress strain
curve for mild steel is shown in figure:

FIGURE 2.6. STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

2.3.15.TYPES OF STEEL BAR W.R.T DIA/SHAPE:

 Plain steel bars (no deformation)

 Hot rolled steel bars
 Cold worked steel bars

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By applying a pre-calculated twist to hot rolled deformed steel, yielding portion is eliminated from
stress-strain diagram. A permanent set is provided in the material after normal temperature.
Its commercial name is TOR steel. The full strength of this steel can be utilized.
Failure is sudden as no yielding.

2.3.16.STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM:
When you apply load on steel, the graph between stress
and strain is called as stress strain diagram.

FIGURE 2.7. STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

2.3.17.PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (PL):

It is the point on stress strain curve up to which stress
and strain remains proportional to each other. Hook’s law is valid up to PL.

2.3.18.ELASTIC LIMIT (EL):

Maximum stress that may be develop during a simple tension test
such that no residual deformation or permanent set when load is entirely removed.
Hook’s law is not valid after EL.

Note: Proportional limit and Elastic limit is same for ductile material.

2.3.19.YIELD POINT:
The point at which yielding will start is known as yield point.

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2.3.20.YIELD POINT STRESS:
It is defined as stress after which material extension takes place
more quickly with no or little increase in stress.

2.3.21.UPPER YIELDING POINT (UYP):

A point at which sudden drop in stress occur with
further increase in strain.

2.3.22.LOWER YIELDING POINT (LYP):

The point on the graph where there is significant
extension starts with almost constant load.
2.3.23.STRAIN HARDENING ZONE (SHZ):
If a ductile material can be stressed beyond the
yield point without failure the material is said to be strain hardening zone. It is the zone after
yielding when the particles of material rearrange themselves and start taking load again so stress
starts increasing.

2.3.24.ULTIMATE STRENGTH (US):

The maximum strength the material have bear stress before
breaking ultimate stress correspondingly to the peak point on the stress strain curve at which slope
of graph is zero. Maximum or highest strength on stress strain graph is the maximum strength
/tensile strength of your material.

2.3.25.NECKING:
Localized decrease in cross-sectional area of the sample after ultimate strength
is called necking. A cup-cone shape will form.

2.3.26.ACTUAL RUPTURE STRENGTH (ARS):

ARS can be obtain by dividing load with
corresponding actual area.

2.3.27.NOMINAL RUPTURE STRENGTH (NRS):

It is measured by dividing load with nominal cross-
sectional area.

Note: Ultimate stress is maximum strength for brittle material means no necking will occur.

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2.3.28.MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (MOE):

MOE is ratio of stress and strain within elastic range. It is
also known as Young’s Modulus. It is the measure of stiffness of material.

E = σ/ ϵ

2.3.29.RESILIENCE:
The ability of a material to absorb energy within elastic range.

2.3.30.MODULUS OF RESILIENCE (MOR):

MOR is the amount of work done on a unit volume
of material as a simple tensile force is increased from zero to proportional limit.
Its units are MPa or Psi.

2.3.31.TOUGHNESS:
The ability of a material to absorb energy within plastic range till rupture.

MOT of steel= 200,000 MPa

2.3.32.MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS (MOT):

It is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material
as a simple tensile force is increased from zero to failure of material.
Its units are MPa or Psi.

2.3.33.MODULUS:
It is work done per unit volume. Its units are N/m 2 .

2.3.34.PROOF STRESS:
It is the stress corresponding to yield point of the materials having no
clear indication of their yield point and this yield point is obtained by graphical solutions of
stress strain curve.

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FIGURE 2.8. PROOF STRESS IN STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

2.3.35.VARIOUS METHODS FOR DETERMINING THE YIELD POINT:

 Halting of machine / drop of beam method:

The yield point during a simple tension
test can be observed by halting of machine and it is suitable for Grade 40 steel.

 Luder line method:

According to this method yielding occurs when smaller pieces of
material (rust, chalk, marking etc.) fall off from the specimen.

 Specific strain method:

According to this method, the yielding occurs at 0.5% strain
i.e. yield stress (proof stress) is stress corresponding to 0.5% strain.

FIGURE 2.9. SPECIFIC STRAIN METHOD

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 Offset method:
This method is used for the materials that don’t have well-defined yield
point. In this method a line is to be drawn parallel to the initial tangent of the stress strain diagram
at an offset of 0.2% strain.

FIGURE 2.10. OFF-SET METHOD

2.3.36.GAUGE LENGTH:
It is the length between two marks on the bar. It is reference length for
the calculation of deformation or elongation.

 For Mild Steel:

G.L = 5 x D

 For TOR Steel:

G.L = 5.65 𝑆
𝑆 = Actual Area of X-Section

 For Cast Iron:

G.L = 50mm (nonstandard)
2.3.37.NOMINAL DENSITY:

𝑴 𝑴
ρ= = ∴ 𝝆 = 𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎³
𝑽 𝑨.𝑳

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2.3.37.TOLERENCE IN SIZE/DIA OF BAR:

TABLE 2.6: TOLERENCE IN DIA

Diameter of bar Tolerance

12mm ±4.5%
10mm ±6.5%
8mm ±6.5%

2.3.38.TOR STEEL:
By applying a pre-calculated twist to the hot rolled deformed steel bar
yielding portion is eliminated from stress strain diagram. There is a permanent set in the material
after twisting at normal temperature that’s why it is cold twisted or cold form steel or cold work
steel. Its commercial name is Tor steel.

 Advantage:
We can utilize full strength of the material.

 Disadvantage:
As there is no yielding zone so failure is sudden.

FIGURE 2.11. TOR STEEL

2.3.39.CAST IRON:
The main difference in mild steel and cast iron is of carbon content. In steel
maximum carbon content is up to 2% but in cast iron it is from 2 to 4.5%.

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 Physical Properties:
 Its structure is coarse and crystalline.
 It is brittle and does not allow bending.
 It can’t be welded at normal conditions.
 It does not rust.
 Cost iron gives dull sound when dropped from some height at some hard surface.
 Uses of Cast iron:
Cast iron is not used directly in construction industry as reinforcing bars
bit it is used for drain water or rain water pipes, manhole covers and grating (mesh used to drain
rain water into sewer).

FIGURE 2.12. CAST IRON

2.3.40.FAILURE MODE OF CAST IRON AND MILD STEEL IN TENSION TEST:

 Mild Steel Failure:
 Mild Steel is a ductile material which is strong in tension but week in shear so it
should fail in shear.
 The maximum shearing force is developed at 45o with the loading plane therefore
the failure of mild steel occurs roughly at 45o with the longitudinal planes.
 In a simple tension test a cup and cone failure is achieved for mild steel bars.

FIGURE 2.13. FAILURE MODE OF MILD STEEL

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 Cast Iron Failure:
 Cast iron is a brittle material which is week in tension as compared to shear so it should
fail in tension.
 Tensile stresses due to tensile loading are maximum at 90 o with the loading plane
therefore the cast iron fails at 90o in a simple tension test.

FIGURE 2.14. FAILURE MODE OF CAST IRON

2.3.41.NECESSARY MEASUREMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS FOR TEST:

 Length of Specimen:
The minimum length for the tension test specimen should be 0.5m or
50cm. out of these 50c
 10cm is for proper griping of specimen on both sides to avoid slipping of specimen
during load application.
 30cm is for true representation of material.

 Nominal Diameter:
Just for designation purpose a number is given to the bar by rounding
the actual diameter of steel it is called bar number or nominal di of the bar.

