Hawassa University (Bensa Daye Campus)

Department of Computer Science

3rd year

Course Title: Wireless Communication and Mobile

Computing

1 Course Code: InTe3021

 Chapter 3
 Wireless Network Principles

 Frequency Allocation and Regulation

 Antennas

 Signal Propagation

 Multiplexing

 Modulation

 Media Access Control

 Classifications of Wireless Networks

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 Wireless Network Principles

Principles of Wireless Networks:

 A true systems approach to wireless networking

 Air interference design and network operation

 Planning, mobility management, radio resources, power

management, and security

 3G, WLANs, HIPERLAN, WATM, Bluetooth, WPAN,
wireless geolocation, and more.

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  Wireless network generally use radio waves for communication

between the network nodes.

 They allow devices to be connected to the network while roaming

around within the network coverage.

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 Cont.…
 Wireless technology is the method of delivering data from one

point to another without using physical wires, and includes

radio, cellular, infrared, and satellite.

 Wireless networking technology was first used by the U.S.

 military during World War II to transmit data over an RF

medium using classified encryption technology, to send battle

plans across enemy lines.

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 Cont.…
 Wi-Fi is an acronym for the phrase wireless fidelity(much like

hi-fi is short for high fidelity), but Wi-Fi is simply a brand name
used to market 802.11 WLAN technology.

 Wi-Fi radios are used for numerous enterprise applications and

can also be found in laptops, mobile phones, cameras,

televisions, printers, and many other consumer devices.

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 Infrared (IR)
 Infrared (IR) is relatively low energy and cannot penetrate through

walls or other obstacles.

 IR only allows a one-to-one type of connection.

 IR is also used for remote control devices, wireless mice, and

wireless keyboards.

 It is generally used for short-range, line-of-sight, communications.

Radio Frequency (RF)

 RF waves can penetrate through walls and other obstacles, allowing

a much greater range than IR.

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 Cont.…
Microwave transmission involves the transfer of voice and data
through the atmosphere as super high-frequency radio waves called
microwaves.
 Microwave transmission is mainly used to transmit messages
between ground-based stations and satellite communications
systems.
Bluetooth is a technology that makes use of the 2.4 GHz band.
 It is limited to low-speed, short-range communications, but has the
advantage of communicating with many devices at the same time.
 This one-to-many communications has made Bluetooth technology
the preferred method over IR for connecting computer peripherals
such as mice, keyboards and printers.
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 Satellite
 Communication satellite is an artificial satellite used specifically as
a communication transmitter/receiver in orbit.
 It behaves like a radio relay station above the earth to receive,
amplify, and redirect analog and digital signals carried on a specific
radio frequency.
 Is an artificial body placed in orbit round the earth or moon or
another planet in order to collect information or for communication:
 A satellite is an object in space that orbits or circles around a bigger
object.
There are two kinds of satellites:
 Natural (such as the moon orbiting the Earth) or
 Artificial (such as the International Space Station orbiting the
Earth).
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 Cont.…
Every usable artificial satellite — whether it's a human or
robotic one has four main parts to it:
 Power system (which could be solar or nuclear, for

example),
 Way to control its attitude,

 An antenna to transmit and receive information, and

 A payload to collect information (such as a camera or

particle detector).

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 Frequency Allocation and Regulation
 Frequency allocation is the allocation and regulation of the
electromagnetic spectrum into radio frequency bands, normally
done by governments in most countries.
 Because radio propagation does not stop at national boundaries,
governments have sought to harmonies the allocation of RF bands
and their standardization.
 Frequency is the number of times a specified event occurs within a
specified time interval.
 A standard measurement of frequency is hertz (Hz), which was

named after the German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.

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 Cont.…
 The frequency at which electromagnetic waves cycles is also

measured in hertz.

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 Con’t…
 Different metric prefixes can be applied to the hertz (Hz)

measurement of radio frequencies to make working with very

large frequencies easier:
 1 hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second

 1 kilohertz (KHz) = 1,000 cycles per second

 1 megahertz (MHz) = 1,000,000 (million) cycles per second

 1 gigahertz (GHz) = 1,000,000,000 (billion) cycles per second

 So when we are talking about 2.4 GHz WLAN radio cards,

the RF signal is oscillating 2.4 billion times per second!

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 Advantages of Wireless Networks
 It provides clutter-free desks due to the absence of wires and cables.

