Wireless Networks and Systems (BCE)

2
Chapter 1 – Introduction to wireless technologies
Topics
 Basic definitions;
 Classification of wireless networks:
o Wireless services, physical extension, transmission data rate,
mobility.
 Technologies and systems:
o Cellular Systems: GSM, UMTS-WCDMA, UMTS-HSPA, LTE.
o Metropolitan systems: WiMAX, HiperLAN.
o Local area systems: WiFi, DECT.
o Personal area systems: Bluetooth.
o Close proximity systems: RFID.
o Wireless Sensor networks and the ZigBee standard.
Objectives
Introducing the wireless systems and their basic definitions.
Examining and classifying some modern wireless networks, with the purpose of
extending the first definitions and the basic nomenclature.
Presenting the main characteristics and applications of the most popular
technologies and systems grouped according their physical extension.
Basic Definitions
A Radio system is an engineering equipment to provide information remotely, by
exploiting (sfruttando) the free propagation of electromagnetic waves, non-guided
by any medium (mezzo).
In a wave propagation, the frequency is a harmonic oscillation measured in Hertz
(Hz), f =c / λ , where c is the speed of light and λ (lambda) is the wavelength.
1 kHz=1 0 Hz ,1 MHz=1 0 Hz ,1 GHz=1 0 Hz , 1THz=1 0 Hz .
3 6 9 12

Radio spectrum is a portion of electromagnetic spectrum used for the free

propagation of radio waves. Conventionally, the radio spectrum is extended from
about 3 kHz ( λ=100 km ¿ up to about 300 GHz (λ=1 mm).
Optical spectrum is a portion of electromagnetic spectrum between 384 THz of
infrared and 769 THz for the ultraviolet.
From the picture below, we can see the electromagnetic spectrum and the
frequency ranges for the Radio waves and optical spectrum. The sum of both, is
the base for the Wireless communications.

3
Radio channel is the portion of radio spectrum used for the transport of
information signals under the form of radio frequency (RF) signals.
Baseband signals is a signal that has a very narrow frequency range. It is an
harmonic signal in the lower region of the e.m. spectrum, starting from a minimal
frequency, f m (nearly null) up to a maximum frequency f M whose (il cui) value
depends on the “nature” of the signal. In the below picture, we can see some
examples.

Bandwidth or more simply band, is the range of frequencies, the difference

between the highest frequency signal component and the lowest frequency signal
component:
B=f M −f m
We talk of Baseband (BB) if f M ≫ f m and B ≫ 1, Radio Frequency (RF) if f M <2 f m
and B< f m.
Radio link it is used by the radio system to transmit signal in a wireless fashion
(maniera):

4
We can consider several bands in the radio spectrum, as showed within the
following picture:

From the economical point of view, the most important are the VHF and UHF
because there is a low noise, the antennas have limited sizes and the transmission
can be performed without big issues. This means that this portion of frequency
should be assigned carefully to a service since that it is a limited resource. In fact,
we have to optimize the use of radio spectrum assigning portion of the spectrum to
a specific service for example for Data transmission, Cellular system, etc… in
order to avoid Intersystem interferences. There is the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) that perform the assignment of the spectrum
resources to a specific service and to a specific system. It is divided the world in 3
regions:
 Europe, Africa, North Asia (Region 1);
 Americas (Region 2);
 South Asia and Oceania (Region 3).
Classification: wireless services
Let’s try to classify the wireless services. We can consider 4 services:
Radiocommunication (the most popular), Radionavigation (used for the
transmission on the land, sea and hair for transportation), Teleobservation (used

5
for the observation of the earth for instance, for pollution, vegetation etc..),
Radioastronomy (is the passive caption of the electromagnetic signal coming from
the space). The service characteristics can be classified also considering:
- the use of the spectrum in:
o Unidirectional, or simplex: it is an exclusive use. It means that we
have a Transmitter (T) and a Receiver (R). An example are TV and
Radio.

T R

o Bidirectional, or duplex. In this case, we have 2 elements each part (T

and R) and the spectrum is used in alternate way half-duplex.

T/R T/R

o Use; Full-duplex simultaneous use T from left and R from right and
vice versa.

T/R T/R

- Connection among fixed points (for instance an antenna transmitter and an

antenna in the house receiver) and mobile connections (radio mobiles as
walkie-talkie that are using half-duplex spectrum, antenna transmitter and
mobile phone receiver).
- Point-point and point-multipoint connection if the transmission is one-to-
one or one-to-multiple.
- Another classification can be done if we have services in an area or in a
volume space.
Classification: physical extension
Another classification can be done considering the physical extension as:
- Geographical area network or WAN (Wide Area Network): the transport of
information is done on a large scale (mainly with cabled networks (i.e.
Landline phone network) and also through wireless networks (i.e. Cellular
phone network)).
- Metropolitan area network or MAN: allow for access to services and user
mobility in the urban area such as cities (i.e. Radio taxi network).

6
 - Local Area Network or LAN: allows the user to access the
telecommunication networks (mainly to the internet) available locally (i.e.
within a building, campus etc…).
- Personal Area Network or PAN: can be used for communication amongst
personal devices themselves (interpersonal communication) or for
connecting to a higher-level network and the Internet (an uplink) where
one “master” device takes up the rule as internet router.
- Body Area Network or BAN also referred to as wireless body area network
(WBAN) or a body sensor network (BSN): for the management of sensors
and interfaces in the proximity of the human body and his/her direct
contact.
Classification: transmission data rate
Another classification can be done considering the transmission data rate:
- LDR (Low data rate) applications: Data rate up to few hundred kbit/s:
o i.e. Remote control, localization and identification.
- MDR (Medium data rate) applications: Data rate up to Mbit/s:
o i.e. Cable replacement, real time voice services.
- HDR (High data rate) applications: Data rate greater than 10 Mbit/s:
o Used for the replacement of the local network, distribution of video
and audio (streaming, videoconference, etc…), entertainment
services, connections between different multimedia devices.
- VHDR (Very high data rate) applications: Data rate greater than 100 Mbit/s:
o i.e. Distribution of high quality video and audio, high definition
broadcasting (HDTV).
Within the below image, we can see a graph that show the position of the different
networks respect the data rates.

7
As we can see, the only network where there is an interest to increase the Data rate
is the cellular network, due to the attractive economical prospective. In this case,
the system is very complex but the cost is balanced by very high revenue.
Classification: mobility
We have several levels of mobility, below we can see the classification:
 “Fixed” (no mobility): in telecommunications, a terminal is fixed if it is
connected in a stationary position and known at the network:
- The most classic communication between fixed points is the one that is
established between two traditional telephone devices by the
traditional telephone service, POTS (plain old telephone service).
 “Ubiquitous”: a telecommunications service is called ubiquitous if the user
with a personal terminal can be in an arbitrary position and unknown, but
must keep himself stationary in the service area, or at most, at a walking
speed. It comes from the Latin word “ubique” which means “anywhere,
everywhere”:
o A typical service is PABX.
 “Nomadic”: a service is called nomadic if it can reach the user
independently from its connection and as well from the availability of the
personal terminal:
o It requires the personal universal numeration; the service
connectivity is not guaranteed during the terminal moving. A typical
service is provided by Wi-Fi.
 “Mobile”: a service is fully mobile if it can reach the user independently
from the position and movement speed of a prefixed and known area (or
volume) called service area. The service connectivity is guaranteed even
during the terminal movement:
o A mobile service is provided by the Public Land Mobile Network,
PLMN.

8
Classification: Summary

Technologies and systems

Let’s see several examples of technologies and systems classified in terms of
service extension area:
- Cellular systems: GSM, UMTS-WCDMA, UMTS-HSPA, LTE.
- Metropolitan systems: WiMAX, HiperLAN.
- Local area systems: WiFi, DECT.
- Personal area systems: Bluetooth.
- Close proximity systems: RFID.
- Wireless sensor networks: ZigBee.
GSM system
It is the standard of 2nd generation cellular system. The first services offered were
Voice and SMS, subsequently another service has been offered GPRS with Low
data rate, data up to 172 kbit/s (theoretically) 50 kbit/s (real). This system is the
most popular one, has a diffusion of over 3 billion of users in 208 countries.

9
UMTS system: release 99
It is the standard 3rd generation cellular system that use the transmission protocol
W-CDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access). The W-CDMA allow to
reach high data transmission speed compared with the technology TDMA/FDMA
used within GSM/GPRS network. Are provided Multimedia services for voice,
data, video etc.. the Data rate start from few tens of kbit/s up to 2 Mbit/s
(theoretically) 384 kbit/s (real). Provide 4 service classes for QoS (Conversational
class, Streaming class, Interactive class, background). With this first release, there
is not a big difference from the market point of view due to a not big difference
with GSM/GPRS in terms of transfer rate. Furthermore, the terminal was having
problems in terms of battery life.

PLMN, PSTN,
ISDN, etc…

Internet

10
UMTS system: HSPA
The High-Speed Downlink Access (release 5), solve most of the problem related to
the previous version in fact:
- Available bit rates 1.8 – 3.6 Mbit/s (at the beginning) and 7.2 – 14.4
Mbit/s (later), 28.8 – 42 Mbit/s (new advanced release 8).
- Latency from 200 ms to < 100 ms.
- More efficient architecture: some functionalities moved closer to the
access edge (base station).
- Aggregate channels assigned to a user for a limited time interval.
- New high speed asymmetric packet data transmission services (like DSL
to fixed networks), such as audio/video streaming services, interactive
services and FTP/email services.
The High-Speed Uplink Packet Access (release 6):
- Available bit rates 1,4 Mbit/s and 5,8 Mbit/s at its peak.
- Further latency reduction: < 50ms.
Uplink/downlink bit rate increase enables broadband radio access with worldwide
diffusion.
UMTS system: femtocells
Also, called Home Node B, it is a small and isolated indoor base station. The
characteristics are:
- Very High signal quality.
- Small number of users.
- Limited interference from/to outdoor base stations.
- Single terminal for outdoor and indoor (not in dual-mode).
- Closed or Open access list.
Advantages:
- Higher capacity in terms of bit rates.
- The carrier may also offer more attractive tariffs and charge as fixed
phone.
Long Term Evolution (LTE)
The evolution of UMTS is the 4G cellular system where all the services are on IP.
The data bit rate is 172 Mbit/s in downlink, 85 Mbit/s in uplink (release 8), higher
bit rates for release 10 (1 Gbit/s) but in the future, the bit rate should grow.
Latency server – user: about 20 ms:
- Flexibility in bandwidth allocation: 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 MHz; deployment
like UMTS release 99 so it can reuse the size used for this installation.

11
To provide this data rate, it is necessary to have more efficient architecture: the
functionalities moved to the network edge (to the base station) and data – signaling
separation flows.
New radio interface (optimization in time and frequency) and efficient channel
assignment (one single channel shared by users).

ETSI Wireless standards

The following standards are not to popular.
HiperLAN1
Portable device communications for multimedia services.
Flexible network without infrastructure.
Frequency transmission at 5 GHz, peak data rates 20 Mbit/s, range of 50m.

HiperLAN2
Wireless short range access to local cabled Ethernet networks, to IP and ATM
protocols and UMTS radio mobile system.
Support guaranteed QoS.
Frequency transmission at 5 GHz, peak data rates 54 Mbit/s range of 100m.

HiperACCESS
For fixed Point-to-Multi Point interconnections (e.g. connecting buildings of the
same company).
Alternative to xDSL, fast development, security mechanism supported.

12
Higher frequencies (26, 28, 32, 36 GHz), peak data rates 120 Mbit/s range of few
kms.

HiperMAN
Provide Broadband access to fixed user through wireless solutions.
Compatible with the WiMAX standard for MAN applications.
Guaranteed QoS supported, service types, mesh configuration network, security
mechanism supported.
Frequencies 2 – 11 GHz, typically 3.5 GHz, peak data rate 63 Mbit/s, range 2 – 4
km (with obstacles) 10 km (without obstacles).
As an example, we have a Base Station and fixed stations placed on the top of
buildings. In this way, it is very easy to provide connection to isolated building
without deploy any cable, it is cheaper and faster.

WiMAX system
It provides Broadband wireless access, a faster deployment than fixed lines (cost
saving), a security mechanism is supported and two types of architecture: point-to-
multipoint and Mesh. Two reference standards that are dedicates:
- Fixed service, IEEE802.16d
- Mobile service, IEEE802.16e.
Wi-Fi system
It is very popular, the standard WiFi is within IEEE 802.11 families. At beginning
the wireless was used as an extension of the wired LAN in the office, afterwards
became a broadband (banda larga) service access.
The QoS is not supported neither mobility (only nomadic service). The frequencies
are 2.4 GHz (ISM or unlicensed) and 5 GHz within a range of 100m.
The Data rates are: [.11b] real 5.9 Mbit/s, [.11a] 20 Mbit/s, [.11n] 100 Mbit/s and
the last version [.11ab] should reach ~2 Gbit/s.

13
Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication, DECT
It is the evolution of the cordless of the wired telephone network. The
characteristics are:
- Digital signal, low cost and low power.
- Low mobility (up to 40 km/h).
- Support the QoS.
- Possible roaming on the other networks (i.e. GSM and UMTS).
- Providing data service with the DECT Packet Radio Service: rates up to 4
Mbit/s integration with Ethernet.
The most of intelligence is in the terminal equipment: cheap network deployment
but limited system capabilities.
Frequencies 1.9 GHz peak data rates 32 kbit/s (voice) range 300 m.

Bluetooth
Aim is connecting portable devices locally, wireless and in a flexible way.
Main services: file sharing, data synchronization, low distance connectivity and
protocol of Service Discovery within the Bluetooth range.

14
Connecting modes: master/slave, piconet, scatternet.
Radio Frequency Identification, RFID
Use of electromagnetic field for automatic proximity identification and very low
data transfer. Two entities:
- Reader that is an active device used to interrogate tags (providing
energy).
- Tags when interrogated they collect energy and respond as a
transponder with programmed data.
Some frequencies are adopted: in USA 902-928 MHz etc…

There are several different types of tags:

- Passive (not fed);
- Semi-passive (with batteries for external components as microchips,
sensors);
- Semi-active (with batteries to feed the transmitter but it behaves as a
passive tag when not interrogated);
- Active (provided of batteries, similar behavior of a reader).
The applications of RFID can be: objects/livestocks, identification, logistic,
tracking of objects, sensors, enabling the Internet of Things.

15
Wireless sensor network, WSN
Wireless Network of (a large number – even 1000 – of) sensors having:
- Low cost sensors, low power device with limited processing capabilities.
- Wireless links: efficient connections (e.g. routing, energy, limited range).
- Data collected by a sink and then retransmitted to the command &
control center.
Applications: monitoring of large areas (e.g. terrains, coasts, mountains, buildings,
apartments) remote control, inventory control, person-environment interaction and
assistance for persons with special needs, traceability, anti-terrorism and defense
industry.
Wireless sensor and actuator network.