 Mass of Bar:
Like every material steel bars also have some specified mass per unit length
of bars. Mass of bar is measured to ensure the material quality and also for calculation of actual
diameter and area of bar. According to ACI specification 6% variation in mass in bearable for steel
bars.

 Calculation of actual Area or diameter:

As stated that bar number is do not represent the
actual dia. that’s why it is necessary to measure actual diameter and area of the bars for the tension
test to verify whether the tested specimen fulfill the code specifications or not.

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𝐌
Actual area = Where ₰ = 7850 kg/m3
𝐩× 𝐋

 Tolerance on Diameter:

𝐍𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐃𝐢𝐚 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐃𝐢𝐚

Tolerance = X 100
𝐍𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐃𝐢𝐚

Limiting value = ± 8%

 Tolerance on Mass/Length Ratio:

Standard Density = 7850 kg/m3

𝒑 Steel = 0.00785kg/mm2/m

𝐌 𝑴
𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
𝐋 𝑳
Tolerance = 𝐌
𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐝
𝐋

Permitted Limit = ± 4.5%

2.4.APPARATUS:
Following are the apparatus used in this experiment:
 Various steel specimens
 Betty’s Extensometer (L.C = 0.001mm)
 200 ton (2000kN) Shimadzu UTM
 Spring divider
 Weighing balance
 Ruler
 Vernier Calliper

2.5.MATERIAL:
 Hot Rolled Mild Steel
 Cold Twisted Steel
 Cast Iron

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2.6.LABEL DIAGRAM OF APPARATUS:

FIGURE 22.15. LABELLED FIGURE OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

2.7.PROCEDURE:
 Take all the physical dimensions and weight of the specimens.
 From mass to volume relation find the dia. of the specimens.
 Calculate the gauge length and mark it on the specimen.

FIGURE 2.16. MEASUREMENT OF ELONGATION

 Perform the tension test at each specimen.

 Calculate the elongation readings corresponding to some specific interval of load.
 Observe the yield point of the specimen.
 Note down the reading corresponding to yields point.
 Continue to apply load on the specimen until it fails.

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 During failure note down the ultimate load carrying capacity.
 Observe the cup and cone formation if formed.
 After failure measure the elongated length (as shown in fig 1.8) and reduced dia.
 Make necessary calculations.
 Draw the graphs.
 Analyze and Compare the results.

2.8.OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

 HOT ROLLED MILD STEEL:

TABLE 2.7: DETERMINATION OF STRESS AND STRAIN

Normal True
Sr. Load Ext. Extension Strain
Stress Stress Remarks
No. Reading
kgf N mm % N//mm2 N/mm2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 200 1962 0 0 0 17.35 17.06
3 400 3924 3 0.003 0.006 34.70 34.12
4 600 5886 7 0.007 0.014 52.05 51.18
5 800 7848 11 0.011 0.022 69.40 68.24
6 1000 9810 18 0.018 0.036 86.75 85.30
7 1200 11772 22 0.022 0.044 104.09 102.37
8 1400 13734 26 0.026 0.052 121.44 119.43
9 1600 15696 31 0.031 0.062 138.79 136.49
10 1800 17658 36 0.036 0.072 156.14 153.55
11 2000 19620 41 0.041 0.082 173.49 170.61
12 2200 21582 44 0.044 0.088 190.84 187.67
13 2400 23544 49 0.049 0.098 208.19 204.73
14 2600 25506 53 0.053 0.106 225.54 221.79
15 2800 27468 57 0.057 0.114 242.89 238.85
16 3000 29430 59 0.059 0.118 260.24 255.91
17 3200 31392 62 0.062 0.124 277.58 272.97
18 3400 33354 64 0.064 0.128 294.93 290.03
19 3600 35316 70 0.07 0.14 312.28 307.10
20 3800 37278 75 0.075 0.15 329.63 324.16
21 4000 39240 80 0.08 0.16 346.98 341.22
22 4200 41202 83 0.083 0.166 364.33 358.28
23 4400 43164 91 0.091 0.182 381.68 375.34
24 4600 45126 102 0.102 0.204 399.03 392.40

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25 4800 47088 115 0.115 0.23 416.38 409.46 P.L
26 5000 49050 130 0.13 0.26 433.73 426.52
27 5200 51012 140 0.14 0.28 451.07 443.58 E.L
28 5400 52974 230 0.23 0.46 468.42 460.64 Y.P
29 5600 54936 440 0.44 0.88 485.77 477.70
30 5800 56898 620 0.62 1.24 503.12 494.77
31 6000 58860 900 0.9 1.8 520.47 511.83
32 6200 60822 1200 1.2 2.4 537.82 528.89
33 6400 62784 1600 1.6 3.2 555.17 545.95
34 6480 63568.8 1840 1.84 3.68 562.11 552.77
35 6600 64746 2280 2.28 4.56 572.52 563.01
36 6640 65138.4 65 5 8.33 575.99 566.42
37 5800 56898 68 8 13.33 503.12 494.77 U.T.S
38 5600 54936 69 9 15 485.77
39 5000 49050 71 11 18.33 433.73
40 4600 45126 72 12 20 399.03
41 4280 41986.8 73 13 21.67 371.27 1218.06 U.R.S

TABLE 2.8: DETERMINATION OF % ELONGATION

Deformed
Sr. G.L %
Description Length Elongation
No. Elongation
mm mm
Right to 1 30 42 0.40 40.00
left 2 60 73 0.22 21.67
3 90 107 0.19 18.89
4 120 139 0.16 15.83
Left to 1 30 42 0.40 40.00
right 2 60 71 0.18 18.33
3 90 103 0.14 14.44
4 120 132 0.10 10.00

 COLD WORK STEEL:

TABLE 2.9: DETERMINATION OF STRESS AND STRAIN

Normal True
Sr. Load Ext. Extension Strain
Stress Stress Remarks
No. Reading
kgf N mm % N//mm2 N/mm2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 200 1962 4 0.004 0.008 17.35 17.84

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3 400 3924 10 0.01 0.02 34.70 35.67
4 600 5886 21 0.021 0.042 52.05 53.51
5 800 7848 31 0.031 0.062 69.40 71.35
6 1000 9810 43 0.043 0.086 86.75 89.18
7 1200 11772 65 0.065 0.13 104.09 107.02
8 1400 13734 85 0.085 0.17 121.44 124.85
9 1600 15696 97 0.097 0.194 138.79 142.69
10 1800 17658 105 0.105 0.21 156.14 160.53
11 2000 19620 118 0.118 0.236 173.49 178.36
12 2200 21582 135 0.135 0.27 190.84 196.20
13 2400 23544 145 0.145 0.29 208.19 214.04
14 2600 25506 156 0.156 0.312 225.54 231.87
15 2800 27468 166 0.166 0.332 242.89 249.71
16 3000 29430 175 0.175 0.35 260.24 267.55
17 3200 31392 184 0.184 0.368 277.58 285.38
18 3400 33354 193 0.193 0.386 294.93 303.22 P.L
19 3600 35316 212 0.212 0.424 312.28 321.05
20 3800 37278 239 0.239 0.478 329.63 338.89 E.L
21 4000 39240 255 0.255 0.51 346.98 356.73 Y.P
22 4200 41202 1040 1.04 2.08 364.33 374.56
23 4400 43164 1210 1.21 2.42 381.68 392.40
24 4600 45126 1420 1.42 2.84 399.03 410.24
25 4800 47088 1650 1.65 3.3 416.38 428.07
26 5000 49050 1950 1.95 3.9 433.73 445.91
27 5200 51012 2240 2.24 4.48 451.07 463.75
28 5400 52974 2670 2.67 5.34 468.42 481.58
29 5600 54936 3150 3.15 6.3 485.77 499.42
30 5800 56898 3600 3.6 7.2 503.12 517.25
31 6000 58860 68 8 13.33 520.47 535.09
32 6040 59252.4 69 9 15.00 523.94 538.66
33 6080 59644.8 70 10 16.67 527.41 542.23
34 6120 60037.2 72 12 20.00 530.88 545.79
35 6160 60429.6 73 13 21.67 534.35 549.36 U.T.S
36 5600 54936 75 15 25.00 485.77
37 5400 52974 76 16 26.67 468.42
38 5140 50423.4 77 17 28.33 445.87 857.98 U.R.S