 It increases the mobility of network devices connected to the system

since the devices need not be connected to each other.
 Accessing network devices from any location within the network
coverage or Wi-Fi hotspot becomes convenient since laying out cables
is not needed.
 Installation and setup of wireless networks are easier.

 New devices can be easily connected to the existing setup since they
needn’t be wired to the present equipment.
 Wireless networks require very limited or no wires. Thus, it reduces
the equipment and setup costs.
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 Multiplexing
 Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one

signal, over a shared medium.

 If analog signals are multiplexed, it is Analog Multiplexing and if

digital signals are multiplexed, that process is Digital Multiplexing.

 A common kind of multiplexing merges a number of low-speed

signals to send over an only high-speed link, or it is used to transmit

a medium as well as its link with a number of devices.

 Analog multiplexing used to unite analog signals.

 This type of technique is useful when the link’s bandwidth is better

than the United bandwidth of the transmitted signals.

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 Cont.…
 Multiplexing, or muxing, is a way of sending multiple signals

or streams of information over a communications link at the

same time in the form of a single, complex signal.

 In telecommunications and computer networking, multiplexing

(sometimes contracted to muxing) is a method by which multiple

analog or digital signals are combined into one signal over a
shared medium.

 The aim is to share a scarce resource. For example, in

telecommunications, several telephone calls may be carried using

one wire.
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 Cont.…

 The device that does multiplexing can be simply called as a MUX

 While the one that reverses the process which is demultiplexing, is

called as DEMUX.

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 Types of Multiplexers

 There are mainly two types of multiplexers, analog and digital.

 They are further divided into FDM, WDM, and TDM.

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 Analog Multiplexing
 The process of combining multiple analog signals into one signal is called

analog multiplexing.

 It multiplexes the analog signals according to their frequency or wavelength.

 Multiplexing requires that the multiple signals be kept apart so that they do not

overlap with each other and thus can be separated at the receiving end. This can
be achieved by separating the signal in frequency.

There are two types of analog multiplexing:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing

 Frequency division multiplexing is an analog technique. It is the most popular

multiplexing technique.

 We use this technique extensively in TV and radio transmission.

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 2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing
 Wavelength division multiplexing is an analog technique. It is the

most important and most popular method to increase the capacity

of an optical fiber.

 In wavelength division multiplexing, optical signals are transmitted

through fiber optic cables.

 Wavelength division multiplexing is a technology that increases the

bandwidth of a communication channel (optical fiber) by

simultaneously allowing multiple optical signals through it.

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 Digital Multiplexing

The process of combining multiple digital signals into one signal is called
digital multiplexing.

1. Time Division Multiplexing

 Time Division Multiplexing is a technique in which multiple signals are

combined and transmitted one after another on the same communication

channel.

 At the receiver side, the signals are separated and received. Each signal is

received by a user at a different time.

 In frequency division multiplexing, all signals of different frequencies are

transmitted simultaneously. But in time division multiplexing, all signals

21 operate with the same frequency are transmitted at different times.
 Cont..
A. Synchronous TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

 In synchronous time division multiplexing, each device

(transmitter) is allotted with a fixed time slot,

B. Asynchronous TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

 In Asynchronous time division multiplexing, the time slots

are not fixed (I.e. time slots are flexible).

 The asynchronous TDM is also known as statistical time

division multiplexing.
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 Advantages

 One signal can be transmitted over a single medium.

 The utilization of a medium bandwidth can be done very

effectively

 Multiplexing enhances the network’s economic stability

because it reduces both the time as well as cost required for

the operation of the physical medium

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 Modulation
 It enables the sending of encoded data using radio signals.

 Wireless networks use modulation as a carrier signal, which

means that the modulated tones carry data.
 The process of modulation is the varying in a signal or a tone
called a carrier signal.
 Data is then added to this carrier signal in a process known as
encoding.
A modulated waveform consists of three parts:
 Amplitude: The volume of the signal

 Phase: The timing of the signal between peaks

24  Frequency: The pitch of the signal

 Media access control (MAC)
 Media Access Control (MAC) is a sub layer of the data link layer

(DLL) in the seven-layer OSI network reference model.

 MAC is responsible for the transmission of data packets to and

from the network-interface card, and to and from another remotely

shared channel.