Example of WSN: ZigBee

The reference standard for WSN: IEEE802.15.4 (lower layer), ZigBee (higher
layers). The frequencies used are: 868 MHz in USA with 20 kbit/s, 915 MHz in
Europe with 40 kbit/s and 2.4 GHz with 250 kbit/s. The distance covered depend
from the power supplied, we can say that is 50 m on average, between 5 and 500m
in function to the device and environment.
Low energy consumption.

16
17
Chapter 2 – Digital modulations: information, signals and modulations
(part 1)
Topics
 Information:
o entropy;
o communication system.
 Signals:
o representation;
o Fourier transform;
o sampling theorem.
 Modulation:
o Types of modulation;
o Examples of modulated signals.
Objectives
Introducing the concept of information.
Providing the signal representation for transmitting information in a
communication system.
Presenting the operation of modulation of a signal.
Showing the most common modulation types and some examples of modulated
signals
Information
The communication is the process by which the information flows from one user
(the source of the information) to another user (the destination of the information).
What is the information? Let’s have a source with these characteristics discrete
memoryless source, this means that:
- A source is called a Discrete Source if produces a sequence { S[k ]} of
symbols one after the another, with each symbol being drawn from a
finite alphabet
S= { s 0 , s 1 , .. , s k−1}
and in which each symbol sk ∈ S is produced at the output of the source
with some associated probability Pr { s=sk } = pk .
If successive outputs from a discrete source are statistically
independent, or in other words, if at each instant of time the source
chooses for transmission one symbol from the set S= {s 0 , s 1 , .. , s k−1} and its
choices are independent from one time instant to the next, then the
source is called a Discrete Memoryless Source (DSM).

18
This means that the alphabet is limited and memoryless means that the symbols are
statistically independent. But how much information is produced by the source?
let’s consider at the point of view of the recipient:
- If the event s=s k occurs with the probability pk =1 , there is no
information sent to the recipient, since it knows what the source is
emitting (no surprise);
- If the source output generates for example events with different
probabilities, when sk is emitted instead of si with i≠ k , there is a surprise
(and the information);
- Less is pk , greater is the surprise when sk is emitted.
We can say that before the event sk occurs there is uncertainty (incertezza). When
the event sk occurs, there is surprise. After sk occurred, there is a gain of
information (un guadagno di informazione). So the reception of a generated event
by the source sk is the resolution of the uncertainty.
Definition of the amount of information gained after observing the event s=s k
which occurs with probably pk
I ( s k )=log 2
( p1 )
k

If pk =1 then there are no information gained after this event. The unit of
information is the bit (binary digit) when pk =0.5 and I ( s k )=1 bit:
- so we can say that one bit is the amount of information we gain when
one of the two possible (and equally likely) events occur.
The mean of produced information is the entropy of the source:

( p1 )
K −1 K −1
H ( S )=E [ I ( s k ) ] = ∑ p k I (s k )= ∑ p k log 2
K =0 K=0 k

Entropy of binary memoryless source

Considering a binary memoryless source that is with two symbols s0 with
probability po and s1 with probability p1=1−p o.
From the entropy of the source substituting the value of p1, we can have a formula
just depending by po .

H ( S )=− p o log 2 po −p 1 log 2 p1=− p o log 2 po −(1−p ¿¿ 0)log 2 (1− p¿¿ 0)¿ ¿

We can see the entropy function H ( p0 ) within the below picture:

19
 - entropy = 0 we don’t have
any information transmitted
for p0=0 and po =1.
- The maximum of entropy is
gained for po =0.5

Communication System
Let's apply this concept to a communication system, when two users have to
communicate at distance, they need a communication system so we have a source
of the message and the user of the information. The communication system is
composed by a transmitter, a channel and a receiver. Once that the source of
information send a message signal the transmitter component transmit the signal
over the channel which introduce errors and the receiver try to estimate the
message signal based on the received signal. So as output we get just an estimate
of the message signal.

Signals
The signal (or waveform) represent the physical parameter used for transmission of
the information from the source to the destination. It is described by a function s(t )
which depends from the time. The characteristics of a signal are:
- energy or power signals;
- the signal can be continuous or discrete in time;
- continuous or discrete in amplitude.
The most interesting signals are those that are discrete in time and amplitude for
digital communications.

20
Signals Representation
We need a representation of a signal; it can be represented through N orthogonal
basic functions (or expansion functions) { f n (t) } .
Orthogonality means that property with δ mn=1 only if m=n ,δ mn=0 if m ≠n (* denotes
conjugate):
∞

∫ f n ( t ) f ¿m ( t ) dt=δ mn
−∞

The signal s(t ) is represented by a linear combination of f n (t) (the error

e ( t ) ≝ s ( t )−^s (t) should be negligible (trascurabile) where s ( t ) is the real signal and ^s (t )
is the represented signal.
The represented signal ^s ( t ) is a linear combination of f n functions:
N −1
^s ( t )= ∑ s n f n (t )
n=0

The linear coefficient sn is given by:

∞
sn= ∫ s ( t ) f n ( t ) dt
¿

−∞

Let’s consider a set of M waveforms si (t ) (or energy signals). We can apply this
representation based on N basic functions { f n (t) } to all this M signals. We have this
formula that is the same of previous one applied for each signal in waveform set.
N −1 ∞
si ( t ) = ∑ s ¿ f n ( t ) s¿ = ∫ s i ( t ) f n ( t ) dt
n=0 −∞

Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure.

Any transmit signal si ( t ) is represented as a vector:
T
si ( t ) ↔ s i=[ s i 0 s i1 . . . s¿−1 ]
So we can have a vector in this signal
diagram space that we call
constellation.

Fourier transform
Another signal representation is with basic functions like this gf ( t )=e j 2 πftfor
t ∈(−∞ ,+ ∞), and f is the frequency.
This basic functions gf ( t ) satisfy the orthogonal property if we consider the
¿
application of orthogonal property by two of them gf ( t ) and gv ( t ) it means that we
have two different frequencies and the mutual integral is 0 if f ≠ v.

21
 ∞ ∞

∫ gf (t ) g ¿
v ( t ) dt= ∫ e j 2 π (f −v)t dt=δ(f −v)
−∞ −∞

Similarly, to previous case, s(t ) is represented as linear combination of gf ( t )

through the complex coefficient S ( f ):
∞ ∞
s ( t )=∫ S ( f ) e df S ( f )= ∫ s ( t ) e
j 2 πft − j 2 πft
dt
−∞ −∞

Inverse Fourier transform Fourier transform

If S ( f 0 )=0 it means that the signal s ( t ) has no contribution at frequency f 0 so we can
say that s ( t ) has no harmonic solicitation at that frequency f 0.
S ( f )is called spectrum of s ( t ). The signal energy identified by E s is determined by:
∞ ∞
E s=∫ ¿ s ( t ) ¿ dt =∫ ¿ S ( f ) ¿ df
2 2

−∞ −∞

Energy Spectrum

Signals Sampling theorem

In the field of digital signal processing, the sampling theorem is a fundamental
bridge between continuous-time signals (often called "analog signals") and
discrete-time signals (often called "digital signals"). It establishes a sufficient
condition for a sample rate that permits a discrete sequence of samples to capture
all the information from a continuous-time signal of finite bandwidth.
Through the sampling process, an analog signal is converted into a digital signal.
If a function x (t) contains no frequencies higher than B hertz, it is completely
determined by giving its ordinates at a series of points spaced 1/(2 B) seconds apart.
A sufficient sample-rate is therefore 2 B samples/second, or anything larger.
Equivalently, for a given sample rate fs, perfect reconstruction is guaranteed
possible for a band limit B< f s /2.
A continuous-time signal of finite energy and infinite duration, practically band-
limited |f |≤ F M , g(t ), is sampled at time instant equally spaced t=n T s: from g(t ) to
g N ( t ) =∑ g(n ¿ T s )δ (t−nT s )¿.
The value of each sample is then quantized in K levels and described by b bits:
K=2 . It is fundamental to choose the sampling rate f s=1 /T s properly.
b

22
g(t ) is the spectrum of G(f ) it means that G(f ) is the Fourier transform of g ¿)
G ( f ) =F [g ( t ) ].

On the other side, G N ( f ) =F [ gN (t ) ]=f s ∑ G(f −m f s ) (see below picture where you can
see that G N ( f ) is formed by a repetition (ripetizione) of spectrum of G(f )).

Is it possible to reconstruct the signal g(t ) from the sample (campione) signal g N ( t )
?
Since that G ( f ) =0 for |f |> F M ( F M max frequency of the spectrum of G(f )) we have
to select f s ≥2 F M in order not to have overlapping between replicas (aliasing).
If f s <2 F M then we’ll have overlap and it will not be possible to reconstruct the
signal because the spectrum is overlapped and g N ( f ) doesn’t allow us to reconstruct
the spectrum G(f ).
If f s=2 F M (Nyquist rate), it is possible to exactly reconstruct the signal g(t ) from
the sample g(nT s ) by using the following formula obtained by Fourier transformed
proprieties:

23
 n sin ( 2 π F M t−nπ )
( )
+∞
g ( t )= ∑ g
n=−∞ 2 F M (2 π F M t−nπ )

Concatenated signal
We saw only time limited signal, but if we have a signal that is time infinite, we
can transmit it by concatenating several symbols at each instant K we select a
proper symbol si related to the information that should be sent at that instant K
among of symbol set. At each symbol period, we select a symbol which transport a
certain bit. So we have T s = symbol period that is l times the bit period T b.
Association of one message/word of l bits to one symbol of M available in the
signal space:
- T s=l T b, we can reverse this equation → Rb =l R s (with R s symbol rate and
Rb bit rate).
The modulator sends a different symbol every T s seconds for each message (of l
bits) generated by the information source: M =2l .
In the example showed in the picture we have a signal and we have 4 levels (asse
delle y) it means that we need 2 bits in order to describe these 4 levels. For
example, we defined s0 =00 , s 1=01 , s 2=10 , s 3=11. So we have transferred the
information passed by the signal into a concatenated symbol or equivalent in a
stream of bits.
The generic digital signal is a symbol concatenation sent by the modulator every T s
seconds:
- i k =i ( k ) , each transmitted symbol is selected among the symbol set (M )
according to the message to be sent in the k th time interval:
∞
s ( t )= ∑ s i (t−k T s)
k
k=−∞

Modulations
In pulse modulation (modulazione ad impulsi), some parameters of the pulse train
are varied according to the message signal: modulation process. Depending on the
varied parameter, some modulations are possible:
- amplitude;

24
 - phase;
- frequency.
The information-bearing signal is referred to as the baseband signal, where the
term baseband is used to designate the band of frequencies representing the
original signal. Often it is necessary to shift the baseband frequencies to a
frequency range more suitable for transmission, which is done by modulation and
then shifted back to baseband frequency range. Modulation is a method where a
carrier signal is changed in accordance to a modulation signal. As carrier signal a
sinusoidal wave is often used, in which case the modulation becomes a continuous-
wave modulation process. The modulation signal is the baseband signal, and the
result of the modulation is referred to as the modulated signal.
Let’s analyze some types of modulation.

Modulation: PAM
Pulse Amplitude Modulations (or Amplitude Shift Keying), they are mono
dimensional signals ( N=1 ¿ it means that we need just one function to describe the
symbol associated to this modulation.
The expression of the generic symbol is:
si ( t ) =A i f 0 ( t ) for i=0 , … , M −1 ; A i=( 2 i+1−M ) d, where f 0 is the function that used to
describe the symbol. What is going to differentiate the symbols are the amplitude
and depending with how many symbols we are using, we can have different pulse
amplitude modulation.
In this case has been reported the parameters of energy E Si−A 2i and the minim
distance between symbols d min =2 d .
Let’s see some particular cases:
- Binary Phase Shift Keying (BSPK) between 2 symbols we have M =2 with
−s0 ( t )=s 1 (t) so s0 and s1 are opposite.

- On-Off Keying (OOK): M =2 with s0 ( t )=0 this modulation is used for

optical fibers.

25
So when there is a light, we select bit 1, no light (no photons) we select bit 0.
Let's check the other examples of PAM related to M =4 and M =8 .
We can see that the distance between signals is 2 d . This value is important for the
demodulation process, the position of 0 is important for the average energy of the
constellation.
Let's consider again BPSK, a possible value for:
s1=
√ 2−E b
Ts
witht ∈[0 ,T s ]

the graphic of the signal generated is something like:

0 Ts

and this is the case for baseband signal. If we want have a signal shifted in
passband, we will have:
s1=
√ 2 Es
Tb
cos 2 π f t

Modulation: PSK
Phase Shift Keying (PSK), modulation. We have some examples, where all the
symbols have the same amplitude (see pictures).

26
The symbols are equidistant on a circle, with dimensional space N=2 so we need 2
functions f 0 and f 1:
si ( t ) =d cos ( 2Mπi ) f (t )−d sin ( 2Mπi ) f ( t )
0 1

The expression of the generic symbol is si ( t ) =d e j 2 πi/ M , i=0 , … , M −1; where the
amplitude is constant, what is changing is the phase of transmitted signal. This is
useful when we have to recover only the phase of the transmitted signal.
Parameters: energy E Si=d 2, minimum distance:

Note. BPSK is the same of ASK for M =2.

d min =
√
d √2
1−cos ( 2Mπ )
Modulation: QAM
Quadrature Amplitude Modulations (QAM). In this case the symbols are in a
bi-dimensional space. The expression of the generic symbol is:
si ( t ) =A i f 0 ( t )−B i f 1 ( t ) ,i=0 , … , M −1
What is varying here are the phase and the amplitude in fact:
Bi
si=V i e with V i= √ ( A 2i +B 2i ) and θ j=arctan (
jθ
)
Ai
where the parameters have minimum distance d min =2 d .
This modulation is more efficient compared with the previous one, but the receive
is more complicated and the error probability is higher.

27
Modulation: FSK
Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK) is a multi-level modulation, it means that we have
M dimension and N basic functions equal to the number of symbols ( N=M ). Each
symbol is described by a basic function si ( t ) =√ E f i (t). In according with that, the
symbol 0 has a contribution only in f 0 function and son on.

We have some waves to obtain the orthogonality between the basic functions let’s
see a particular case where the orthogonality has been obtained by frequency shift,
so we have (as showed within the following picture, we have f 0 , f 1 …. on the axis of
frequency).

So if we want to transmit s0 we have properly select the transmit frequency ∆ f . If

we have to transmit s1, the frequency is higher within our example and go on.

28
Modulated signals examples
Examples with M=2 with 3 different cases for transmitting the same information.
In order to decide which one to choose, depend from the channel, the receiver etc..

Within the next picture, we are going to analyze the 4 ASK that has in this case 4
symbols.

We have two amplitude vertical line on s1 and s3, and we have two phases, 0 and π .
So for each symbol we associate 2 bits since that M =22=4 . This means that if we
transmit s2, we are transmitting 10.
Within the next picture we analyze the QPSK.