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TABLE 2.10: DETERMINATION OF % ELONGATION

Deformed
Sr. G.L %
Description Length Elongation
No. Elongation
mm mm
1 30 41 0.37 36.67
Right to 2 60 76 0.27 26.67
left 3 90 112 0.24 24.44
4 120 146 0.22 21.67
1 30 41 0.37 36.67
Left to 2 60 77 0.28 28.33
right 3 90 113 0.26 25.56
4 120 147 0.23 22.50

 CAST IRON:

TABLE 2.11: DETERMINATION OF STRESS AND STRAIN

Normal True
Sr. Load Ext. Extension Strain Remarks
Stress Stress
No. Reading
kgf N mm % N//mm2 N/mm2
1 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 0.00
2 200 1962 5 0.005 0.01 11.10 11.10
3 400 3924 6 0.006 0.012 22.21 22.21
4 600 5886 11 0.011 0.022 33.31 33.31
5 800 7848 15 0.015 0.03 44.41 44.41
6 1000 9810 23 0.023 0.046 55.51 55.51
7 1200 11772 32 0.032 0.064 66.62 66.62
8 1400 13734 40 0.04 0.08 77.72 77.72
9 1600 15696 50 0.05 0.1 88.82 88.82
10 1800 17658 60 0.06 0.12 99.93 99.93
11 2000 19620 72 0.072 0.144 111.03 111.03
12 2200 21582 83 0.083 0.166 122.13 122.13
13 2400 23544 94 0.094 0.188 133.24 133.24
14 2600 25506 105 0.105 0.21 144.34 144.34
15 2800 27468 120 0.12 0.24 155.44 155.44
16 3000 29430 130 0.13 0.26 166.54 166.54
17 3200 31392 150 0.15 0.3 177.65 177.65 P.L
18 3400 33354 170 0.17 0.34 188.75 188.75
19 3600 35316 200 0.2 0.4 199.85 199.85 E.L
20 3800 37278 240 0.24 0.48 210.96 210.96 Y.P

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21 4000 39240 280 0.28 0.56 222.06 222.06
22 4520 44341.2 330 0.33 0.66 250.93 255.16 U.R.S

2.9.GRAPHS:
 HOT ROLLED MILD STEEL:

GRAPH BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

700

600

500
STRESS MPa

400

300

200

100

0
-2 3 8 13 18 23
STRAIN %

FIGURE 2.17. STRESS STRAIN CURVE

% ELONGATION
150
GAUGE LENGTH

120

90

60

30

0
-60.00 -30.00 0.00 30.00 60.00
% ELONGATION

RIGHT TO LEFT LEFT TO RIGHT

FIGURE 2.18. GRAPH FOR % ELONGATION

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PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
600

500

400
STRESS MPa

300

200

100

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
STRAIN %

FIGURE 2.19. GRAPH FOR PROPORTIONAL LIMIT

 COLD WORK STEEL:

GRAPH BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

600.00

500.00

400.00
STRESS MPa

300.00

200.00

100.00

0.00
-2 3 8 13 18 23 28 33
STRAIN %

FIGURE 2.20. STRESS STRAIN CURVE

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% ELONGATION
150

120
GAUGE LENGTH

90

60

30

0
-60.00 -30.00 0.00 30.00 60.00
% ELONGATION

RIGHT TO LEFT LEFT TO RIGHT

FIGURE 2.21. GRAPH FOR % ELONGATION

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
350

300

250
STRESS MPa

200

150

100

50

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
STRAIN %

FIGURE 2.22. GRAPH FOR PROPORTIONAL LIMIT

 CAST IRON:

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GRAPH BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

300.00

250.00

200.00
STRESS MPa

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
STRAIN %

FIGURE 2.23. STRESS STRAIN CURVE

PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
250.00

200.00
STRESS MPa

150.00

100.00

50.00

0.00
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
STRAIN %

FIGURE 2.24. GRAPH FOR PROPORTIONAL LIMIT

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2.10.RESULTS:
Sample Properties Mild Steel Cast Iron Tor Bar
Yield Stress 468.42 210.96 346.98
Ultimate Tensile Strength 503.12 250.93 534.35
Modulus of Resilience 77.758 33 85.92
2
Modulus of Toughness 109.05x10 109 137.37 x102
Grade 40 40 40
Percentage Elongation 40 - 36.67
Nominal Rupture Strength 371.27 250.93 445.87
Mode Of Failure cup cone brittle failure cup cone
failure failure

GRAPH BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

700.00

600.00

500.00
STRESS MPa

400.00

300.00

200.00

100.00

0.00
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
STRAIN %
COLD TWISTED HOT ROLLED CAST IRON

FIGURE 2.25. COMPARISON OF HOT ROLLED, COLD WORKED AND CAST IRON

2.11.COMMENTS:
 Cast iron is a brittle material so its rupture strength is very smaller than the hot rolled
mild and cold twisted steel.
 There is very small yielding zone in cast iron.
 Failure mode of mild and cold twisted steel bar is same. i.e. Cup and cone failure.

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ExpERIMENT NO.3
TITLE:
TO PERFORM THE TORSION TEST ON:
a) MILD STEEL
b) CAST IRON

3.1.OBJECTIVE:
 To study the shear stress- shear strain behavior of two given steel specimens.
 To investigate the failure pattern of brittle and ductile material.
 To determine the different Mechanical properties of specimens in torsion.

3.2.RELATED THEORY:
Normal forces act perpendicular to the area and produce
normal stresses in the material and Normal force tends to produce push and pull in the bar.
Shear forces lies in the plane of area. It is developed when the external loads tend to cause the two
sections of the body to slide over the other.

FIGURE 3.1. SHEAR STRESSES AND TORQUES

3.2.1.TORQUE:
Twisting effect of couple or a force is called as torque. It is denoted by double
head arrow. Its units are N-m.

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3.2.2.TWISTING MOMENT:
It is the summation of the torque either on the left side or the right
side of the section.
3.2.3.BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment is caused by the external loads that tend to bend
the body about an axis lies in the plane.

FIGURE 3.2. DEFLECTED SHAPE OF CANTILEVER BEAM DUE TO LOAD

3.2.4.FLEXURAL THEORY:
According to Flexural Theory / Bending Moment Theory,

“When the beam is subjected to transverse load, due to the application of

perpendicular loading, beam will bend either sagging or hogging.”

In general tension at bottom and compression on top.

𝐌 б 𝐄
= =
𝐈 𝐲 𝐑
Where,
M = moment
I = 2nd moment of inertia
σ = Bending Stress
y = distance b/w neutral axis & fiber under consideration
E = Modulus of Elasticity
R = Radius of curvature

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3.2.5.ASSUMPTIONS OF FLEXURAL THEORY:

 Material is homogenous
 Material is isotropic
 It is in elastic range i-e obeys the Hooks law
 Plane section remains plane before and after bending.

3.2.6.TORSION MOMENT:
Torsion moment is the effect developed when the external torque
tend to twist one segment with respect to the other segment about an axis perpendicular to the area.