 Media Access Control (MAC layer) are the sub layers of the data

link layer (Layer 2) in OSI Reference Model. ‘

 MAC’ is also refer to as MAC layer.

 It use MAC protocols to provides unique addressing identification

and channel access control mechanism.

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 Cont.…
 The essence of the MAC protocol is to ensure non-collision and

eases the transfer of data packets between two computer

terminals.

 A collision takes place when two or more terminals transmit

data/information simultaneously.

 This leads to a breakdown of communication, which can prove

costly for organizations that lean heavily on data transmission.

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 Media Access Control Methods
 This network channel through which data is transmitted
between terminal nodes to avoid collision has three various
ways of accomplishing this purpose. They include:
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA)
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD)
 Demand priority

 Token passing

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
 CSMA/CA is a media access control policy that regulates how data

packets are transmitted between two computer nodes.

 This method avoids collision by configuring each computer

terminal to make a signal before transmission.

 Multiple access implies that many computers are attempting to

transmit data.

 Collision avoidance means that when a computer node transmitting

data states its intention, the other waits at a specific length of time

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before resending the data.
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)

 (CSMA/CD) is the opposite of CSMA/CA.

 Instead of detecting data to transmit signal intention to prevent a

collision, it observes the cable to detect the signal before
transmitting.
 Collision detection means that when a collision is detected by the
media access control policy, transmitting by the network stations
stops at a random length of time before transmitting starts again.
 It is faster than CSMA/CA as it functions in a network station that
involves fewer data frames being transmitted.
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 Demand Priority
 The demand priority is an improved version of the Carrier sense

multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD).

 This data control policy uses an ‘active hub’ in regulating how a

network is accessed.

 Demand priority requires that the network terminals obtain

authorization from the active hub before data can be transmitted.

 In the Ethernet media, demand priority directs that data is

transmitted directly to the receiving network terminal.

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 Token Passing
 This media access control method uses free token passing to prevent a
collision.
 Only a computer that possesses a free token, which is a small data
frame, is authorized to transmit.
 Transmission occurs from a network terminal that has a higher priority
than one with a low priority.
 Token passing flourishes in an environment where a large number of
short data frames are transmitted.
 Each terminal holds this free token for a specific amount of time if the
network with the high priority does not have data to transmit, the token
is passed to the adjoining station in the network.
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 Antennas
An antenna provides two functions in a communication system.
 When connected to the transmitter, it collects the AC signal that

it receives from the transmitter and directs, or radiates, the RF

waves away from the antenna in a pattern specific to the
antenna type.
 When connected to the receiver, the antenna takes the RF

waves that it receives through the air and directs the AC signal
to the receiver. The receiver converts the AC signal to bits and
bytes.

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 Cont.…
 There are two ways to increase the power output from

an antenna.
 The first is to generate more power at the transmitter, as

stated in the previous section.

 The other is to direct, or focus, the RF signal that is

radiating from the antenna. This is similar to how you

can focus light from a flashlight.

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 Signal Propagation
 Electromagnetic waves can move through a perfect vacuum or pass

through materials of different mediums

 The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum, which is usually simply referred

to as spectrum, is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation.

 This radiation exists as self-propagating electromagnetic waves that

can move through matter or space.

 Electromagnetic waves include gamma rays, X-rays, visible light, and

radio waves.

 Radio waves are electromagnetic waves occurring on the radio

frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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 Cont.…
 RF signal starts out as an electrical alternating current (AC) signal

that is originally generated by a transmitter.

 This AC signal is sent through a copper conductor (typically a

coaxial cable) and radiated out of an antenna element in the form of

an electromagnetic wave.

 An alternating current is an electrical current with a magnitude and

direction that varies cyclically, as opposed to direct current, the

direction of which stays in a constant form called sine wave.

 Electromagnetic signals can travel through mediums of different

35 materials or travel in a perfect vacuum.

 Cont.…
 Every RF signal has the following characteristics and these

characteristics are defined by the law of physics:

 Wavelength

 Frequency

 Amplitude

 Phase

wavelength is the distance between the two successive crests

(peaks) or two successive troughs (valleys) of a wave pattern

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 Cont.…
 As RF signals travel through space and matter, they lose signal
strength (attenuate).
 It is often thought that a higher frequency electromagnetic signal
with a smaller wavelength will attenuate faster than a lower
frequency signal with a larger wavelength.
 Amplitude can be defined as the maximum displacement of a
continuous wave.
 is represented by the positive crests and negative troughs of the sine
wave.