29
 π3
0π π
22
Also in this case we have 2 bits per symbol but the amplitude is the same for all the
symbol what it changes is the phase. So the receive has only to understand the
phase of each symbol and select properly the transported bit.
Within the next picture we analyze the 8QAM.

we have 4 phases as before but 2 amplitudes, in this case we have 3 bits per
symbol this means that we transmit one symbol with symbol rate 1 but the bit rate
is 3 times greater.

30
Chapter 3 – Digital modulations: demodulation, design parameters (part
2)
Topics
 Demodulation:
o criteria;
o diagram space;
o decision regions;
o principle scheme for a demodulator.
 Error probability for binary modulation.
 Parameters for design:
o Selection of the basic pulse;
o Shannon theorem and spectral efficiency;
o Modulation comparison.
Objectives
Presenting the operation of demodulation of a signal.
Providing demodulation criteria and decision regions.
Demonstrating the error probability for binary modulation.
Pointing out the parameters for design, related to the basic pulse selection and
modulation bandwidth efficiency.
Presenting the Shannon theorem and the modulation comparison.
Demodulation
The aim of the demodulation is to find out the transmitted symbol among the M
alternatives and given the received one. Remember that we have a transmitter that
modulate a signal based on the information messages, the channel perturbate this
signal and the demodulator make an estimation of the received symbol that can be
different from the received one. The channel model with noise is as: r(t)= s(t) +
n(t).
The Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) model: n is a random Gaussian
variable with zero mean and variance σ 2n.
The optimum criteria to demodulate a signal is Maximum A Posteriori (MAP)
criterion: “which was the transmitted symbol if a signal r was received?”.
In formula, we can say that we should maximize the probability of select si
conditioned to the fact that the we have received r . Find i for which Pr ⁡{si (t)∨r (t)}
is maximum.
For Bayes rules, it is equivalent to find i which achieve:
max i [Pr {n ( t )=r ( t )−s i (t ) } × Pr ⁡{si ( t)}].

31
If we have equiprobable transmitted symbols ( Pr ⁡{si (t)} equal for all
i symbols ¿ , maxi ¿ rappresent the Maximum Likelihood (ML) criterion.
−1 2
∥r −s ∥
In this case the probability P e 2 σ 2
i
i
it means that we have to find out the
smallest Euclidean distance in the diagram space between the received symbol r
respect to all possible symbols in the constellation. We select si instead of other sk
symbols if r has the smallest Euclidean distance from si.
2 2
∥ r −s i ∥ <∥ r−sk ∥ , k=0 ,1 , … , M −1 , k ≠ i
Demodulation examples
Let’s consider the following examples.
The s1 symbol is used to transmit
the bit 1 and s0 symbol is used to
transmit the bit 0 as showed
within the pictures on the left.

The signal is transmitted within a

channel.

s1 plus, noise that is a random

variable or s0 plusnoise .

Let's assume that the signal in the

picture is received, we have to
decide if it is s1 or s0 and then we
select bit 1 or 0 accordingly. Let's
compare the received symbol r
with two possible noise free cases
that are s1and s0 . After this

32
 comparison seems that s0 is the
best fit so we assume that 0 was
the transmitted bit.

A better measure is to evaluate

the residual energy of the
difference between the received r
signal and symbol si (noise free
signal). So we have to make a
difference and evaluate through
the integral the residual energy of
the difference.

The same concept in formula, for a received r (t ), the residual energy

e i=∫ ¿ r ( t )−α s1 ( t ) ¿ dt is calculated for each possible symbol si ( t ) .
2

The minimal residual energy for r compared to the symbol i corresponds to select
the si (t ). Geometrically it means to have the minimum distance between r and si in
the diagram space. If we expand e i, we have 3 contributions:
e i=∫ ¿ r ( t )−α s1 ( t ) ¿ dt=∫ (r ( t )−α s1 ( t ) )(r (t )−α s1 ( t ))dt =∫ ¿ r ( t ) ¿ dt−2 Re { α ∫ r ( t ) si ( t ) dt }+ ¿ α ¿ ∫ ¿ s i (t)¿2 dt
2 2 2

Same for all i Same for all i, if

The residual energy is the transmitted
Minimized by maximizing signals are of
this part of the expression equal
energy.
Interpretation of the demodulation in the diagram space, in our example, we have
two possibilities s1and s0 because we are considering BSPK modulation. Due to
noise introduced by the cannel, the received vector r (corresponding to the signal
r (t )¿ is not one of the vector si (corresponding to the signal si (t )).
The demodulator select si closer to r in according with the decision region as
showed within the following picture.

33
If r is in the region of s1, the signal that will be picked up is s1.
If we have high noise, we have a lot of r possibilities, so we have a probability
density distribution of r conditioned if s0 has been transmitted ( p(r ∨0)).
the wide of this probability depend from the power of the noise introduced by the
channel. Let's try to evaluate the error that we commit when we select a wrong
symbol, for example if we transmit s0 with high noise as showed within the below
picture.

We have an error if the random variable r is in this area (showed within the
picture), in fact in this case we have r closer to s1. So according with the maximum
likelihood demodulation, we make a symbol error probability because for this case
we have a very small r with very high noise. So even if we have transmitted s0 , we
decide for s1. The formula Pe∨s says that if r isn't in the region concerning symbol si
1

, we have an error conditioned if we have transmitted si (e∨si ).

Error probability for binary modulation
Case of modulation with two equiprobable symbols s0 , s1=−s 0.We have an error
when s0 is selected but s1 is transmitted and viceversa, r =s 0 +n , s 0=−d /2 .
Pe∨s =Prob { r ∈ Z1 } =Prob { r >0 }=Prob
0 {−d2 + n>0}=Prob{n> d2 }
The Noise is a Gaussian random variable E [ n ] =0 , Var [ n ] =N 0 / 2.

34
 2
∞ −n
dn
1
Pe∨s = ∫
N0
e
0
d/2 √π N0

Substitutingα=n
√ 2
N0
we have:
∞ −α
2

1
(√ ) d
dα
Pe∨s =0
∫ √ π
2
e 2
=Q
π N0
d /2
√ π N0
2
∞ −α
1 dα
With Q-function = ∫ e 2

x √2 π
∞
2
∫
2
−q dq
Complementary error function = erfc ( x ) = e
√2π x
1
Relation Q-erfc = Q ( x )= 2 erfc
√2
x
( )
Noting that Pe∨s =P e∨s and the average error probability is:
0 1

1 1
Pe = P ( e|s 0 ) + P ( e|s 1 )=Q
2 2
d
√2 N 0 ( )
Pe depends only by the distance between symbols (not by the position in the space).
Let’s consider two cases:

Antipodal symbols BSPK Orthogonal symbols FSK

d=2 √ E , E=E 0 d= √ 2 E

Pe =Q
(√ )
2E 1
N0
= erfc
2 (√ ) E
N0
Pe =Q (√ )
Eb 1
= erfc
N0 2 (√ )
E
2N0
Assuming that the energy per bit is the same for both cases, the difference is the
distance, in the first case, the probability of error is less since that the distance is
greater as showed in the picture.

35
Demodulation Decision regions
We can extend this concept for M > 2. Below we can see a simple procedure to
evaluate the decision region for a generic demodulation.
1. Sign region Zik for all si and sk for k =0 , … . , M −1 with k ≠ i.
2. In order to find out the decision region of symbol si we have to intersect all
evaluated regions respect to all the other symbols.

Between s0 and s1 the region is:

Between s0 and s2 the region is:

Making an intersection of these two regions ( z 0=z 0 ,1 ∩ z 0 ,2) and we found out
the angular sector in orange.

Demodulation Principle scheme

This is called match receiver, when r (t ) arrive to the receiver, the system compares
it with all the possible symbols computed waveforms. This is going to be repeated

36
every symbol period t=n T s. At the end the receiver selects the largest symbol and
minimize the residual energy.

Parameters for design the system

Selection of the basic pulse
The occupied bandwidth by the signal depends on the choice of the basic
pulse: N=2 B T s. This formula is the dimensionality formula, where the B
(bandwidth) and the duration T s of the symbols is related to the number of
basic functions considered in the system ( N ) for the signal representation. If
we have a large bandwidth, we have a shorter time duration of the basic
pulse and vice versa. If we have high T s, we can have inter-symbol
interference it means that symbols are interfered by the next or previous
symbol. If we have a large bandwidth we can have adjacent channel
interfere it means that a user that uses an amount of the spectrum can
interfere with the user close to him using another spectrum. So we have to
consider those two parameters.
Basic pulse, if we consider the rectangular pulse in the picture we can see
that we don't have inter-symbol interference because the duration of the
symbol is limited in T s the problem is with bandwidth because the spectrum
G R (t) of the rectangular pulse is a sinc.

sinc ( x )=sin ( x ) /x

0 Ts

37
If we check the plot image, we can see that the first lobe power is −13 dB ,
adjacent carrier.

So even if the rectangular pulse is easy to get, it is not good.

Nyquist pulse: is more less the opposite of the previous one, in this case
we don’t have adjacent carrier interferences but inter-symbol interferences.

f
−1 1
2 FM 2 FM

Necessity to sample the received waveform at instants t=n T s=n /2 F M .

Raised-cosine pulse: solve some of the practical problems. In fact, we
don't transmit on flat spectrum but a smoothed one that allows to have a
filter for the pulse generation not complicated to build extending the
maximum frequency up to 2 F M :G RCos ( f , α ,T s ). The parameter related to the
smoothness is α that is the rool-off factor and indicates the excess
bandwidth over F M : F'M =F M ( 1+α ) .
The problem is that we have to enlarge the bandwidth up to twice respect
to the bandwidth of the Nyquist pulse. Analyzing the time, we have also
that this is the sinc behavior but since that the tails is 1/t 2 are very fast. We
can see this in the following picture.

38
Note that if α =1 we have two points where the wave form is 0 so the
synchronization error does not affect the performance of the reception.
Gaussian pulse: It is obtained sending a rectangular pulse (duration T b)
filtered by a Gaussian filter frequency shaping pulse gGauss (t). The pulse
gGauss (t) is infinity in time: so we have to truncate and translate for causality.
In order to design this pulse, we are using the following parameters: F M T b ,
the time duration is increasing if F M decrease.

Properties:
- Bandwidth is reduced;
- Non-timely confined in T b so we have intersymbol interference;
- The choice of F M T b is fundamental to trade-off these aspects.

Bandwidth-power trade-off through the Shannon theorem

Shannon theorem or information capacity theorem say that if a random
noise is present on the transmission channel, the data rate decreases
rapidly. The maximum data rate (or capacity) C of a noisy channel with a
signal-to-noise S/N and a bandwidth B is equal to:
C [bit /s ]=B log 2 (1+ S /N )
The average power S=P R =Eb C and the noise P N =N 0 B, it yields (bandwidth-
efficiency diagram):

39
In region Rb <C , the error-free transmission is possible (through a
combination of system parameters). Spectral efficiency for modulation
ηmod =Rb / B [bit /s / Hz]. It depends on the type of modulation and on the pulse
shape. Aim of the modulator is to transmit at best spectral efficiency at
the minimum power (or at minimum S/ N ). Examples (recall
N=2 B T s , T s=T b log 2 M .

Modulation comparison
- Trade-off between Rb /B, Eb /N 0 and Pe .

( E
b
)
- From modulation performance: Pe =f N , mo d type (¿).
0

- From bandwidth-efficiency diagram: b R /B=f (E b / N 0 , modtype )¿ .

- Fixing Pe , we calculate Eb /N 0 from (¿) and then we obtain Rb /B from
¿, or:
- Fixing Eb /B and Pe (or Eb /N 0 and Pe ).

40
Chapter 4 – Radio system design: antennas, radio transmission
Topics
 Maxwell’s equations.
 Antennas.
 Electric field and magnetic field in far-field.
 Main antenna parameters.
 Free space propagation.
 Flat reflecting ground loss.
Objectives
Presenting the operation of demodulation of a signal.
Providing demodulation criteria and decision regions.
Demonstrating the error probability for binary modulation.
Pointing out the parameters for design, related to the basic pulse selection and
modulation bandwidth efficiency.
Presenting the Shannon theorem and the modulation comparison.
DemodulationMaxwell’s equations
The aim of the demodulation is to find out the transmitted symbol among the M
alternatives and givenWe need a communication system to transmit the
information from the source to a destination. We will see in particular the wireless
communication system and in this case, we need to antennas to transmit
information in a Wi-Fi medium where the ideal one is the free space that is
unlimited, non-time varying, homogeneous and isotropic dielectric. The free space
is described by the following two constants:
- Permittivity, ε 0=8.854 × 10 [ ]
−12F
m
1
36 π [ ]
10−9
F
m
;

- Permeability, μ0=4 π ×10

−7
[ ]
H
m
The electromagnetic wave which can be propagate in the free space has a
propagation speed of e.m. wave, c=
1
[ ]
m
√ ε 0 μ0 s
We can describe the free space also by the intrinsic impedance of the medium η0 :
η0 =
√ μ0
ε0
Ω 120 π Ω=377 Ω

The electromagnetic field propagation is regulated by the Maxwell's equations that

show the relationships between the variations of the vector electric field E and that
the vector magnetic field H in time and space within a medium:

41
 - E [V /m] is generated by either a time-varying magnetic field or a free
charge: ⃗E =E0 cos ⁡(ωt−kz) ^x;
- H [ A/m] is generated by either a time-varying electric field or a current
⃗
H =H 0 cos ⁡(ωt−kz ) ^y ;
with ω=2 πf and k =2 π / λ

Complex vectors: ⃗E =E0 e− jkz e jωt x^

⃗ − jkz jωt
H =H 0 e e ^y
Maxwell’s equations: ∇ × ⃗E=− jωμ ⃗ H ∇×⃗
H = jωμ ⃗
E

Antennas
An antenna is a way to convert the guided waves into radiating waves propagating
in free space or vice versa.

It is important to be efficient and power in a certain direction.

A group of charges in uniform motion (or stationary charges) do not produce
radiation wire.

Radiation does occur, because the velocity of the charges is changing in time.

42
Antennas: near-field and far-field regions
We have to consider two regions related to an antenna:
- the near- field region or Fresnel region, r << R, in this case the field
change very rapidly with distance and include both radiating energy and
reactive energy, the reactive part is considered as the energy stored by
the antenna and then released so we don't have dissipation and no
radiation but the energy oscillate towards and away from antenna. It is a
critical region so we have to keep the other objects out all over this
region in order do not modify the properties of radiation and impedance
characteristics of the antenna.
- far-field region or Fraunhofer region, r >> R, in this case only the
radiating energy is present. In this region, the angular power variation is
independent of distance. The wave fronts appear very closely as
spherical waves so only the power radiated in a particular direction is of
importance:
2L
R= 2
λ
where L is the maximum dimension of the antenna and λ the
wavelength.