FIGURE 3.3. TORSION MOMENT OF CANTILEVER BEAM

3.2.7.TORSION THEORY:

According to theory of torsion:

𝛕 𝐓 𝐆𝛉
= =
𝐫 𝐉 𝐋
Where,
τ = Torsional shear stress (MPa)
r = Radius of shaft or bar
T = Applied torque
J = Polar moment of inertia (mm4) (torsional resistance of any cross section)
G = Modulus of rigidity (modulus of elasticity in shear)
θ =Angle of twist (rad)
L = Length of sample

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3.2.8.ASSUMPTION OF TORSION THEORY:

 Material is homogenous
 Material is isotropic
 It obeys the Hooks law
 Cross section of the material is circular
 Plane section remains plane before and after bending
 Length and radius of the sample are same for small angle of twist.
3.2.9.POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA:
It is the measure of a beam ability to resist torsion. It
is defined as the geometric rigidity of the cross- section. It is the summation of second moment
of area about x-axis and y-axis.

𝐉 = 𝐈𝐱 + 𝐈𝐲
𝛑𝐝𝟒 𝛑𝐝𝟒
𝐈𝐱 = ; 𝐈𝐲 =
𝟔𝟒 𝟔𝟒
𝛑𝐝𝟒
𝐉=
𝟑𝟐
3.2.10.VARIATION IN TORSION SHEAR STRESSES:

 For Circular Cross-Section:

τ max

τ max

FIGURE 3.4. CIRCULAR CROSS SECTION

𝐓𝐫
𝛕=
𝐉
TR
τ = π
D
32

Put R = D/2

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𝐓 𝟏𝟔 𝐓
𝛕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝛑 =
𝐃𝟑 𝛑 𝐃𝟑
𝟏𝟔
 For Hollow Circular Section:

τ max

τ max

FIGURE 3.5. HOLLOW CIRCULAR SECTION

For hollow circular sections polar moment of inertia is given by:

π
J= (d − d )
32
Shear Stress in torsion in Solid and Hollow Sections,

𝐓 𝟏𝟔 𝐓
𝛕𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝛑 =
𝐃𝟑 𝛑 𝐃𝟑
𝟏𝟔

3.2.11.TORSIONAL RIGIDITY OR MODULUS OF RIGIDITY “G”:

When the material is
subjected to pure twist loading the slope of the shear stress versus shear strain curve is termed as
modulus of rigidity or modulus of elasticity in shear. It is denoted by "G".

τ
б
E G

Є γ
FIGURE 3.6. NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

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The relationship between modulus of rigidity and modulus of elasticity is given as:

𝐄 = 𝟐𝐆(𝟏 + 𝛖)
Where,
" υ" Is the Poisson's ratio.
3.2.12.POISSON’S RATIO:
The ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal strain when the material
is subjected to axial loading. And it is always less than 1.
𝐋𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
𝛖=
𝐀𝐱𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧

 For isotropic material Poisson's ratio is 0.25 - 0.4

 For steel 0.3-0.35 (but 0.3 is mostly used)
 For Concrete 0.2
3.2.13.RELATION BETWEEN YIELD STRESS IN TENSION AND TORSION SHEAR
STRESS:
The relationship between yield stress and pure shear was found by a re known
scientist VON MISES.
𝛔𝐲
𝛕𝐲 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟕𝛔 𝐲 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝛔𝐲
√𝟑
3.2.14.TORSIONAL STRENGTH:
It is the maximum torsional stress that a material sustains
before rupture.
3.2.15.ANGLE OF TWIST:
The angle through which member or bar rotates/ twist upon the
application of torque is called angle of twist.
𝐓𝐋
𝛉=
𝐉𝐆

3.2.16.TORSIONAL DEFORMATION:
It is the angular displacement of specimen caused by
the specified torque in torsion. It is equal to angle of twist in radians divided by gage length or
effective length.
𝛉
Torsional deformation =
(𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐆𝐚𝐮𝐠𝐞 𝐋𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡)𝐋𝐞

Where,
"Le" is the effective length or clear length between the jaws.
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Its units are rad/mm.
3.2.17.SHEAR STRAIN:
It is in the change angle b/w two planes that were initially at right
angle. Units of shear strain are radians.
3.2.18.TORSIONAL STRAIN (𝛄):
It is the strain due to the specified torque.
Torsional strain = torsional deformation x radius of the bar

𝛉
𝐓𝐨𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 = 𝛄 = ∗ 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐬
𝐋𝐞
3.2.19.TORSIONAL STRESS:
Shear stress developed in a material subjected to a specified
torque in torsion test. For circular shaft

𝟏𝟔𝐓
𝛕𝐦𝐚𝐱 =
𝛑 × 𝐃𝟑
Where,
T is twisting Moment and D is Diameter of bar.

3.3.APPARATUS:
Following are the apparatus used in this experiment:
 10 Ton BUCKTON Universal Testing Machine.
 Spring Divider.
 Vernier Caliper.
 Scale / Steel Ruler.

3.4.MATERIAL:
 Mild Steel
 Cast Iron

3.5.PROCEDURE:
 Note down the dimensions of specimens i.e. Total length, Max diameter.
 Fix the specimen in 10 Ton BUCKTON UTM.
 Ensure that one end of the specimen is fixed.
 Rotate the handle of the machine counter- clockwise for a fixed degree of rotation.

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 One complete rotation of the angle of the machine will implement 4 degree of
rotation.
 At every regular interval of the rotation measure the load which is required to balance
the machine arm.
 Complete the rotation of 360 degree of the machine will apply a torque of 4 degrees.
 Note down the Maximum Load and rotation experienced throughout the experiment.
 Same procedure is repeated for both the specimens.
 Draw failure pattern of specimen after fracture.

FIGURE 3.7. 10 TON BUCKTON UTM

3.6.OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

 MILD STEEL:

TABLE 3.1: DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN

Sr. No Angle of Twist Load T=P*la ῖmax γ Remarks

Degree Radian Ton N Nmm MPa Radian
1 1 0.017 0.036 358.9 18233.6 16.803 0.001
2 2 0.035 0.110 1096.7 55713.7 51.343 0.002
3 3 0.052 0.174 1734.8 88128.9 81.216 0.003
4 4 0.070 0.280 2791.7 141816.6 130.692 0.004
5 5 0.087 0.385 3838.5 194997.9 179.702 0.005
6 6 0.105 0.492 4905.4 249192.1 229.645 0.007
7 7 0.122 0.600 5982.1 303892.8 280.055 0.008
8 8 0.140 0.730 7278.3 369736.2 340.733 0.009
9 9 0.157 0.823 8205.5 416839.6 384.142 0.010 PL
10 10 0.175 0.857 8544.5 434060.2 400.011 0.011

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11 11 0.192 0.910 9072.9 460904.1 424.749 0.012
12 12 0.209 0.957 9541.5 484709.0 446.687 0.013
13 13 0.227 0.993 9900.4 502942.6 463.490 0.014 EL
14 14 0.244 0.993 9900.4 502942.6 463.490 0.015 Yield Point
15 15 0.262 1.007 10040.0 510033.4 470.025 0.016
16 16 0.279 1.050 10468.7 531812.4 490.096 0.017
17 18 0.314 1.070 10668.2 541942.1 499.431 0.020
18 20 0.349 1.100 10967.3 557136.8 513.433 0.022
19 22 0.384 1.107 11037.1 560682.2 516.701 0.024
20 24 0.419 1.138 11346.1 576383.3 531.170 0.026
21 26 0.454 1.168 11645.2 591578.0 545.173 0.028
22 28 0.489 1.180 11764.9 597655.8 550.774 0.030
23 32 0.559 1.200 11964.3 607785.6 560.109 0.035
24 36 0.628 1.208 12044.0 611837.5 563.843 0.039
25 40 0.698 1.239 12353.1 627538.6 578.313 0.043
26 48 0.838 1.275 12712.1 645772.2 595.116 0.052
27 56 0.977 1.280 12761.9 648304.6 597.450 0.061
28 64 1.117 1.330 13260.4 673629.0 620.788 0.070
29 72 1.257 1.349 13449.8 683252.3 629.656 0.078
30 80 1.396 1.356 13519.6 686797.7 632.923 0.087
31 88 1.536 1.362 13579.5 689836.6 635.724 0.096
32 96 1.676 1.367 13629.3 692369.1 638.058 0.104
33 103 1.798 1.373 13689.1 695408.0 640.858 0.112 Failure