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 Cont.…
 Phase is not a property of just one RF signal but instead
involves the relationship between two or more signals that
share the same frequency.
 Phase can be measured in distance, time, or degrees.

 If the peaks of two signals with the same frequency are in exact
alignment at the same time, they are said to be in phase.
Conversely,
 if the peaks of two signals with the same frequency are not in
exact alignment at the same time, they are said to be out of
phase.
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 RF behaviors
 RF propagation behaviors include absorption, reflection,

scattering, refraction, diffraction, free space path loss,

multipath, attenuation.

 RF signal between two locations is a direct result of how

the signal propagates.

 The manner in which a wireless signal moves is often

referred to as propagation behavior.

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 Cont.…
 Absorption Objects that absorb the RF waves, such as walls,

ceilings, and floors

 Scattering Objects that disperse the RF waves, such as rough

plaster on a wall, carpet on the floor, or drop-down ceiling tiles

 Reflection Objects that reflect the RF waves, such as metal

and glass

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 Classifications of Wireless Network
 wireless network enables people to communicate and access
applications and information without wires.
 This provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend
applications to different parts of a building, city, or nearly
anywhere in the world.
 Wireless networks allow people to interact with e-mail or browse
the Internet from a location that they prefer.
The four types of wireless networks :
Wireless LAN, wireless MAN, wireless PAN and wireless
WAN.
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 Types of Wireless Networks
WLANS: Wireless Local Area Networks
 WLANS allow users in a local area, such as a university campus or
library, to form a network or gain access to the internet.
 A temporary network can be formed by a small number of users
without the need of an access point; given that they do not need access
to network resources.
WPANS: Wireless Personal Area Networks
 The two current technologies for wireless personal area networks are
Infra Red (IR) and Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15).
 These will allow the connectivity of personal devices within an area
of about 30 feet. However, IR requires a direct line of site and the
range is less.
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 Cont.…
WMANS: Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks
 This technology allows the connection of multiple networks in a

metropolitan area such as different buildings in a city, which can

be an alternative or backup to laying copper or fiber cabling.

WWANS: Wireless Wide Area Networks

 These types of networks can be maintained over large areas,

such as cities or countries, via multiple satellite systems or

antenna sites looked after by an ISP.
 These types of systems are referred to as 2G (2nd Generation)

43 systems.
 Comparison of Wireless Network Types

44
 Cont.…
 Two standards bodies are primarily responsible for
implementing WLANs:

 IEEE defines the mechanical process of how WLANs are

implemented in the 802.11 standards so that vendors can create

compatible products.

 The Wi-Fi Alliance basically certifies companies by ensuring that

their products follow the 802.11 standards, thus allowing customers

to buy WLAN products from different vendors without having to be
concerned about any compatibility issues.
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 Cont.….
 Two 802.11 access modes can be used in a WLAN:

 Ad hoc mode

 Infrastructure mode

 Ad hoc mode is based on the Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). In IBSS,
clients can set up connections directly to other clients without an intermediate
access point (AP).
 This allows you to set up peer-to-peer network connections and is sometimes used
in Small Office and Home Office Networks (SOHO). The main problem with ad
hoc mode is that it is difficult to secure since each device you need to connect to
will require authentication. This problem, in turn, creates scalability issues.
 Infrastructure mode was designed to deal with security and scalability issues. In
infrastructure mode, wireless clients can communicate with each other, albeit via
an AP. Two infrastructure mode implementations are in use:
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 Cont.…
 Basic Service Set (BSS)

 Extended Service Set (ESS)

 In BSS mode, clients connect to an AP, which allows them to communicate with
other clients or LAN based resources.
 The WLAN is identified by a single SSID; however, each AP requires a unique
ID, called a Basic Service Set Identifier (BSSID), which is the MAC address of
the AP’s wireless card. This mode is commonly used for wireless clients that
don’t roam, such as PCs.
 In ESS mode, two or more BSSs are interconnected to allow for larger roaming
distances.
 To make this as transparent as possible to the clients, such as PDAs, laptops, or
mobile phones, a single SSID is used among all of the APs. Each AP, however,
47 will have a unique BSSID.
48