Electric field and Magnetic field in far-field

In far-field the expression of the electric and magnetic fields are in complex
vectors:
E 0 − jkz H 0 − jkz
⃗
E= e θ^ , ⃗
H= e φ^
r r
We have components E0 =f (θ , ϕ) and H 0=f (θ , ϕ ) that are independent by the
distance r . E and H are transverse to each other everywhere.
E
=η0 the fields are in phase.
H

43
The fields are inversely proportional to the distance r . As we said Antenna is like a
point: waves are spherical (equiphase center) but are locally planes. E and H are
1
perpendicular to the propagation direction r^ . ⃗E =η0 ⃗
H × r^ , ⃗
H = r^ × ⃗
η
H . The poynting
0

vector is the power density or energy flow, it is the measure of how much power
flows per unit area:

[ ]
2
1 |⃗E| Watts
w= ⃗
⃗ E ×⃗
H= r^ =w r^ 2
2 2 η0 m

Main antenna parameters

Let's describe some main parameters for an antenna.
Irradiated power through a closed surface S for far-field, so integrating the vector
point of this surface we have the power that pass in this surface.
❑ 2π
W s=∫ wdS=∫ w r sinθdθ dφ
2

S 0

We can define the Radiation intensity as I r (θ , φ) ≝ w ( θ , φ , r ) r 2

We can define the Radian pattern, F r (θ , φ) ≝
radiation property of that antenna.
√ Ir (θ , φ )
I r , max
this function describes the

44
Let’s see a radiation pattern example, typically we have a main lobe as showing in
the picture, we have an angle that is a parameter for designing the antenna, it called
half power beamwidth it means that the power is the half of max power. There are
also a back lobe and side lobe, in general we don't want the back and side lobes in
order do not lose power.

Another important parameter is the Directivity that is defined as:

I r (θ , φ) I r (θ , φ)
D (θ , φ) ≝ = =…=¿
mean [ I r ( θ , φ ) ] W s /4 π

mean [ I r ( θ , φ ) ] means how much power can be transmitted in that direction ( θ , φ )

respect to an antenna which doesn’t have a prefer direction (equal all the solid
angle ( 4 π ) fitted by the some power W s.

Dmax F r ( θ , φ ) with I r radiation intensity

2

r I , max
The maximum directivity, Dmax =D ( θmax , φ max ) = W /4 π
s

The second parameter that characterize the goodness of an antenna a part the
r radiated power R
directivity is the Antenna efficiency, e ≝ R + R = accepted power by antenna =
r l
Ws Ws
=
Pt W S + W j
Let’s see a typical circuit modelling of an antenna where we have a power with
some resistance and part of the antenna. We are talking of matched antenna when
Z s=Z a.

45
The gain of an antenna is the ratio of its radiation intensity to that of an isotropic
antenna radiating the same total power as accepted by the real antenna:
Ir ( θ , φ )
G ( θ , φ ) ≝ e D (θ , φ )=
Pt /4 π
The gain is a 3D function in θ and φ but we can also cut this three-dimension
function with an Azimuth vertical plane and we can have the Azimuthal gain
pattern, G ( φ ) :G ( θ , φ ) G ( θ ) G ( φ ) .
Reciprocity: the antenna gain must be the same whether used for receiving or
transmitting.
Polarization: each container has a perfect alignment of the E field in a plane wave
relative to the propagation direction.
Antenna examples
Dipole Antenna
We have a transmitter that feed the dipole antenna. So if we consider a normal
sinusoidal power, we have current in both direction and no radiation.

But in the case of the dipole with a sinusoidal power, we have current as showed
within the picture so we have a variation that is not compensate so we have a
radiation power. Since that it is symmetrical, the main lobe is in this plane.

46
Horne Antenna
This antenna is quite efficient; we have a problem of matching here because

since that the wave arrive in the guided part, can be reflected if not match. If we
increase the distance a, we have a better matching. More less the distance between
a and b should be equal.
Patch Antenna
This antenna is cheap; it can be integrated in a cellular phone for this reason is
quite popular. It doesn’t have a good directivity because the main lobe is quite
large but it is not important since that the aim is get all the possible fields sent by
the Base Station.

47
Horn with reflector Antenna
We have a feeder that is a horn antenna deployed in the focus of a parabolic
reflector. It is efficient because it is like to have an array of antennas in fact the
parabolic shape

means that we have an equiphace plane and it is good for radiation parameter.
The antenna efficiency is measured by:
Ae
ηa≝
Ag
with:
- Ae effective aperture;
- A g geometric area;
- η a depends on the material and construction accuracy.
It depends by several factors (≤ 1):

48
 - field efficiency ηi , equal to 1 if the field amplitude is constant on the
aperture;
- phase efficiency η p , equal to 1 if the field is equiphase on the aperture;
- polarization efficiency η x, equal to 1 if the field has the desired
polarization in the aperture;
- feeder efficiency η f , equal to 1 if the feeder has not obstructed;
- spillover efficiency η s, equal to 1 if the field from feeder meets
completely the reflector:
η A =η a η f ηs =ηi η p ηx ηs

We can evaluate the power density at distance r as:

Pt G (θ ,φ )
w (θ ,φ )=
4π r2
in order to get this formula, we start from the radiation intensity where
2 Pt G ( θ , φ ) Ir ( θ , φ )
I r ( θ , φ )=w ( θ , φ ) r and from the I r ( θ , φ )= so if w (θ ,φ )= 2 so we get the
4π r
original formula.
Receiving antenna aperture or effective aperture [m¿ ¿2 ]¿ :
Pr
Ae ( θ , φ )=
w (θ , φ )
it is a measure of how much power can be transmitted to a receiver antenna when
at the entrance of the antenna arrive the power density w (θ ,φ ).
Relation gain and effective aperture respect the frequency:
4π
G ( θ , φ )= 2
Ae (θ , φ )
λ
Free space propagation: scenario
Let’s consider two antennas: A fitted by power Pt and B fitted by power Pr ,
separated by a distance r . The receiver antenna sees the transmitted antenna by its
own gain diagram in particular with this value that depend by θ B, φ B.
Gains G A ( θ , φ ) and GB ( θ , φ ) oriented in the direction ¿ ¿, φ A ¿−¿ ¿ ¿, φ B ¿.
Feeding power accepted at the antenna A , Pt .
Power available at the receiving antenna B, Pr .

49
Free space propagation: Friis formula
Power density close to antenna B (at distance r ):
(θ ¿ ¿ A , φ A )
w B =Pt G A 2
¿
4πr
Power available at the receiving antenna B, Pr , for the direction (θ ¿ ¿ B , φ B)¿
Pr =w B A eB (θ ¿ ¿ B , φB )¿
substituting….
(θ ¿ ¿ A , φ A )
Pr =Pt G A 2
A eB (θ ¿ ¿ B , φB )¿ ¿
4πr
than we can get the Friis formula:
( )
2
λ
Pr =Pt Gt Gr
4 πr
Free space propagation
t P
Definition of the radio transmission attenuation: At ≝ P
r
(θ ¿ ¿ A ,φ A )
Gt ¿
For the reciprocity theorem: (θ ¿ ¿ B , φB )
A et (θ ¿ ¿ A , φ A )=Gr ¿¿
A er (θ ¿ ¿ B , φ B )=const ¿
- the ratio is independent by the antenna type;
- the ratio is independent by the pointing direction.
Radio transmission attenuation for better pointing:
( )
2
4 πr
∗1 ( λr )2∗1
λ
At = =¿ A et A er
Gt Gr
Free space attenuation
(loss):
( )
2
4 πr
A fs =
λ
Flat reflecting ground loss
Presence of a flat reflecting ground (or plane earth)

50
 - transmitter at h b, receiver at h m ;
- propagation takes both via direct path r 1 and via the reflection path r 2.
So the total received electric field: sum of direct and reflected components:
⃗
E =⃗
Edirect + ⃗
Ereflected = ⃗
jk ∆ r
E direct (1+ ρR e )

Flat reflecting ground loss

Reflection coefficient ρ R −1 (phase change).
- If roughness ≫ λ (ground is smooth) and the angle of incidence with the
ground is close to grazing.
2 hb hm
The path length difference, ∆ r
r
- Hp.: r ≫ hb , hm ¿
Total attenuation:
A fs A fs
∗1 ∗1
Pt Gt G r Gt Gr
Atot = =
( )
Pr ¿ 1+ ρ R e jk ∆ r ¿2 4 π hbhm
2 1−cos
λr
Loss due to reflection

( )
2
1 λr
Areflection =
( )
4 π hb hm 4 π hb hm
2 1−cos
λr
2
cosθ ≈1−θ /2
Total attenuation:
A fs Areflection 1 r
4
Atot =
Gt Gr G t G r hb hm

Areflection proportional to r 2 and inverse proportional to f 2.

Atot proportional to r 4but independent to frequency f .

51
52
Chapter 5 – Radio system design: noise and link budget
Topics
 Noise modelling and receiver noise.
 Wireless communication system principle scheme:
o Transmitter side, propagation channel, receiver side.
 Quality parameters.
 Wireless link budget:
o Single and multi-hop link.
Objectives
Modelling the noise in a radio system receiver.
Describing the schema of a wireless communication system and its subsystems
both at the transmitter side and receiver side.
Introducing the quality parameters of a radio system and its randomness respect to
wire transmissions.
Presenting and analyzing the link budget in a radio system for wireless
communications for single and multi-hop configuration.
DemodulationNoise modelling
In this lesson, we try to conclude the topic of a radio system by also providing out
of design of eight radio system. A radio system use radio waves and a Wi-Fi use
not only radio waves but also optical waves.
First, we should characterize the noise that the receiver experience. The noise
power sometimes indicated with ( P N orN ) P N ≡ N ≝ N o B=k B T s B it is proportional to
the bandwidth B and noise power density N o that it depends from Boltzmann
constant and by the system temperature.

k B=1.38∗1 0−23 ( J Joule

)
K Kelvin
, Boltzmann constant ;
T s [ K ] is the systemtemperature
N o [W /Hz ]isthe noise power density ;
B [ Hz ] is the receiver bandwidth.
Receiver Demodulationnoise: noise figure
A receiver is a chain of two part-element where each of them introduce a quantity
of noise in all the receiver chain, so we should characterize this. In this model, we
have a signal input S¿and a noise input N ¿ , the noisy two-part element introduces an
extra noise, as output we have Sout and N out . A noisy two-port element can be
modelled as a noise-free element plus an equivalent noise source power at input.

53
A parameter that quantify this noise is the noise figure (or noise factor), F ,
depends on the physical construction/design of the element:
N out k B ( T ¿ +T eq ) B T eq
F≝ = =1+
N¿ k B T¿ B T¿
it is a measure of the noise introduced by the two-port element;
T eqis the equivalent input noise of temperature.

Receiver noise
What happen if we have a cascade of two-element parts in a typical receiver?
From the below picture, we can see that

A receiver can be a cascade of two-port elements where:

- The i−th element is characterized by a Gain Gi and a noise figure F i;
- T ant is the noise detected by the antenna;
- System temperature is calculated at the first active element e.g. Low
Noise Amplifier, LNA;
- ACR is the loss due to connection cable between the receiver and the
antenna.
The noise temperature for connection loss is determinate by:
T CR =T 0 ( A CR −1)
The antenna temperature is considered after the antenna. The i−th equivalent noise
temperature is T eqi=T 0 ( Fi −1) where T 0=29 0o K so we have that:
F 2−1 F3 −1 F n−1
F=F 1+ + +..+
G1 G1 G2 G1 G2 … … Gn−1

T eq 2 T eq 3 T eqn
T eq=T eq 1+ + +..+
G1 G1 G2 G1 G2 … …G n−1
The overall system temperature is:

54
 T ant + T CR
T s= +T eq
A CR

Wireless communication system principle scheme

Below we can see the image related to a principle schema of a wireless
communication system.

Transmitter side
The information source + Analog-To-Digital converter (ADC) provides/converts
the signal into a stream of digital data at a certain sampling rate and number of bits
per sample.
The source coder uses a priori information on the properties of the source data in
order to reduce redundancy in the source signal.

The channel coder adds redundancy in order to protect data against transmission
errors, it can be done in according of several strategies:
- increasing of the transmitted data rate for example doubling or
producing three times the same bit;
- use of some specific codes related to error sources in the channel;
- sorting of data per importance (more important bits get stronger
protection) or interleaving (to reduce burst area).

55
Signaling adds control information for maintaining the collection, synchronization,
etc... Multiplexer combines data and signaling.
The baseband modulator provides the complex transmit symbols from the gross
data bits (baseband signal). The baseband signal is corrupted by the TX Digital to
Analog Converter (DAC) into voltages and filtered.
The TX Local Oscillator (LO) and the Up converter converts the analog, filtered
baseband signal to a passband signal by mixing it with the LO signal.
Finally, amplification in the Radio Frequency (RF) domain is required.

Propagation channel
What happen in the channel?
The (analog) propagation channel:
- the signal is attenuated randomly;
- the channel causes delay and frequency dispersion.
The receiving antenna:
- adds noise (Additive White Gaussian Noise - AWGN)
- receives interference:
o adjacent channel interference, ACI;
o co-channel interference, CCI due to the use of the same channel at
the same time.

56
Receiver side
The signal is filtered (RF TX filter) then amplified (LNA) and down-converted.
Then Analog-To-Digital convert analog signal into symbols (discrete time and
amplitudes). The baseband demodulator estimate the received symbols trying to
reconstruct the transmitted symbols.

The decoder remove the coding added to counteract (contrastare) the errors
introduced by the channel. The source decoder reconstructs the source signal
following the coding strategy at source.

Quality parameters: randomness of a wireless link

The received power may change in time even if the distance is constant:
PT G T G R
P R=
LT L R L
The path loss L is a stochastic process:
T R L L L
- the radio transmission attenuation At = G G
T R

57
Quality parameters
The parameters to evaluate the quality of the wireless link are:

If we fix Pb 0 it means that we should have a signal-to-noise ratio ¿ ρ0 in order to

have an error probability lower than a threshold.

58
Wireless link budget
The outage probability Pout is the probability to have the system out of work (or
assuming the ergodicity, the time fraction) for a bit error probability greater than a
threshold Pb 0∨the sign−¿−noise experience lower than the reference signal to noise
ratio ρ0 .
Pout =P r { Pb > Pb 0 } =P r { ρ< ρ0 }
Substituting the expression of SNR:
PT G T G R G C
ρ=
LT L R L k B T S B

We can now evaluate the max pathloss for L> Lmax an outage occurs:

PT G T G R G C
Lmax =
ρ 0 LT L R k B T S B

Wireless link budget: Supplementary loss

The outage probability is where a radio system experiences a pathloss > Lmax. We
can model the pathloss as a free space attenuation A fs so the maximum pathloss for
a defined Pout is Pout =Pr { L> Lmax }.
- A s : supplementary loss is a variable loss depending on the path
characteristics (e.g. obstacles, rain, …).
In general, we cannot guarantee the wireless link 100%.