 CAST IRON:

TABLE 3.2: DETERMINATION OF SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN

Sr. Angle of Twist Load T=P*la ῖmax γ Remarks
No
Degree Radian Ton N Nmm Mpa Radian
1 0.5 0.009 0.046 458.6 23298.4 20.620 0.001
2 1 0.017 0.076 757.7 38493.1 34.067 0.001
3 1.5 0.026 0.103 1026.9 52168.3 46.170 0.002
4 2 0.035 0.144 1435.7 72934.3 64.549 0.002
5 2.5 0.044 0.167 1665.0 84583.5 74.858 0.003
6 3 0.052 0.198 1974.1 100284.6 88.754 0.003
7 3.5 0.061 0.240 2392.9 121557.1 107.581 0.004
8 4 0.070 0.266 2652.1 134725.8 119.236 0.005
9 5 0.087 0.329 3280.2 166634.5 147.476 0.006 PL
10 6 0.105 0.373 3718.9 188920.0 167.199 0.007

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11 7 0.122 0.422 4207.4 213737.9 189.163 0.008 EL
12 8 0.140 0.445 4436.8 225387.2 199.473 0.009 Yield Point
13 10 0.175 0.502 5005.1 254257.0 225.024 0.011
14 12 0.209 0.537 5354.0 271984.0 240.712 0.014
15 14 0.244 0.569 5673.1 288191.7 255.057 0.016
16 16 0.279 0.596 5942.3 301866.8 267.159 0.018
17 20 0.349 0.626 6241.4 317061.5 280.607 0.023
18 24 0.419 0.660 6580.4 334282.1 295.848 0.027
19 28 0.489 0.690 6879.5 349476.7 309.295 0.032
20 31 0.541 0.722 7198.5 365684.3 323.639 0.035 Failure

3.10.GRAPH:

 MILD STEEL:

GRAPH BETWEEN SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN

700.0

600.0
SHEAR STRESS ῖ (MPa)

500.0

400.0

300.0

200.0

100.0

0.0
0.000 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080 0.100 0.120
SHEAR STRAIN γ (Rad.)

FIGURE 3.8. SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

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PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
450.0

400.0

SHEAR STRESS ῖ (MPa) 350.0

300.0

250.0

200.0

150.0

100.0

50.0

0.0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012
-50.0
SHEAR STRAIN γ (Rad.)

FIGURE 3.9. PROPORTIONAL LIMIT GRAPH FOR MILD STEEL

 CAST IRON:

GRAPH BETWEEN SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN

350.0

300.0
SHEAR STRESS ῖ (MPa)

250.0

200.0

150.0

100.0

50.0

0.0
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040
SHEAR STRAIN γ (Rad.)

FIGURE 3.10. SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR CAST IRON

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PROPORTIONAL LIMIT GRAPH

160.0

SHEAR STRESS ῖ (MPa)

140.0

120.0

100.0

80.0

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0
0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
SHEAR STRAIN γ (Rad.)

FIGURE 3.11. PROPORTIONAL LIMIT GRAPH FOR CAST IRON

COMPARISON BETWEEN MILD STEEL AND CAST IRON

700.0

600.0
SHEAR STRESS ῖ (MPa)

500.0

400.0

300.0

200.0

100.0

0.0
0.000 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080 0.100 0.120
SHEAR STRAIN γ (Rad.)
MILD STEEL CAST IRON

FIGURE 3.12. COMPARISON GRAPH OF MILD STEEL AND CAST IRON

3.11.FAILURE PLANE:
 MILD STEEL:
Failure plane is 90 degree.

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FIGURE 3.13. FAILURE PLANE OF MILD STEEL

 CAST IRON:
Failure plane is 45 degree.

FIGURE 3.14. FAILURE PLANE OF CAST IRON

3.12.RESULTS:

TABLE 3.3: COMPARISON TABLE OF MILD STEEL AND CAST IRON

Sample Properties Mild Steel Cast Iron

Torque at P.L 416.8 KN.mm 166.6 KN.mm

Shear Stress at P.L 384.1 MPa 147.47 MPa

Shear Modulus 572.19 92.46

Shear Strain at Rupture 0.112 Rad 0.035 Rad

Torque at Fracture 695.4 KNmm 365.6 KN.mm

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Total no. of Rotation 103 degree 31 degree

Shear Stress at Rupture 640.85 MPa 323.63 MPa

Mode Of Failure 90 degree 45 degree

3.13.COMMENTS:
 Mild steel specimens failed at an angle of 90 degrees from the line of action of force showing
the tensile failure as the cast iron is weak in tension. And mild steel specimen failed at an
angle of 45 degrees from the line of action of force showing the shear failure of the specimen
as the mild steel is weak in shear.
 From the graph Shearing strain produced in mild steel is much higher than the cast iron this
shows the ductile behavior of the mild steel specimen.

3.14.UNDERSTANDING:
This experiment helps us a lot in future life, if we need to
find the shear stress and shear strain of any steel sample then we have better understanding that
how this test is perform and how we can measure these perimeter and what are the behavior of
brittle and ductile materials and what are their failure planes.

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ExpERIMENT NO.4
TITLE:
TO STUDY THE ELASTIC STRESS STRAIN BEHAVIOUR IN
BENDING USING ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGES:

4.1.OBJECTIVE:.
 To learn the use of electrical resistance strain gauges for measuring strains in bending
 To verify the theoretical formula by comparing theoretical and experimental results.

4.2.RELATED THEORY:

4.2.1.NORMAL STRAIN:
Strains which are acting normal to the cross section and produces
normal stress is called normal strains. It is denoted by ϵ.

4.2.2.SHEAR STRAIN:
Change in angle of the element due to shearing force is the shearing
strain. Shearing strain causes shearing stresses. It is denoted by ꝩ.

4.2.3.MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN:
Practically it is more convenient to measure strain instead
of stress because strain is physically independent and stress is not. Therefore many techniques are
developed for the measurement of strain.

4.2.4.TYPE OF STRAIN GAUGES:

 Mechanical Strain Gauges:

Mechanical measurement of the strain is the oldest
technique of measuring the strain. For example dial gauges extensometer.

Advantages:
 These may be made demountable so that a number of gauge stations can be
handled with a single gauge and they measure strain directly.

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Disadvantages:
 Only surface strain can be measured.
 Automatic reading is not possible.

 Optical Strain Gauges:

In this type of gauges measurement and magnification are
done optically. A system of mirrors may be used to produce large displacement on a specific scale.

Advantages:
 Suitable for measuring the dynamic strain when used with a suitable
photographic recording system.

Disadvantages:
 Large size and sophisticated instrument are required so only used for
research work.

 Vibrating Wire Strain Gauges:

A gauge containing the wire is clamped to the test specimen
and frequency of vibration is measured then it is compared with a standard wire of known
frequency.

Advantages:
 Stability over long period.
 Easy and rapid process.
 If once attached no need to access the gauge.

Disadvantages:
 Only static strain can be measured.

 Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges:

These are very fine metal wire grids having
some paper base and are connected on the surface of the structural member to measure normal
surface strain in any desired direction.

Components:
 Filament
 Paper base or carrier
 Terminals or leads

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History:
In 1856 lord Kelvin proved that the resistance of a conductor changes with
the change in length. This idea was used to measure strain in 1938 by Edward E. Simmons of
defense department of America.

Working Principle:

ΔR α ΔL

𝚫𝐑 𝚫𝐋
α
𝐑 𝐋

𝚫𝐑
α Є
𝐑

𝚫𝐑
= Ka Є
𝐑
𝚫𝐑
Є =
𝐊𝐚𝐑

Where,
R = Resistance of the conductor in ohm.
L = Length of conductor.
Ka = Gauge factor given by the manufacturer.
ΔR = Change in resistance measured by Wheatstone bridge.

4.2.5.CONSTRUCTION OF STRAIN GAUGES:

 Length of filament – 2 to 25 mm (normally 10 to 25mm for tension test and 2 to 4mm for
compression test).
 Diameter of the filament = 0.025mm
 Range of gauge resistance
 60 to 100 ohms old literature
 30 to 3000 ohm new literature
 But 100, 125 350 and 1000ohms being the most common values.
 Safe current = 25 to 50mA/
 Range of voltage = 35 to 50 volts.
 Metal Used for strain Gauges
 Alloy of Copper (55%) and nickel (45%).
 Alloy of nickel, chromium and iron with some other minor elements.

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4.2.6.REQUIREMENT OF METALS:

 Metal should be very sensitive to the change in resistance with change in length.
 Proportional limits for the strain gauge material should be more than that of structural
component.

4.2.7.GAUGE FACTOR (Ka):

Gauge factor or the axil sensitivity of the electric strain gauge is
the ratio of the rate of change of the resistance to the rate of the change of the length, denoted by
Ka.

𝚫𝐑/𝐑
Ka =
𝚫𝐋/𝐋

 Value of the gauge factor is provided by the manufacturer.

 Range of gauge factor is from 2 to 4.
 Gauge factor is constant directly relating the unit change in resistance to strain.

4.2.8.MEASUREMENT OF STRAIN USING ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGES

(WHEATSTONE BRIDGE):
The electrical resistance strain gauges depend upon the simple
method of measuring the change in resistance by mean of Wheatstone bridge. The potential
difference b/w A B is measured by means of galvanometer and power is supplied using a battery.
According to Kirchhoff’s rule for flow of current in the circuit and ohm’s law for potential
difference, we have an equation.

𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
=
𝐑𝟑 𝐑𝟒

Now any one of the resistance can be replaced by the strain gauge called as active strain gauge Ra.
Also, R2 becomes dummy strain gauge i.e. Rd.

𝐑𝐚 𝐑𝐝
=
𝐑𝟑 𝐑𝟒

As the time when load is zero there is no deformation, consequently the change in resistance will
be zero and the equation will be valid. As the load is applied the resistance changes, leaving the
equation invalid. The equation is again balanced by the help of strain meter and the difference b/w
two readings is recorded as the change in resistance. Finally strain can be computed using the
following relation.

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𝟏 𝚫𝐑
ϵ= 𝐱
𝐆𝐚𝐮𝐠𝐞 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐑

This method for the determination of the change in resistance is also called as null method.

4.2.9.TEMPERATURE EFFECT:
Change in temperature will cause the change in resistance. It
is strain gauge material and structural component are of two different materials and having
different thermal expansion values, so due to change in temperature there will be change in strain
which is source of error.

The simplest solution to compensate the temperature effect is to use the dummy strain gauge.

4.2.10.DUMMY STRAIN GAUGE:

It is strain gauge having the same resistance and sensitivity
as that of active strain gauge on the component. It is cemented on the separate piece of metal which
is of same type and is placed closed to the component to be tested.

Dummy strain gauge then form one arm of the Wheatstone bridge so that if there is any change in
the resistance due to temperature of active gauge same change occur in the dummy gauge and this
compensation leaves the balance of the bride unaltered.

4.2.11.HUMIDITY EFFECT:
Humidity can effect in two ways.

 Corrosion of filament
 Short circuiting

To avoid these effects, after cementing the strain gauges to the structural component apply few
coats of water proofing agent.

4.2.12.STRAIN METER:
Strain meter is a modified form of the Wheatstone bridge to which
active and dummy strain gauges are attached. Slide wire resistance is calibrated in such a way that
it will give us micro strain directly. Gauge factor of the meter can be adjusted to that of the gauge
factor of the strain gauges used. Least count of the strain meter is 5 micro strain.

 Advantages:
 Normal strain can be measured in any direction.
 Remote reading is possible.
 One person can measure the strain for number of gauges.

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 A strain gauge cemented at a structural component can measure the strain
for several years until the gauge is damaged.

4.2.13.ANALYTICAL MEASUREMENT OF THE STRAIN:

𝐌𝐘
σx = ----- i
𝐈𝐱

σx = ϵ x E ----- ii

From Eq. i and ii, we get,

𝐌𝐘
ϵx E =
𝐈𝐱

𝐌𝐘
ϵx =
𝐄 𝐈𝐱

4.3.APPARATUS:
Following are the apparatus used in this experiment:
 Model Beam
 Strain Gauges attached to beam
 Strain meter
 45 volt DC battery
 Pressure cell and hydraulic jack
 Vernier caliper
 Measuring tape
 Connecting wires

4.4.PROCEDURE:

 Measure the beam dimension

 Measure the gauge locations.
 Switch on the strain meter. Check setting of each factor and take zero load reading for
each strain gauge.

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 Apply the loads and take the readings for all the gauges again.
 Calculate the strains and compare the results with the analytical results.

4.5.SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION:
The schematic illustration of the apparatus
used in this experiment is shown in the figure below.

FIGURE 4.1. SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF STRAIN GAUGES

FIGURE 4.2. LOCATION OF STRAIN GAUGES ON I-SECTION BEAM

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4.6.OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 4.1: EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF STRAIN

(a)
Load "P" Station 1 Station 2
psi kg SGR Average µ strain SGR Average µ strain
0 10.667 13735 13735 0 13710 13677.5 0
10 155.237 13940 13937.5 202.5 13760 13742.5 65
20 299.807 14095 14042.5 307.5 13825 13807.5 130
30 444.377 14295 14295 560 13860 13860 182.5
20 299.807 13990 13790
10 155.237 13935 13725
0 10.667 13735 13645

(b)
Station 3 Station 4 Station 5
SGR Average µ strain SGR Average µ strain SGR Average µ strain
13240 13240 0 13960 13942.5 0 13460 13512.5 0
13240 13240 0 13880 13930 -12.5 13305 13342.5 -170
13250 13245 5 13825 13855 -87.5 13160 13190 -322.5
13250 13250 10 13740 13740 -202.5 13005 13005 -507.5
13240 13885 13220
13240 13980 13380
13240 13925 13565

TABLE 4.2: THEORATICAL DETERMINATION OF STRAIN

(a)
Load "P" M station 1 station 2
Y=64.8mm Y=32.4mm

psi kg N-mm stress µ strain stress µ strain

(Mpa) (Mpa)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 155.237 1711711.5 38.29 191.45 19.15 95.73
20 299.807 3305803.9 73.95 369.75 36.97 184.87
30 444.377 4899896.3 109.61 548.04 54.80 274.02

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(b)
station 3 station 4 station 5
Y=0mm Y=32.4mm Y=64.8mm

stress µ strain stress µ strain stress µ strain

(Mpa) (Mpa) (Mpa)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 19.15 -95.73 38.29 -191.45
0 0 36.97 -184.87 73.95 -369.75
0 0 54.80 -274.02 109.61 -548.04