Wireless link budget: highlighting the main parameters in the signal-to-

noise formula
We have the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, EIRP:
PT G T
EIRP ≝
LT
From the receiver side, we have the G/T ratio (G over Ratio):
GR
G/T =
LR T s
Parameter K I :
Gc
K I=
kB B
where Gc represent the gain due to the coding.
From previous, definition of the system figure S F:
PT G T G R G C
SF ≝ =EIRP G/T K I
LT L R k B T s B

59
The last 3 parameters can be managed by the link designer, for this reason are
separated. In particular, EIRPmeasure the goodness of the transmitter, G/T measure
the goodness of the receiver and K I measure the modulation /coding schema
selected.
The Wireless link budget equation is showed below:
S F= ρ 0 L M
where the maximum allowed pathloss is: L=Lmax = A fs A s (P out );
M set by the designer, define the margin due to non-ideal behavior of components
and models (pathloss models included).
Note on decibels
For propagation studies, decibel is introduced to compare values with several
orders of strength. The decibel is ten times of the logarithm of power ratios, respect
to a reference power Pref .
P [ dB ] =10 log 10
( PP )
ref

what we obtain is the power value in dB .

Important logarithmic:
- if Pref =1 W , power is in dBW ;
- if Pref =1 mW , power is in dBm ;
- P [ dBW ] =P [ dBm ]−30.
Example of wireless link budget

We have the first 3 parameters of the transmitter that we can put together in order
to get the EIRP. Etc…

60
61
Chapter 6 – Wireless networks and Mobile wireless channel
Topics
 Telecommunication networks and computer networks:
o Definitions and concepts;
o Classifications;
o Offered transmission services;
o Software logical architecture.
 Mobile wireless networks:
o Ad hoc network;
o Infrastructured network.
 Wireless propagation channel:
o Propagation mechanisms;
o Statistical description;
o Path loss models: Okumura – Hata model;
o Large scale fading;
o Small scale fading;
o Characteristic parameters of wireless channel.
Objectives
Providing the definitions and the basic concepts of the telecommunication
networks and computer networks.
Presenting the offered services and the reference models of the software logical
architecture.
Introducing the mobile wireless network in the most popular type.
Describing and presenting the wireless propagation channel.
Providing some bases for the channel characteristics understandings.
DemodulationTelecommunication networks: definitions and concepts
Network: is a system (a physical or logical infrastructure) with the aim of
connecting users equipped by a device that can be a telephone, a computer, a TV
etc... allowing them to communicate (transmission of information):
- end users, nodes and transmission lines.

62
In a computer network, we have hosts and routers.
DemodulationTelecommunication networks/computer network: classification
A computer network can be classified considering several parameters:
- content types: it can be mono-media (homogeneous information) in this
case we have one type of information for example voice or multimedia
(heterogeneous information such as text, audio, video, voice, graphics
etc.).
- transmission types:
o broadcast links that can be from 1-to-multipoint or just point-to-point
links (for example the telephony network is a point-to-point link while
a TV network is a broadcast link).
o Fixed links or wireless link depend from the type of information
passed in a guided link medium or a wireless medium.
- Network extension: we have personal (1 m), local (10 - 100 m),
Metropolitan (city dimension), wide area network.
- User mobility (or speed): fixed or mobile.
- Topology (see figures):

Mesh each node is connected with all the others.

Star we have a central unit managing the communication between source and.
Bus each user send information that are received to all the other computers in the
network. Just the receiver will explode the information.
Ring the computers transmit information till the destination.
DemodulationTelecommunication networks/computer network: offered
transmission services
In a computer network, the information is broken into packets: header and payload,
two different services can be offered to the users:
- Connection-Oriented Service, in a connection oriented service, we have
to establish and release a connection with the network, we can
distinguish in:
o Circuit-switched: can be a dedicated physical medium where no
other users can explode the resource except the sender and receiver,
static multiplexing it means that the connection is established and

63
 each switching point knows about the information sent from the first
user to the second one and it switched the packets or messages
always in that way. Received messages are in sequence (ordered)
and also the timing is maintained (transparency).
o Packet-switched: use a shared physical medium, so we have a
statistical multiplexing but we are not sure to have resources
available in the time that we made a request. Messages are in
sequence since that we have a connection established but the timing
is not maintained, it depends from the physical medium. The
advantage is that we have flexibility in the access and a more
efficient network.
- Connectionless Service: (no connection established), in this case we have
high efficiency, no message in sequence since that the packages can
follow any several paths based for instance on the current traffic load of
that moment, greater overheads and non-foreseeable traffic. The
quality of service is reduced respect the first network.
DemodulationTelecommunication networks/computer network: software logical
architecture
The network software can be organized logically as showed in the picture
following the OSI model. The software is structured into 7 Levels: Physical, Data
Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation and Application. In the network
the routers need up to 3 levels that are physical, data link e network for instance
telephony network need just the physical level while internet needs also network
level.

64
 Host A Host B

It is important to structure the network into this hierarchy, the software is divided
in layers, it means that the physical information that are flowing from Host A to
Host B are going from all the layers down from the Host A (sender) using the
physical communication up to the Host B (receiver) but logically each layer talks
with the peer entity level related (entities in the same layer on different
computers). Layer n-1, the layer directly below the entities of layer n, implements
services that are used by layer n. Another advantage to divide the software
logically in layers is that a layer can be completely modified without effect the
other layers, what is important is to maintain unchanged the interfaces between
the levels.

The information flows among the layers through Service Access Point (SAP is the
interface), so in this model we have a definition of layers, interfaces, Service

65
Access Point and protocols. The protocols are rules used to exchange information
at peer entity layer. A Protocol Data Unit (PDU) is the unit of information or
packet exchanged between two peer entities in a communication protocol of a
layered architecture network. The PDU is composed by:
1. PCI (Protocol Control Information) include all the control information such
as for example the address, the sequence numbers and flags; generally, the
PCI is present at the header of PDU or at footer or trailer.
2. SDU (Service Data Unit) the data to transfer. The SDU is the payload of PDU
and it is generally obtained from PDU of the layer at upper level.

We have also other models such as TCP/IP that is simple but not generic as OSI
model.

The Physical Layer

The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel. The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends
a 1 bit it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions
here are what electrical signals should be used to represent a 1 and a 0, how
many nanoseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission may proceed simultaneously
in both directions, how the initial connection is established, how it is torn down
when both sides are finished, how many pins the network connector has, and
what each pin is used for. These design issues largely deal with mechanical,
electrical, and timing interfaces, as well as the physical transmission medium,
which lies below the physical layer.

The Data Link Layer

The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into
a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors. It does so by masking
the real errors so the network layer does not see them. It accomplishes this task
by having the sender break up the input data into data frames (typically a few

66
hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmit the frames sequentially. If the
service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending
back an acknowledgement frame. Another issue that arises in the data link layer
(and most of the higher layers as well) is how to keep a fast transmitter from
drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation mechanism may be
needed to let the transmitter know when the receiver can accept more data.
Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how to control
access to the shared channel. A special sublayer of the data link layer, the
medium access control sublayer, deals with this problem.

The Network Layer

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is
determining how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be
based on static tables that are ‘‘wired into’’ the network and rarely changed, or
more often they can be updated automatically to avoid failed components. They
can also be determined at the start of each conversation, for example, a terminal
session, such as a login to a remote machine. Finally, they can be highly dynamic,
being determined anew for each packet to reflect the current network load. If too
many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one
another’s way, forming bottlenecks. Handling congestion is also a responsibility
of the network layer, in conjunction with higher layers that adapt the load they
place on the network. More generally, the quality of service provided (delay,
transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a network layer issue. When a packet has to travel
from one network to another to get to its destination, many problems can arise.
The addressing used by the second network may be different from that used by
the first one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too
large. The protocols may differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to
overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be
interconnected.
In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is
often thin or even nonexistent.

The Transport Layer

The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up
into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the
pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done
efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes
in the hardware technology over the course of time.

67
The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session
layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of
transport connection is an error-free point-to-point channel that delivers
messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent. However, other possible
kinds of transport service exist, such as the transporting of isolated messages with
no guarantee about the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of messages to
multiple destinations. The type of service is determined when the connection is
established. (As an aside, an error-free channel is completely impossible to
achieve;
what people really mean by this term is that the error rate is low enough to
ignore
in practice). The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer; it carries data all the
way from the source to the destination. In other words, a program on the source
machine carries on a conversation with a similar program on the destination
machine, using the message headers and control messages. In the lower layers,
each protocols are between a machine and its immediate neighbors, and not
between the ultimate source and destination machines, which may be separated
by many routers. The difference between layers 1 through 3, which are chained,
and layers 4 through 7, which are end-to-end.
In telecommunication and information theory, broadcasting is a method of
transferring a message to all recipients simultaneously. In practice, the scope of
the broadcast is limited to a broadcast domain. Broadcasting a message is in
contrast to unicast addressing in which a host sends datagrams to another single
host identified by a unique IP address.

How to determine who gets to use the channel when there is competition for it?
This is the scope of datalink layer to provide reliable bit from one point to another
point of the network, there are a lot of functionalities that can be used in order to
guarantee these aim. The datalink layer is divided in two sub layers:
- Medium Access Control (MAC) used two determine the medium access
and resolve the collisions.

68
 - Logical Link control (LLC) that manage and controls the frame exchange
among entities connected to the broadcast channel (i.e. executes the
classical functionalities of datalink).
The MAC sublayer is getting more important even for wireless WANs (not only for
LANs) since that the data traffic is increasing in cellular networks.

Mobile wireless networks

Differently by a fixed network, all or some nodes are able to move or can stay in
an arbitral position not know a priori. Mobile nodes are able to communicate in a
given area (service area) served by the radio mobile network.
A mobile wireless network can be implemented:
- With an infrastructure (infrastructured): we have fixed nodes (routers),
fixed BS (Base Stations) or Access Points and mobile terminals (MTs).
Each terminal sends information to the AP or BTs, the communication
between terminal is not allowed.

- Without an infrastructure (ad hoc): all nodes can be terminals and

routers (mobiles); BSs are missing; connections are
properly/dynamically established.

69
Mobile wireless networks: ad hoc network
Not widespread, the only possibility for some cases (e.g. special services).
- walkie-talkie: direct connection among mobile terminals (everyone can
listen to all the other) in simplex mode:
o communication aircraft control tower and vice versa, communication
among users in non-served zones (e.g. mountains).
- Mobile ad hoc network (MANET): a set of mobile nodes wireless
connected without any infrastructure. Each node can be a source, a
recipient or a repeater for other transmission. Each connection (voice,
video or data) is dynamically established based on the position of the
nodes runtime:
o the application can be for military vehicles, ships in the ocean.
- Wireless sensor network (WSN): several (hundreds or more) sensors
widespread in the environment with low duty cycle transmission and
low data rate. Routes depend on the current active notes, battery
supplies and support node functionalities:
o The application can be for monitoring and control networks of the
environment for security, for safety and for climate.

Mobile wireless networks: infrastructured network

This type of network is the most popular, it is able to provide stable services and in
general with higher performance. The base station (BS) provides the connectivity
services in its area, the mobile terminal are all connected to the base station in a
star topology. Direct links between MTs are not allowed. The infrastructured
network provide private networks (e.g. railway communications and civil
protection) and public networks (for general services). In the following the
principal schema of the system architecture for single BS and multiple BSs
deployment.
The reference architecture with one single BS:
- BS is in charge of covering the area (cell) interconnected with other
network (e.g. PSTN) by a backbone.
- So we have two subsystems as showed within the picture: access
network and core network.
- We have also Uplink for MT-to-BS link and downlink for BS-to-MT link.

70
The reference architecture for coverage with multiple BSs is showed within the
following image.

If the area to be covered is very large, we need to use more BS and we need a more
complex architecture.
- Each BS cover a part of the service area and this part is called cell. When
a MS is inside a cell, it connects to a specific BS that is connected to a
BSC and a MSC. The MSC through the backbone is able to switch the call
to the specific receiver.

Wireless propagation channel

If we have mobility, more less we have a problem in the signal transmission.
Related to the environment for mobile radio networks:
- We have to consider an environment with several characteristics;
- Far for free space behavior;
- For fixed wireless systems, wireless channel phenomena are more
predictable.
The problem is that the user can move, and there are obstacles that can vary during
the connection (call). So, one problem is that the signal can propagate from several
paths (multipath). Signal from Tx to Rx in the mobile wireless network is reflected,

71
diffracted and scattered by the obstacles (e.g. terrain, houses, mountains, walls,
cars) on the path: Line-of-Sight (LOS) and non-LOS components. Signal
propagates for several paths (multipath): each signal reply at the Rx has its own
amplitude, delay (delay dispersion of the impulse or delay spread) and phase.
As it showed in the picture, we have the MS and the BS, the signal is a reflected
from the bus, the ground, the building etc. So, the MS receive the same signal from
several directions that are not synchronized. From the graphic, we can see that we
have a dispersion in time of the transmitted signal.

Wireless channel: propagation mechanisms

There are several mechanisms for signal propagation such as:
Reflection: the electromagnetic wave, which is incident on another dielectric
medium, is partially reflected and partially transmitted (or refracted). Reflected and
transmitted powers are related to the incident power in according with Snell laws
and Fresnel reflection coefficient.

With k1 incident wave, k1’ reflected wave and k2 transmitted wave.

72
Diffraction: the Tx-Rx path is obstructed by one obstacle (size of building greater
than the wavelength), in according with Huygens principle, even if the receiver is
hidden by an obstacle, we have a part of the power that is still received.

Scattering: electromagnetic wave is obstructed by objects (lamps, vegetation) with

size like electromagnetic wavelength λ : energy spreads in several directions
(different from specular one) depending by the roughness of the surface.

Wireless channel: statistical description

The propagation mechanism interaction makes hard to predict the multipath
behavior in the most of the wireless mobile network for this reason it is studied
statistically, the statistical description of the wireless channel, channel gain it can
be observed from the following picture. The blue graphic part is an example of
received power (PR) when the mobile station is going away from the base station.

We can see that there are a lot of fluctuations in the received power and we can
recognize three main behavior:

73
 - red one the Pathloss is increasing when the mobile station is going away
from the base station, in large-scale the variation (> 100m) P R
monotonically decreases with Tx (transmitter) – Rx (Receiver) distance.
- Green one (Shadowing) is a slow variation and it is in the range of 50 –
100 λ of PR and it is due to the presence of obstacles.
- Small scale fading, we have a fast variation (5 – 40 λ ) of the main
received power (PR) due to constructive and destructive multipath
complaints.