4.7.GRAPHS:

 EXPERIMENTAL:

GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND STRAIN

800

600

400
LOAD (kg)

200

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

-200

-400

-600
µ STRAIN

ST-1 ST-2 ST-3 ST-4 ST-5

FIGURE 4.3. GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND STRAIN

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GRAPH BETWEEN Y AND STRAIN

70

STRAIN GAUGE DISTANCE Y

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
µ STRAIN

ST-1 ST-2 ST-3 ST-4 ST-5

FIGURE 4.4. GRAPH BETWEEN Y AND STRAIN

 THEORATICAL:

GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND STRAIN

800

600

400

200
LOAD (kg)

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

-200

-400

-600
µ STRAIN

ST-1 ST-2 ST-3 ST-4 ST-5

FIGURE 4.5. GRAPH BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

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GRAPH BETWEEN Y AND STRAIN

70

STRAIN GAUGE DISTANCE Y

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
µ STRAIN

ST-1 ST-2 ST-3 ST-4 ST-5

FIGURE 4.6. GRAPH BETWEEN Y AND STRAIN

GRAPH BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

120

100
STRESS MPa

80

60

40

20

0
-800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
µ STRAIN

ST-1 ST-2 ST-3 ST-4 ST-5

FIGURE 4.7. GRAPH BETWEEN STRESS AND STRAIN

4.8.RESULTS:

TABLE 4.3: COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORATICAL VALUES OF

STRAIN

load P kg 0 10 20 30 Remarks
N 0 155.237 299.807 444.377

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Station 1 µexp. 0 202.5 307.5 560 Extreme
Y=64.8mm µth. 0 191.45 369.75 548.04 bottom
fiber
% 0 5.771331 -16.8348 2.182056
difference
Station 2 µexp 0 65 130 182.5
Y=32.4mm µth. 0 95.73 184.87 274.02
% 0 -32.0974 -29.6815 -33.3992
difference
Station 3 µexp. 0 0 5 10 Neutral
Y=0mm µth. 0 0 0 0 Axis
% 0 0 -16.8455 -29.94084
difference
Station 4 µexp. 0 -12.5 -87.5 -202.5
Y=32.4mm µth. 0 -95.73 -184.87 -274.02
% 0 -86.9418 -52.6702 -26.10048
difference
Station 5 µexp. 0 -170 -322.5 -507.5 Extreme
Y=64.8mm µth. 0 -191.45 -369.75 -548.04 top fiber
% 0 -11.2043 -12.778 -7.397512
difference

4.9.COMMENTS:
 At bottom extreme fiber, strain increases with the increase in load and the strain will be
positive and maximum.
 At neutral axis, there will no strain and no stress because Y is zero.
 At top extreme fiber, strain decrease with increase in load and it will be negative and
minimum.
 The experimental and theoretical values of strain are closer to each other.
 The percentage differences between theoretical and experimental value of strain is
minimum at top and bottom extreme fibre.

4.10.UNDERSTANDING:
This experiment helps us a lot in future life, if we need to
find the stress-strain behavior in bending by using electrical strain gauges then we have better
understanding that how this test is perform and how we can measure the strain from it..

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ExpERIMENT NO.5
TITLE:
DETERMINATION OF PRINCIPLE STRESS AND STRAIN
USING STRAIN ROSETTE TECHNIQUE:

5.1.OBJECTIVE:.
. To determine the three independent components of strain at any point.

5.2.RELATED THEORY:

5.2.1.STRAIN ROSETTE:
The combination of three strain wire gauges is called Strain Rosette.
It consists of a wire grid or piece of metal foil bonded to the specimen. For a general loading on a
body, however, the strains at a point on its surface are determined using a cluster of three electrical-
resistance strain gauges, arranged in a specified pattern. This pattern is referred as a strain rosette.

5.2.2.PRINCIPAL STRESSES:
Maximum and Minimum normal stresses are called principal
stresses. They are denoted by σ1 and σ2.

𝐱 + 𝐲 𝐱 − 𝐲 𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 = + + 𝐱𝐲
𝟐 𝟐

𝐱 + 𝐲 𝐱 − 𝐲 𝟐
𝟐
𝟐 = − + 𝐱𝐲
𝟐 𝟐

5.2.3.PRINCIPAL STRAIN:
Maximum and minimum normal strains are called Principal strains.
They are denoted by έ1 and έ2.

𝟐 𝟐
Є𝐱 + Є𝐲 Є𝐱 − Є𝐲 𝛄𝐱𝐲
Є𝟏 = + +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

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𝟐 𝟐
Є𝐱 + Є𝐲 Є𝐱 − Є𝐲 𝛄𝐱𝐲
Є𝟐 = − +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

5.2.4.UNI-AXIAL STRESS STRAIN SYSTEM:

If forces are acting in such a way that
deformation is only in one direction and stress produced due to theses strains is only in one
direction than it will uni-axial stress strain system e.g. compression or tension test.

5.2.5.BI-AXIAL STRESS STRAIN SYSTEM:

When forces are acting in such a way that,
shearing stresses and strains are also developed along with tension or compression than this system
of strain is called bi-axial stress strain system.

5.2.6.DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRINCIPLE PLANES AND PRINCIPLE AXES:

Principal
planes are two dimensional surfaces on which shearing stresses are zero and normal stresses
have their extreme values. Principal planes changes with the loading conditions.
Principal axes are imaginary lines about which the moments of inertia have extreme values and
product moment of inertia is zero. These are the purely geometrical properties.
5.2.7.STRAIN ROSETTES:
 Introduction:
It is a set of at least 3-strain gauges in different 3-directions connected on
the surface of structural components to determine the complete state of strains.
A strain gage rosette is, by definition, an arrangement of three or more closely positioned gage
grids, separately oriented to measure the normal strains along different directions in the underlying
surface of the test part. Rosettes are designed to perform a very practical and important function
in experimental stress analysis.
It can be shown that for the not-uncommon case of the general biaxial stress state, with the
principal directions unknown, three independent strain measurements (in different directions) are
required to determine the principal strains and stresses. And even when the principal directions are
known in advance, two independent strain measurements are needed to obtain the principal strains
and stresses.
 Types of Strain Rosettes:
To meet the foregoing requirements, the Micro-Measurements
Division manufactures three basic types of strain gage rosettes (each in a variety of forms).

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𝟐 𝟐
Є𝐱 + Є𝐲 Є𝐱 − Є𝐲 𝛄𝐱𝐲
Є𝛉 = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛉 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛉
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

 Rectangular (0-45-90 Degree) OR 45 Degree Strain Rosette:

Three grids, with
the second and third grids angularly displaced from the first grid by 45 degrees and 90 degrees,
respectively.

𝟐 𝟐
Є𝐱 + Є𝐲 Є𝐱 − Є𝐲 𝛄𝐱𝐲
Є𝛉 = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛉 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛉
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

FIGURE 5.1. 45 DEGREE STRAIN ROSETTE

 θa = 0ᵒ
 θb = 45ᵒ
 θc = 90ᵒ

Putting values in above equation of angle and solve it,

Єa = Єx
γxy = 2Єb – Єx - Єy
Єc = Єy

 Delta (0-60-120 Degree):

Three grids, with the second and third grids 60 degrees
and 120 degrees away, respectively, from the first grid.