Path loss: models

We have several models to predict the power:
- Evaluation based on the median received power PR (values not greater
than 50% of measures in the local area):
PT
L path ( d) ≝
PR
determinist for ¿ environment ∧Tx−Rx distance d

( )
2
4 πd
- In the free space: LFS = λ

( )( )
Υ δ
d f
- A more general model is the Lee model: Lee d L =
f0
α 0 where d 0
0

represent the validity distance of the model; α 0 the adjustment factor

depending by the antenna heights; while the frequency dependency is
neglected for narrowband signals.
- Okumura – Hata, it is the most popular, based on measurement
campaign close to Tokyo in 1968. This model describes the PR in
according with three different environments: urban, suburban and rural
and it is composed by 3 contributions:
L HA ( d ) [ dB ] =A ( f , h BS , h MS ) + B ( h BS ) log 10 ( d ) +C (f , environment )
where f is the frequency; h BS : BS height; h MS : MS height. A increases with
f and decreases with antenna heights. C decreases with the rural type.

74
Large scale fading or shadowing model
The Path loss models do not consider all obstacles in fact from the picture we can
see that if we have a MS that is in a constant distance from the BS, if it is in
position A or D (no obstacles), the power is high while if it is between B or C, the
power is obstacle by the presence of the building so it decreases. Received power
P R fluctuates respect to the medium value over large distances ( 50−100 λ ) .
The shadowing model: L [ dB ] =L path [ dB ] +S [dB]
- Assumption of N independent obstacles between Tx and Rx .
- S is the shadowing contribution and is a Gaussian variable (dB) or
Lognormal variable (linear).

75
Small scale fading or fast fading
The small-scale fading is due to the sum of the multipath components, normally it
is experienced in a few λ . Effects:
- Rapid strength variation of the received signal for small time interval or
small distances (few λ ).
- Delay dispersion due to multipath delays (delay spread).
- Random modulation due to Doppler movement of each multipath
component (Doppler spread).

Characteristic parameters of wireless channel

Propagation in presence of multipath: signal replies with different amplitude, phase
and delays causes time delay dispersion of the received signal (sum of replies):
- For wideband signals, because the delays are higher and some replies of
the first bit interfere with the next symbol, so the signal is distorted
(Inter Symbol Interference, ISI).
- For narrowband signals, the received signal is attenuated but not
distorted (fast fading).
- The characteristic parameter to quantify the delay dispersion is the
coherence bandwidth, Bcoh. It is a measure of the maximal frequency
difference for which signal amplitudes are correlated. It is related to the
invers of the maximum exceed delay T m. Bcoh 1 /T m.
The other effect is the spectral dispersion since that the mobile terminal is moving
in a multipath channel, this movement cause a random modulation.
- For wideband signals (or at high data rate), the variation introduced by
the channel for MS movement in the received symbol is slow (we don’t
have distorted signal).
- For narrowband signal (or at low data rate), the variation introduced by
the channel is fast so we have distortion and irreducible error
probability.

76
 - The characteristic parameter is the coherence time, T coh. It is a measure
of the speed of the object close to the receiver (channel static); T coh 1/ f D
with f D maximum Doppler shift.
The wireless channel effects depend in the signal bandwidth respect to the channel
characteristic parameters:
- W signal bandwidth; T S signal symbol duration ( 1/W ¿.
- W < Bcoh or T S >T m the channel is non-frequency selective.
- W > Bcoh or T S >T m the channel is frequency selective (we can have
distortion).
- T S <T cohor W > f D the channel is slow variable.

- T S >T cohor W < f D the channel is highly variable (fast fading).

So, the optimal value is to be in Time and Frequency flat. In order to be in this
area, we can use several mitigation techniques (similar to the equalization) to
eliminate the wireless channel effects (i.e. distortions) we should bring the system
to work in the “double-flat” square, removing the irreducible error probability.

77
Chapter 7 – Multiple access techniques (first part)
Topics
 Duplexing.
 Multiple access and multiplexing.
 Multiplexing techniques:
o Static and statistical multiplexing.
 Multiple access.
 FDMA.
 TDMA.
 CDMA for spread spectrum systems.
Objectives
Defining the duplexing strategies.
Defining the multiple access and multiplexing.
Providing the multiplexing techniques in terms of flexibility.
Providing the description and the characteristics of the main multiple access
schemes such as FDMA, TDMA and CDMA used for spread spectrum systems.

DemodulationDuplexing
There are several ways to use the spectrum resources:
- Simplex that provide an exclusive use of the spectrum resource. The
channel is unidirectional where one terminal is equipped only with the
transmitter block, while the other terminal is equipped only with the
receiver block (e.g. broadcasting services);

- Duplex, the channel is bidirectional and the terminals are equipped

with both transmitter and receiver blocks. We have two cases:
o Half duplex or alternate use. The communication resource is unique
and it is used in both communication directions (e.g. walkie-talkie);

78
 o Full duplex or simultaneous use. The communication resource is
divided into two parts, used to simultaneously communicate in both
directions (most popular for communication services).

DemodulationDuplexing: strategies
To allow the terminal to simultaneously transmit and receive, strategies in resource
allocation and equipment should be implemented in order not to have self-
interference. We have two strategies:
- Frequency division duplex (FDD): uplink and downlink data are sent on
different bandwidths. duplexer filter at RF to separate incoming and
outgoing signals;

- Time division duplexing (TDD): each link use the whole bandwidth
assigned to the user/service but for a limited time interval. necessity of a
duplexing switch.

Multiple access and Multiplexing

The multiple access refers to the regulated use of the shared resources by several
users distributed in different places of the area. Analyzing the Uplink case, we

79
have a Base Station and many users that are trying to access to the Base Station
simultaneously, so we have multiple access that is M to 1. This should not be
confused with multiplexing concept where we have a combination of several
signals concentrated in a single place that should be transmitted simultaneously 1
to M like the case for downlink.

The multiple access or multiplexing can be applied using different strategies:

- If the multiple access is provided in a coordinated fashion, we don’t
have contention between the users (“contention free”). The techniques
to guarantee contention free are:
o FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access;
o TDMA Time Division Multiple Access;
o CDMA Code Division Multiple Access.
- There are also some strategies based on contention-based access among
users, in this case the collision can happen and the protocol strategy
should try to solve the contention and/or the collision when it happen.

Multiplexing: FDM
FDM - Frequency Division Multiple
In this case the frequency band is divided into channels of certain bandwidth such
that each conversation is carried on a different frequency. For instance, if we have
two signals arriving to the Base Station from two different users both at frequency
f0, the BS divide each resource in several sub-band and assign one of them to each
user. For example, User1 is assigned to the carrier f 1, User2 to the carrier f2 and so
on. In this case, the receiver will be synchronizing with one of these frequencies
and there will not be any collision between them.

80
Multiplexing: TDM
TDM - Time Division Multiple
The resource is divided in frames; each frame is divided in slots and each slot is
assigned to a specific user. The type of assignment is static and all the band is
assigned to one user just for a limited part of time (slot period). This technique is
usual used only for digitals signals. The output channel capacity must be greater
than the sum of each single tributary. The static multiplexing is good for the
services with fixed packet size and fixed data rate, but if we don’t have these
characteristics, it is better for the BS to use a statistical multiplexing.

Multiplexing: statistical multiplexing

Statistical multiplexing is more efficient when have incoming signal with different
bit rate and bursty (inconsistant traffic levels) traffic. The multiplexed channel is
filled by the incoming packets of the tributaries, we don’t have wasting of the
resources when the user is not transmitting, we can have delays due to the
allocation, possibility to implement queuing strategies based on the importance of
the service or user. For instance, we can give more weight to a voice service
instead of other type of services.

81
Multiple access
The main multiple access techniques are the following:
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA);
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA);
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), in this case we have several
possibilities:
o Frequency Hopping, Time Hopping, Direct Sequence;
 Packet Radio access:
o ALOHA, Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA).
The first concept is to consider the orthogonality provided by these techniques.
Related to the concept of orthogonality, we have it if the integral of two signals
belonging to different users, in time is 0.
∫ si (t )s j (t )dt =0 for j ≠ j
Based on the definition of orthogonality, FDMA and TDMA are providing
orthogonality, CDMA depends on which code group is adopted. Packet Radio is
not orthogonal in fact collisions can happen.
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
For each area (cell), a bandwidth B is assigned to a service, each user is assigned a
sub-band Bch channel for all the time, there is a guard band to avoid overlapping of
the channels. The case is showed within the below picture:

82
We have the User 2 that has assigned a part of the whole Bandwidth assigned to
the service B, and it transmit at frequency carrier f 2. Of course, there is a guard
bandwidth Bg to avoid adjacent channel interferences.
The i−th user signal is transmitted at carrier frequency f ci, due to the Parsival
theorem, the orthogonality is preserved since spectra of two different users are
disjoint and the integral in time is 0. We can evaluate the efficiency of this strategy
that depend from the used spectrum that is the number of channels multiplied the
width of the band respect to the one assigned to the all service. This means that we
lost the part dedicated to the Bg .
B ch × n
η FDME =
B
From the image on the left, we can see that the users are orthogonal to the
frequency.
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
For each area (cell), each user is assigned the whole bandwidth B of the service but
for a time interval (slot), t s. After a Tframe, the user can transmit again in its assigned
time slot. The orthogonality is preserved since that all the users’ transmission are
not overlapped in time. For si (t )≠ 0, all the other users are not transmitting s j ( t )=0
for all j users, the orthogonality is preserved and as showed in the picture, the
orthogonality is in time.

83
TDMA: Frame structure
We can evaluate the efficiency, this is a structure of the frame in TDMA we have a
preamble and a Trailer and inside the message frame we have several slots, each
slot has header, a synchronized bit and a payload and a timeguard interval for
alignment of the signal. A slot is assigned to one user.
The efficiency is the sum of the payload period repeated for each slot respect the
total time of the frame.
ηTDMA =
( T non−useful
T frame )

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

For each area (cell), each user is assigned the whole bandwidth B of the service for
the whole frame duration. Each user is assigned a code that has special properties
that allow the receiver to properly distinguish among signals send by different
users coded by different codes. The orthogonality depends from which group of
code is adopted. If we have a proper code, we have 0 and the orthogonality is
preserved, otherwise, there is an additional noise that should be considered in the
sign of the system, for definition we have no orthogonality in this case. For si (t )≠ 0
and s j ( t ) ≠ 0 but due to special properties:

So, we have that the user use all the time resource and all the bandwidth resource
but each of them is identified by a code. You can consider the code just as a
language so if we are in a room with a lot of person talking together, each with a
different language, it is easy for the receiver to understand better its language
respect the other. The others are considered as a background noise.

84
CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access
It is also called “spread spectrum” technique, this because it transforms a
narrowband signal (band Rb) that contain the information in a signal with large
bandwidth much more that the initial occupied bandwidth B ≫ Rb .
CDMA performs a spreading operation of the signal and the new one has a larger
bandwidth but a low spectral density, this because the power is the same. The
simultaneous transmission of several spread signals on the same bandwidth is
possible because all the signals have very low spectral density power. The receiver
get the sum of these signals transmitted in B, it collates (colleziona) the whole
signal with the code of the selected user (despreading operation). The other
signals remain with low spectral density (theoretically null) while the selected
signal can be properly demodulated (original spectral density).

From the picture, we can see that we have a transmitter (green one) with a narrow
band but with high power, after the spreading we have higher bandwidth but low
spectral density (pile multicolor on the left of the image). Summing up all these
signals, the receiver get all the signals but considering the despread for the code 1
we have that the original spectral density is reconstruct while the other remain very
low. In this case, we have the SNR proper for the demodulation. All this depend by
the code group adopted. The spreading is counterintuitive for spectral efficiency in
wireless systems but in average it works better of FDMA and TDMA since code
properties can be exploited (e.g. in putting more users in the same band
simultaneously).
There are several techniques for Spread spectrum:
- Frequency Hopping (FH);
- Direct sequence (DS);
- Time Hopping (TH), limited importance.

85
CDMA: Frequency Hopping (FH)
The basic work is that the transmitter change the carrier frequency of a narrowband
transmission system so to have the transmission done in one frequency band only
for a short while. So, we have hope from one carrier to another of course, the
receiver should know the hopping sequence in order to select properly and to
perform the demodulation. Fast and slow frequency hopping depend if the hopping
occurs within or not in the symbol duration.

( ) B
The ratio G FH = B is the spreading factor, with Bch the band for the single
ch

transmission (user data rate) and B the bandwidth used for all simultaneous
transmissions.

CDMA: Direct Sequence

It is the most popular technique, in this case for each information bit that has
duration T b it is superimposed the chip sequence of the selected code and the chip
duration is T c ≪ T b . The chip sequence is without information because is known and
periodic, based on a pseudo-noise patter. The resulting signal has wider bandwidth
B 1 /T c ≫ 1/T b R b .
To transmit this information, bit 1 or 0, we use this code that change very fast it
means that he needs a big bandwidth B >> the information necessary to transmit a
signal that change so slow. So what is done is change a XOR between signal 1 and
code so we have DSSS signal blue to transmit bit 1 or the red one to transmit bit 0.

From the point of view of the receiver, it correlates the received spread signal with
the spreading sequence (synchronized), reversing the bandwidth spreading, after
the dispreading the desired signal has a bandwidth Rb 1/T b with higher spectral
power density. Despreading works only for the signal spread with the sequence

86
used in reception. Other signals do not react similarly. Their power spectral density
remains low.
B bT
The ration GSF = R = T is the spreading factor. The choice of B is a compromise
b C

between the signal protection (high GSF ) and bandwidth occupancy (low B).

CDMA: spreading and despreading

This is an example of spreading and dispreading operations. We have a signal with
a certain period T b, T b=8 T c with T b symbol duration (¿ 1/ Rb ) and T c chip duration
(¿ 1/ B) .

From the picture above, we can see the information (Data) sent where the scale
represents the bit 1. We use a code T b=8 T c that is a chip time 8 times greater than
the bit period (so a chip has 1/8 time than a bit rate). The sequence is represented
by the Symbol length (see the top of the picture) and you can report down for all
the other signals. Checking the spread signal = Data x code, we can see what is
sent as signal for logical 1 (first arrow starting from left) and what for logical 0
(second arrow starting from left). Going to despreading operation, we have to
correlate the received spread signal with a proper code that is the same used during
the transmission. If we multiple the spread signal chip x chip, we can see that
1 x 1=1, 1 x 1=1, (−1 ) x (−1 ) =1, etc… so the result is that the bit is reconstructed
properly. What happen if we perform the spreading operation with another code?

87
88
Chapter 8 – Multiple access techniques (second part)
Topics
 CDMA for spread spectrum systems (cont.):
o Properties;
o Presence of jammer;
o Multiple access property;
o Multiple access;
o Presence of multipath;
o RAKE receiver.
 CDMA codes:
o Pseudo-noise sequences;
o walsh-Hadamard codes.
 Hybrid multiple access techniques.
 PRMA:
o ALOHA;
o Carrier Sense Multiple Access.
 Space Division Multiple Access.
Objectives
Providing the main properties of the CDMA.
Detailing the types and the properties of the CDMA codes.
Describing the PRMA techniques such as ALOHA and CSMA.
Introducing the Space Division Multiple Access.

DemodulationCDMA: properties (continues)

Low detection probability: because the spreading operation allows to transmit very
low power spectral density, close to the thermal noise so it is very difficult for the
receiver to detect a CDMA signal. It means that the privacy is netural because it is
necessary to know and to be synchronized with the spreading code of the reference
signal for a correct reception. It is robust to interference due an intentional
narrowband disturber (the property of anti-jamming). Multiple Accessing and
protection against the multipath.

DemodulationCDMA: presence of a jammer

Concerning the interference due to an intentional narrowband disturber (Jammer)
with bandwidth BJ ≤ R b.

89
So, what happen is that in the receiver the referent signal is despread, while the
jammer is applied the PN sequence which spread it lowering its power spectral
density.

After the spreading operation, all the signal that is composed by the useful signal
plus the signal of the jammer is correlated with the code c (t ) and at the end we
have the useful signal going back to the original signal with bandwidth equal to the
bit rate Rb . The jammer signal is spreaded.

G P is the processing gain ( spreading factor), C is the received signal

power, J is the power of the jammer, Eb is the energy per bit of the signal (i.e.
spectral density) and j0 is the spectral density of the jammer.

DemodulationCDMA: multiple access property

This technique is used in the cellular system to identify several users
simultaneously assigning a code for each user, in this way each user can use the
same resource in time and frequency. Despreading works similarly for narrowband
interferes ( BI BJ ) and wideband interferes ( BI B): the gain respect to a jammer is
independent by its bandwidth. Let see an example:

90
DemodulationCDMA: multiple access
We have two users, each of them is coded with different codes, both power and
spectral density are transmitted in the same time and same frequency so they sum
up together but they are received correctly and the despreading is applied correctly
with the correct code.
Related to the Signal-to-Interference plus Noise ratio, we can have two cases:

{
C
Gp non−orthogonal codes
C I
SINR= =
I+N C
Orthogonal code
N
For the orthogonal code case, the interference of other users is completely
cancelled by despreading operation.
For non-orthogonal code case of CDMA, we have a residual interference caused by
a not ideal cancellation of the code the remain as interference in the SINR of the
reference user. In this case we have similar behavior of jammer so we have this
residual interference. The residual interference is similar to narrowband interfere
one after despreading.
We have to note that the useful power C is as gain equal to the spreading code G p
(processing gain) greater than the residual interference of the other users.
It means that the disturber that is the I f contribution Interference power produced
by I f user, is similar also to the received power of the reference so we have:
N u−1
C
I = ∑ I i , with J I i C so we can cancel C with J from G p and finally we
i=1
(N u−1)/J
get an approximation of the signal to interference plus noise ratio of a CDMA in a
multiple access case.

91
 C C 1
SINR=G p =G p =G p
I ( N u−1 ) J ( N u −1 )

W
Depending on the spreading factor, R we can have a system with N u users in the
b

cells in order to respect for example the specific signal to interference plus noise
ratio defined by simulation.

DemodulationCDMA: presence of multipath

CDMA allows also to counteract the defect of multipath in fact each delayed
replica caused by multipath, reflection etc… with obstacles can arrive delayed and
attenuated respect to the main path and it can create an intersymbol interference
(cheap interference) but due to properties of self cross-correlation of the code that
is very low, this replica can be considered as another user so in the spreading
operation, its spectral density is G p times lower than direct path spectral density. So
in this case we have not frequency selectivity of the channel.

DemodulationCDMA: RAKE receiver

We can use the RAKE receiver improve the performance of CDMA. We have to
consider that each replica of the reference user signal transport useful power even
if it is not timely aligned with the main path.atten
But it also transports useful energy. So, we can have several CDMA receivers each
of them synchronized with this specific multipath reply, it means that each CDMA
try to get the power content in each single reply. This is how the RAKE receiver
work. Each branch of the RAKE receiver properly re-aligns each single reply of
the reference user path component:
- It reduces self-interference;
- It collects the power lost on the other multipath components.

DemodulationCDMA codes
We can distinguish two type of codes:
- Orthogonal;
- Non-orthogonal;

92
For a proper selection, we must consider 3 main criteria for the code family
selection:
- Self-Correlation function (SCF) theoretically we need to have a Dirac
delta function it means that the SCF that is a correlation of the i-code c i
correlated with itself.

This formula means that we have to shift one code respect itself, if the
shift is 0 τ =0 we should have 1 because we have to divide by the
number of chip in the code, if we have τ ≠ 0 SCF not synchronized it is 0
for non orthogonal code that we can call pseudo-noise code. If SCF > 0
for ortog.codes
- Cross correlation function (CCF) must be null for two code sequences of
the same family for every time shift. The CCF is a measure in order to
understand how much the cross correlation between the code of i-code
user and j-code user are similar depending by the time shift, for
orthog.codes is zero when τ =0 (they are synchronized good property).
The orthog.code dosen’t work when we don’t have synchronization ¿ 0
τ ≠ 0, pseudo noise code works better in both cases but we have SCF 0
for τ ≠ 0 so it depends how much the system can tolerate this residual
power that is present at the receiver of the useful signal.

- Number of codes in the family: a high number available cod sequences

allows to assign one different code to a different user so we can have
simultaneous communication in the same cell for example.

DemodulationPseudo-noise sequences
Let’s see how they can be generated, we have:

93
- M-sequences, easy to be generated through Linear Feedback Shift
register. As example if we have 0 0 0 1, it means that at next step is 0 + 0
= 1 and then we have a shift so the next value is 1 0 0 0 then the ouput is
1 1 0 0 etc…

The length is 2r −1 for r steps. Properties: good SCF because it is 1, large

number of codes but bad CCF.
- Gold sequences, combination of two M-sequences, better CCF
properties.

- Kasami sequences: summing of delayed and sampled M-sequences, still

better CCF properties.

94
DemodulationPseudo-noise sequences: properties

DemodulationWalsh-Hadamard codes
Definitely orthogonal codes are better but they need to be synchronized. They can
be used in the downlink in wireless systems for CDM (no interferences among
users). The delay spread introduced by the wireless channel can remove the
orthogonality but it can be tolerated for a good planning. Easy to manage variable
data rates: Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor OVSF.

95
DemodulationPacket Radio access
We have a different philosophy in this case, FDMA, TDMA, CDMA are used for
circuit switched connections so we have a controlled access and they are used
usually for sequence switched communication so we have constant bit rate services
(for example speech) they perform very well, but if we have a bursty traffic it is
not efficient to adopt this strategy because just for sending a packet, we have to
establish the signal communication to assign that channel to the user just to
transmit one packet so it is not efficient so it is better to consider packet radio
access and transmit packets independently. This technique that consider not
coordinated fashion random access but is more efficient for bursty traffic and for
user that has different bit rates. CDMA is trying to go in that direction but it has
some limitation respect PRA. The problem of PRA is a possible collision can occur
when 2 users try to access to the same resource simultaneously so we need a
strategy for conflict resolution. In the first case we have no collision because the
resolution and assignment of the resource is performed before the transmission,
while the second case is performed later when the problem happened.
Main techniques:
- ALOHA;
- Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA).
Other techniques:
- Packet reservation multiple access or by polling (limited contention).

96
DemodulationALOHA
We are in the scenario where multiple MSs try to transmit packets to a given base
station. So we have users A, ... E and each mobile station sand a packet whenever
data are available. Depending on when the mobile station start its transmission, we
have pure-ALOHA or slotted-ALOHA. When the user start the transmission, we
can have collision and it happen when two packets are superimpose (overlap in
time) because they're using the same spectral resource and simultaneously.

DemodulationALOHA: pure-ALOHA efficiency

Is the probability to have k frames generated during a “frame time”. The Poisson
distribution Pr ( k )=Gk e−G /k !, G is the average number of transmission attempt in the
frame time. So this is the frequency of packet generation multiplied by the time
needed to transmit a frame. The throughput S=G ( 1−Pcoll )=G P0.
No collision is when k =0 means that zero frames are generated simultaneously:
- Pr ( 0 )=¿ e−G ;
- It must be held for 2 frame time intervals (i.e. for 2G): P0=1−Pcoll =e−G;
- Capacity: S=Ge−2 G
In the picture, we can see why we need 2 free time to guarantee do not overlap, the
frame can be vulnerable for 2 frame time.

97
DemodulationALOHA: pure-ALOHA/slotted-ALOHA
Behavior of the throughput traffic for ALOHA systems:

For the PURE-Aloha the transmission can be performed when the station wants but
if we have a slotted-Aloha time interval means that if a mobile station would like
to transmit it has to wait from the beginning of the slot so it means that the
collision period time is half of the previous one and it means that the throughput is
double up to 37%.

DemodulationCarrier Sense Multiple Access

The CSMA is an improvement respect the previous one. If one user is transmitting
(busy channel), no other user are allowed to transmit since that the transmission
will not succeed. The detecting of the channel occupancy is performed by career

98
sensing. Let’s see the algorithm used: before transmitting the mobile station
listen to the channel occupancy if the channel is idle, the user transmit otherwise it
applies a backoff strategy.

CSMA:Strategies
Non-persistent CSMA: two points the TX senses the channel, if the channel is
busy the TX weights a random time duration until retransmission.
p-persistent CSMA: the TX senses the channel, if the channel is idle, it transmits
with the probability p in the subsequent timeslot and with probability 1-p it
transmits one timeslot later.
1-persistent CSMA: the TX constantly senses the channel. When the channel
became free, it immediately senses of the packet (i.e. p=1).
CSMA with collision detection: if a transmitting mobile station detects a
collision, it abruptly stops transmitting and waits a random period of time, and then
tries again:
- reduction of channel occupation when is not useful;
- hard to be applied for wireless packet radio

CSMA: for wireless packet radio

Problem of the hidden node (a): A must communicate with B; C must
communicate with B. A and C do not listen each other and both detect an idle
channel → collision on node B; A is a hidden node for C and vice a versa.
Problem of the exposed node (b): B transmits to A; C detects the B transmission
and, then, considers the channel is busy. C does not send to D (channel under-
utilization).
It is important the activity close to the receiver not to transmitter.

CSMA: CSMA with collision avoidance

MACA protocol (Multiple Access Collision Avoidance): the sender stimulates the
receiver to send a short frame so stations nearby can detect this transmission and
avoid transmitting for the duration of the upcoming (large) data frame:

99
 - the sender sends a short frame containing the length of the next data
frame: Request-To-Send (RTS);
- the receiver replies with a frame: Clear-To-Send (CTS).
Reaction of the other stations (see example):
a. C receives the RTS → it avoids sending;
b. D receives the CTS → it avoids sending;
- E receives both → it avoids sending;
- In case of collision, the algorithm is repeated after a random amount of
time.
In the wireless ACKs for each frame a carrier sense for efficiency are introduced.
Reaction of the other stations (see example):
- C receive the RTS → it avoids sending;
- D receives the CTS → it avoids sending;
- E receives both → it avoids sending;
- In case of collision, the algorithm is repeated after a random amount of
time.
In the wireless ACKs for each frame and carrier sense for efficiency are
introduced.

Space Division Multiple Access

The antenna BS is equipped with several narrow beans guaranteeing the coverage
of the whole cell area. But the orthogonality among users is performed by
assigning each beam to a single user so we have a spatial filtering but for the
secondary lobes we have loss of the orthogonality. The problem is that in a large
area, is hard to assign one single beam for each user because the area has obstacles,
so reflection etc.. the antennas are not ideal. For this reason we have to use the
SDMA jointly combined with other multiple access techniques applied for each
beam. The smart antennas are able to follow each single user.

100
Chapter 9 – Planning for radio cellular systems (first part): orthogonal
multiple access
Topics
 Cellular concept: frequency reuse and cell splitting.
 Cellular coverage.
 Cellular system planning:
o Interference analysis for FDMA/TDMA.
o 2nd tier interference.
o C/I for uplink and C/I for downlink.
o Cell sectorization.
Objectives
Introducing the cellular concept of infrastructure mobile radio networks.
Describing the problem of interference by other cells.
Providing tools for cellular coverage of the serving area.

DemodulationCellular concept
We are going to use the techniques that we so in the previous lesson in order to
provide a service that is a connectivity for a user in a specific service area. We can
see some solutions:
- the first solution is to use a single BS in the center of the covered area
and provide connectivity to users inside the served area sharing
resource among the mobile terminal.

- Single BS with multiple antenna beams, it means that each user is served
by a specific antenna beam so it can use the spectral resource assigned
to the service and the system is able to provide a connectivity to it. This
solution is not easy to realize because we can have a coverage area very
large so we can have obstacles in that area with a lot of users so
probably it is difficult to have a lot of users simultaneously connect to

101
 the BS even if we have more beams serving part of the area. This case is
called SDMA.

For large areas, one single BS cannot provide required power (due to obstacles,
high distance), neither capacity to serve several users.
- Cellular Coverage.
The following solution solved the two main problems providing a service in a
specific area. For large areas, one single site cannot provide required power due
to the obstacles, high distances with one base station is difficult provide enough
power at the age of the cell but it is also difficult provide capacity to several users.
It means that we are not able with a single BS to serve a lot of users. So, what we
can do is to divide the service area in cells where each cell is served by BS. So, we
can have the connectivity due to not the antenna beams but by a separation of
area. The service area can be large as it likes we can just add a BS to covering the
area. Orthogonality is due to propagation (not due to antenna beams) in fact the
propagation can help in separation of the resource we assign to a cell respect to
another cell. Note that the cell shapes are irregular, follow the orography,
obstacles etc... present in the territory, but for simplicity cells are designed
hexagonal.

102
This is the concept of cellular system because we divide the area into cells.

DemodulationCellular concept: frequency reuse

Aim: is to provide service with bandwidth B in the serving area.
The service is divided into n cell but we have to assign a fraction of serving
B
bandwidth of B: Bcell= n named reuse frequency.
cell
n cell ∙ Bcell ncell B
We can define the reuse factor as F R = = with m ≝ B named cluster size
B m cell

that is the number of cells where we do not assign the same portion of the
spectrum.
Let’s see an example, the image below show a service area, we assign a portion A,
B, C … until I. we have A2 that has assigned the same portion of A1so they interfere
each other and so on. In this case, we have a reuse factor of 9/11 since that we have
9 cells and we use different spectral sub-bands.

DemodulationCellular concept: cellular splitting

Another important concept is the cell splitting that means increase of users in a
cell. If we have a lot of users inside a specific cell, we can divide it in more cells,

103
in this case and we can try to reuse some of sub-bands bandwidth in each single
smaller cell. In this way we increase the spectral efficiency.