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FIGURE 5.2. DELTA STRAIN ROSETTE

 60-Degree Strain Rosette:

𝟐 𝟐
Є𝐱 + Є𝐲 Є𝐱 − Є𝐲 𝛄𝐱𝐲
Є𝛉 = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛉 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛉
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

FIGURE 5.3. 60 DEGREE STRAIN ROSETTE

 θa = 0ᵒ
 θb = 60ᵒ
 θc = 120ᵒ

Putting values in above equation of angle and solves it,

Єa = Єx
𝟐
γxy = (Єc – Єb)
√𝟑
𝟏
Єy = (2Єc + 2Єb - Єa)
𝟑

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 120-Degree Strain Rosette:

𝟐 𝟐
Є𝐱 + Є𝐲 Є𝐱 − Є𝐲 𝛄𝐱𝐲
Є𝛉 = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝛉 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐𝛉
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

FIGURE 5.4. 120 DEGREE STRAIN ROSETTE

 θa = 0ᵒ
 θb = 120ᵒ
 θc = 240ᵒ

Putting values in above equation of angle and solves it,

Єa = Єx
𝟐
γxy = (Єc – Єb)
√𝟑
𝟏
Єy = (2Єc + 2Єb - Єa)
𝟑

 4-element strain rosette:

The Strain Rosette having four strain gauges/elements is
called 4-element stain rosette.

 We can have a counter check of the computed values of coordinate strains (Precision)
 We can compute average value of coordinate strain.

5.3.APPARATUS:
Following are the apparatus used in this experiment:

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 Model beam A36 (Maximum extreme fiber stress = 250 MPa)
 Strain gauge attached to beam (gauge factor = 2.05)
 Strain meter (main tuner, fine tuner, LC= 5µƐ)
 45 Volts D.C battery (1.5 volt each cell)
 Pressure cell and hydraulic jack (L.C= 2 Psi)
 Vernier Calliper
 Measuring tape
 Connecting Wires

5.4.PROCEDURE:

 Measure the beam dimensions with the help of vernier calliper.

 Due to non-availability of the strain rosettes we paste the strain gauges with the help of
glue at the required locations and note the location of the element.
 Complete the circuit by using wires and also attach the dummy strain gauge to the
circuit.
 Switch the strain meter on and check the setting of gauge factor and the voltage applied
to the circuit. Take zero loads reading for each gauge and proving ring.
 Apply the load in three equal increments over the range.
 Unload and check the gauge zeros. If large difference between initial and final zero are
detected then repeat the experiment of the gauges concerned.

5.5.PRECAUTIONS:

 Length of connecting wires for all gauges must b same.

 Position of all gauges must be observed carefully.
 Dummy gauge must be placed closed to the structural element (model beam)
 Observe the gauge reading until strain meter shows a constant reading.

5.6.SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION:
The schematic illustration of the apparatus
used in this experiment is shown in the figure below.

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FIGURE 5.5. SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF STRAIN ROSETTE APPARATUS

5.7.OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 5.1: EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF STRAIN

(a)
Pressure Load Strain Rosette
Gauge a Gauge b Gauge c
psi Kg N SRG Avg. µ SRG Avg. µ SRG Avg. µ
strain strain strain
0 10.667 104.6433 13860 13862.5 0 14695 14695 0 15570 15570 0
20 299.807 2941.107 13905 13900 37.5 14585 14605 -90 15470 15482.5 -87.5
40 588.947 5777.57 13935 13932.5 70 14490 14512.5 -182.5 15385 15392.5 -177.5
60 878.087 8614.033 13975 13975 112.5 14380 14380 -315 15295 15295 -275
40 588.947 5777.57 13930 14535 15400
20 299.807 2941.107 13895 14625 15495
0 10.667 104.6433 13865 14695 15570

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(b)
Principal Plane Shear Plane
ԑx ԑy ɣxy ԑ1 ԑ2 θp ɣmax θs
µ µ µ µ µ µ
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-87.5 37.5 130 -115.17 65.17 -23.07 180.35 21.95
-177.5 70 257.5 -232.33 124.83 -23.08 357.16 21.94
-275 112.5 467.5 -384.86 222.36 -25.19 607.22 19.84

TABLE 5.2: THEORATICAL DETERMINATION OF STRAIN

(a)
Pressure Load Mx σx τxy θp σ1
Psi Kg N N-mm MPa MPa Deg. MPa
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 299.81 2941.11 2376414.19 -25.42 5.43 -11.58 -26.53
40 588.95 5777.57 4668276.62 -49.94 10.68 -11.58 -52.13
60 878.09 8614.03 6960139.04 -74.46 15.92 -11.58 -77.72

(b)
σ2 ԑx ԑy γxy ԑ1 ԑ2 γmax.
MPa μ μ μ μ μ μ
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1.11 -127.11 38.13 70.65 -134.34 45.37 179.89
2.19 -249.69 74.91 138.79 -263.91 89.12 353.39
3.26 -372.28 111.68 206.92 -393.47 132.87 526.90

5.8.GRAPHICAL SOLUTION:
Graphical solutions for the measurement of principle
strains using strain rosettes are done by plotting a Mohr circle for strain rosette and measured strain
values.

5.8.GRAPHS:
 EXPERIMENTAL:

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GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND Ԑ1

10000

8000

LOAD N
6000

4000

2000

0
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0
Ԑ1

FIGURE 5.6. GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN

GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND Ԑ2

10000

8000
LOAD N

6000

4000

2000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Ԑ2

FIGURE 5.7. GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND MINIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN

GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND θP

10000

8000
LOAD N

6000

4000

2000

0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0

θP

FIGURE 5.8. GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND PRINCIPAL ANGLE

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GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND ɣmax

10000
8000

LOAD N
6000
4000
2000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
ɣmax

FIGURE 5.9. GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

 THEORATICAL:

GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND Ԑ1

10000

8000
LOAD N

6000

4000

2000

0
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0
Ԑ1

FIGURE 5.10. GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN

GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND Ԑ2

10000
8000
LOAD N

6000
4000
2000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Ԑ2

FIGURE 5.11. GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND MINIMUM PRINCIPAL STRAIN

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GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND θP

10000
9000
8000
LOAD N 7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
-14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
θP

FIGURE 5.12. GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND PRINCIPAL ANGLE

GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND ɣmax

10000

8000
LOAD N

6000

4000

2000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

ɣmax
FIGURE 5.13. GRAPH BETWEEN LOAD AND MAXIMUM SHEAR STRAIN

5.9.RESULTS:

TABLE 5.3: COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORATICAL STRAIN VALUES

(a)
Pressure Load ԑ1 ԑ2
Exp. Th. diff. Exp. Th. diff.

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psi Kg N μ μ % μ μ %
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 299.81 2941.11 -115.17 -134.34 -14.27 65.17 45.37 43.66
40 588.95 5777.57 -232.33 -263.91 -11.97 124.83 89.12 40.07
60 878.09 8614.03 -384.86 -393.47 -2.19 222.36 132.87 67.34

(b)
θp γmax
Exp. Th. diff. Exp. Th. diff.
deg deg % μ μ %
0 0 0 0 0 0
-23.07 -11.58 99.24 180.35 179.89 0.25
-23.08 -11.58 99.29 357.16 353.39 1.07
-25.19 -11.58 117.48 607.22 526.90 15.24

5.10.COMMENTS:
 By increasing the load, the principles strains are increasing. The maximum
principal strain will be negative and minimum principal stress will be
positive.
 The theoretical principal angle will remain same by changing load.
 Load is increasing and decreasing with the help of hydraulic jack.
 There is a big difference between experimental and theoretical values.

5.11.UNDERSTANDING:
This experiment helps us a lot in future life, if we need to
find the principal stress and strain by strain rosette technique then we have better understanding
that how this test is perform and how we can measure the strain from it..

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