This is the case when we have mature cellular system, first of all we provided the
coverage, then when we have a lot of users we have to provide also the capacity to
serve more users simultaneously by the cellular system. This is performed by
splitting cells and we can see that we have a reuse of a frequency i.e. I 8, I3, I6, I7.
We cannot split cells as we like but we have a minimum cell radius due to practical
constraints more or less is the receiver sensitivity of the equipment.

DemodulationCellular concept: consideration

Note that the performance parameter in a cellular system is not a Signal-To-Noise-
To-Ratio as we so in a radio link, but we should consider a Signal-To-Interference
plus noise (SINR) parameter defined as:

{
PR
, I 0 (non−mature system)
C PN
SINR ≝ 1=
I + PN PR PR
= , I ≫ P N (mature system)
I ∑ Ik

104
where:
C=¿ Received power;
I =¿ Interference caused by other cellular;
P N =¿ Additive Gaussian Noise.
So, we have to consider these parameters as assigned parameters for a specific
performance. Note that if the distance of the interfere cells is very high, the
interference is negligible (I~0) so we have the previous case and the received or
career power C=P R and noise power P N =N and this is the case of no models’
cellular systems.
When we have a lot of cells that use the same sub-bands we have a lot of
interference P R / I (mature system) due to the sum of each single link using the same
sub-band and in this case the Noise Power is negligible respect the interference
produced by other communications, so it is co-channel interferer and this is
happening in mature system.
In order to respect this parameter, we have that the signal plus interference noise
ratio, should be greater than the specific value given by service ρ0 < SINR . In order
to respect this requirement, we have to reduce the interference, in fact we can say
that the cellular systems are interference-limited. Moreover, the reuse distance D/R
of a co-channel interferer:
- Differently from traditional systems, performance of cellular system
does not increase by increasing the transmitted power but decreasing
the interference among cells.

DemodulationCellular coverage
Let’s consider then cellular coverage, this means found out what is the cell area i.e.
area where the link budget equation is satisfied. Due to the channel propagation,
the cell shape is irregular. Simplifications for preliminary capacity assessment, we
are considering homogeneous environment and flat terrain. The problem of circular
model is the there is overlap between cells while with hexagonal model we don’t
have overlap (most popular).

Example of cluster size: m=3 (left) and m=7 (right):

105
 - (1) cells which use the same bandwidth Bcell (they interfere each other’s).
- D reuse distance. It is related to cell radius R.
Lower cluster size provides higher system capacity: better reuse factor.

Not all the cluster sizes are possible, we have 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12 ….

Note that to evaluate the distance over the interference cells it is better to consider
non-orthogonal carthesianum system. So we have to consider a coordinate
changing transformation from the orthogonal carthesianum system (blue) with the
non-orthogonal function (green).

106
 {
1
x=u+ v cos α =u+ v
2
The transformation function are:
√3
y=v sin α = v
2
If we take 2 points as showed within the picture, P1 and P2, the distance is
calculated for both systems as:
d= √ ¿ ¿ (orthogonal system)
√ ¿ ¿ (non-orthogonal system)

1
Other assumption, we can take the radius of the BS normalized, so R= , in this
√3
way we have the inter-site distance that is the distance between 2 centers of the
cells d=R ∙ √ 3=1. Then considering this scenario, we have a generic cell center
respect the center of the axis indicate as P(i , j) . For example (4,2) is showed with
red lines.

107
Our aim is that we want to evaluate the reuse distance and the cluster size in order
to respect the specific on the signal-to-noise plus interference ratio. We put the
reference cells in the center of the axis P1 (0 , 0) in non-orthogonal cartesian system.
The generic cell that interfere with it is P2 (i , j), the distance between these is equal
to P2−P1 evaluated with the transformation. The formula with radical is showing
which cluster size is possible.
d ( i, j )=d 12=√ i2 +ij+ j 2
Considering the hexagonal shapes, we can see that there are six interfere cells for
A1
each reference cell. we have also to note that the ratio calculates as A =3 ∙ m where
0
A1 is the larger hexagonal and A0 the small is equal to 3 times the cluster size (m)

( )
A1 D
2
D
(see below picture). Considering also that A = R otteniamo che R =√3 ∙ m. That is
0

the distance respect the cluster size, is very important for the design of a cellular
system.

108
Comparing D/ R and normalized distance u−v coordinates, it yields:
2
m=d12=d ¿
In the following table we can see the relation to find out allowed cluster size: i , j
integers. We can have cluster size 1 by putting i=1 and j=0. It means that all the
bandwidth assigned to that service is completely assigned to all cells. This is the
case of CDMA because technique allowed to have a reuse 1.

In the following image, we can see the procedure with for instance m=7 how to
determine the interfered cells.

109
Starting from the green cell, we make two steps far and one step on j and rotate of
600.

DemodulationCellular system planning

We have a tool to provide the cellular system planning. Note that before to proceed
we have to find out the location of the BS on the territory in order to guarantee the
coverage and the required capacity in the service area.
Coverage means that the received power P R shall be equal or greater then the
sensitivity of the receiver Sth (possibly including link margins) i.e.
P R (d )≥ Sth ≝ ρ0 ∙(P N + I )
P R is given by the link budget. Equality holds for d=R cell radius, which is
calculated using path loss model.
Capacity means P R should be equal or greater than Sth for all the users as specified
by capacity requirements.
So the capacity and coverage are:
- disjoint processes for technic like FDMA and TDMA;
- strictly related for CDMA

DemodulationCellular system planning: interference analysis for FDMA/TDMA

Let’s try to evaluate the interference for cellular systems that use FDMA or TDMA
technique to share the assigned resource Bcell to a specific cell to provide
connectivity to the user in that cell. The coverage in this case is based on the C /I

110
i.e. it is interference limited means that it is sufficient solve the interference
problem, since the problem is not the P R at cell edge.
Assumptions:
- One active co-channel interferes per cell.
- Referent MS is located at the cell vertex (worst case at the longest
distance).
- The received power for referent and interfering MS is proportional to d γ (
γ is the propagation exponent).
Carrier-to-interference ratio, C/I:
C C PR R
−γ
SINR= ≅ = =
I + PN I ∑ I k +∞ N k

k ∑ ∑ d h−γ
k=1 h=1

Number of tiers to consider:

- N 1=6 (first tier), N 2=12(second tier), …. , N k =6 ∙ k (k -th tier).
Assumptions:
- Interferes from second tier on are neglected.
- Co-channel interferes are in the center of its own cell: d h=D .
Example for evaluation of C /I for γ =4:
( )
C PR R
−γ
1 1 D
4
= = 6 = 6 = ∙
I ∑ Ik
( )
−γ
6 R
k ∑ d k−γ ∑ DR
k=1 k=1

DemodulationCellular system planning: 2nd tier interference

Problem: demonstrate that the interference of the second tier is negligible respect
to the interference of the first tier. Data/hp:
Interferers located in their cell center,
m=7 , γ =4.
Solution:
C PR R
−γ
= =N N
I ∑ Ik tier k

k ∑ ∑ d h−γ
k=1 h=1

N tier =2 , N 1=6 , N 2=12

We have a generic distance that we can evaluate by:

111
d ( i, j )=√i 2 +ij+ j 2 for the first-tier interferers, we saw that we have d ( 2 ,1 ) and the
1
considered distance was √ 7 so d 1=d ( 2 , 1 )=√ 7 with R= .
√3
The distances for the 2nd tier interferers we have two cases:
d 2=d ( 4 ,1 ) =√ 21
'

}} rsub {2} =d left (6,-2 right ) = sqrt {28 ¿

d ¿
Evaluate C/I for the 1 tier interferers mean to put the distance d 1 h as √ 7 under R
st

1
that is equal to so we have for γ =4:
√3
C/I for 1st tier:
( CI ) =
1
=
1

( )
N1
PR
−1
T1
∑
1 st tier

h=1 Ih

( ) ( )
6
R γ 1 1 4 1
T 1= ∑ =6 =
h=1 d1h √3 √7 73.5
For the 2nd tier, we have to sum-up the interferers generated with distance at √ 21
and √ 28. So the contribution of the 2nd tier interference is calculated as:
( CI ) =
1
=
1

( )
N2
PR
−1
T2
∑
2 st tier

h=1 Ih

( ) ( ) ( )
12
R γ 1 1 4 1 1 4 1
T 2= ∑ =6 +6 =
h=1 d2h √ 3 √21 √ 3 √ 28 423.2

T2
Let’s try to evaluate it respect to the 1 st tier interferes T , we can se that it is less
1

than 20% (0,17) so we can neglect it. The interference ratio is calculated as:
1
T 2 423.2 73.5
= =
T1 1 423.2
73.5

( ) C 1
= =18.7 dB
I 1 st tier T 1

( I)
C

( CI ) 1 st tier+2 nd tier
=
1
T 1 +T 2
=
1+
1 st tier
T2
≅ ( CI ) 1 st tier

T1

112
DemodulationCellular system planning: interference analysis for FDMA/TDMA
Let’s exam the C/I formula that we calculated before. We made the hypothesis that
only the first tier interferes is located in their center cells. We can note the C /I is
function of the cluster size m. If γ decreases (in the graphic is represented by the
cluster size, m) the C /I increases, so it is a function of the path loss exponent γ this
means that it is a parameter to measure the cell isolation due to path loss. So if two
cells are close but the path loss is very dramatic, we can reuse the same bandwidth
also for shorter distance. If for example we put a wall, it works. C /I increase if m
increases (interferes are farther). Of course, we have to give more power for the
referent user inside the cell because there we have also a greater path loss.
C /I for γ is:

( ) ( )
γ
C 1 1 D
= = ∙ =f (m)
∑( )
6
I D −γ
6 R
k=1 R

We can remove this hypothesis and we can consider two scenarios one for
downlink and one for uplink.

DemodulationCellular system planning: C/I for uplink and C/I for downlink
We know that in the interference scenario for uplink, the reference user is on the
red point and he try to transmit to the base station, the interferences are located in
the worst case in the vertices of their base station.

Reference link

113
So in this case we have to put the radius −1, we have a shorter distance not D but
D−R . So they are closer to the reference user.

( ) ( )
γ
C 1 D
= ∙ −1
I uplink 6 R
Considering the downlink scenario, with the reference link but the other
interferences are in downlink the Base Station where we have to calculated the
signal-to-interference plus noise-to-ratio. We can group two cells at distance D−R ,
Two cells at distance D , and two cells at distance D+ R . So we will have:
( CI ) 1
= ∙
1

( ) ( ) ( )
downlink 2 D −γ
D
γ
D
γ
−1 + + +1
R R R

Cellular system planning: cell sectorization

Way to improve performances. We can use cell sectorization, it means that with a
reduced antenna beam we can reduce the interference of other cells. The cell is
divided into M disjoint sectors. Each sector is served by one (directive) antenna. So
the interfere power is just coming from the part of the area showed within the
picture in red.

The other interferences or the other cells using the same bandwidth is not received
by the direct antenna, so the interference is reduced by a factor equal to the number

114
of sectors 10−log 10 ( M ) [dB ]. We can take an example for m=9 where the specific is
18 for text without sectorization ( CI )=17.1 dB is not good for planning but if we use
a sectorization M =3 we can add the extra performance that allow to respect the
(C )
specifics with sectorization I =17.1 dB+ 4.8 dB=21.9 dB .
The advantages of this technique reduction of the interference without reducing
channel per cell increasing the BSs.
The disadvantages are increasing of block probability because the channels per
cells n ch should be assigned statically for which sector so we have an increasing of
block probability n ch / M . Increasing the handover frequency so changing the cells in
a sector is more frequent.
Let’s see the formula modified considering the number sector present in the system

( ) ( )
γ
C M D
= ∙ −1
I uplink 6 R

( CI ) =
M
∙
1

( ) ( )( )
downlink 2 D −γ
D
γ
D
γ
−1 + + +1
R R R

115
Chapter 10 – Planning for radio cellular systems (second part for non-
orthogonal multiple access) and performance parameters
Topics
 Capacity for CDMA system:
o Power control.
o Uplink and downlink access differences.
o Capacity for uplink.
o Capacity for downlink.
o Coverage – capacity relation.
 Performance system parameters:
o Spectral efficiency of the system.
o Error probability.
o Outage probability.
o Block probability.
Objectives
Presenting and defining the capacity for a CDMA system.
Providing the expressions of the capacity for uplink and downlink.
Defining the most popular system parameters for performance evaluation.
Presenting some example for the spectral efficiency of the system.
Allowing the evaluation for outage probability and for block probability for
FDAM/TDMA and CDMA systems.

DemodulationCapacity for CDMA system: power control

The CDMA needs a different approach compared with FDMA/TDMA because
coverage and capacity that are two system parameters for planning and for
providing a service to the subscribers, in this case are related so they should be
considered together. For CDMA systems, received power of the users in the cell
(interference) can be greater of the received power of the referent user (useful
power) due to position in the cell area.
First, let’s consider the Near-far problem in CDMA: concerning this technique
we have different approach since we have different characteristics. In the picture,
we can see that we have in the cell two Mobile Stations (2 person) one transmitting
with code A and one with code B. If they transmit with the same power PT 1 PT 2 at
the BS the received power can be very different due to different path loss between
these two users.

116
What we can do? Reduce for example the power transmitted by the closer user in
this case the user 2 in order that the received power from user 1 and user 2 will be
similar. If we didn’t have the power control, the closest user can “blind” the signal
of far users and due to the cross-code correlation between the codes, the C/I target
cannot be satisfied for the user at the edges (bordi) of the cell.

It is better to enable the power control to mitigate this interference in CDMA

system.

DemodulationCapacity for CDMA system: uplink and downlink access

differences
Let’s consider now differences for uplink and downlink access code that provide
different effect on the C/I ratio. Theoretically CDMA can also be orthogonal but
this orthogonality depending on the choice of the family of the code can be
removed in a realistic scenario. Even if we use a family with orthogonal codes, we
can miss this synchronization due to the fact the internal clocks of transmitters
have different phases, but also due to the fact that we have a multipath in the
environment. So even if we use orthogonal code, we could have non-orthogonality
at the BS for example due to the fact that we have multipath.
Let’s see the differences between downlink from BS → MS and to the uplink
between MS → BS.

117
In downlink, we have code division multiplexing so all the flows of the user arrive
to the BS and the BS transmit over the area. Theoretically we can use orthogonal
codes for example Walsh-Hadamard since that the transmitter is one and the all the
users receives a synchronized version of the transmitted signal. Nerveless in
reception codes are theoretically orthogonal but due to the same propagation
channel condition for example the same multipath or also by internal clocks that
are not with high quality, this orthogonality can be removed by the channel.
On the other side, in the uplink case, we have a code division multiple access
(CDMA) so in this case the access is not so coordinated among users for this
reason is better to use non-orthogonal codes since several transmitters (the MSs)
not synchronous and multipath environment will remove the orthogonality. So it is
better to use pseudo noise codes (PN codes) with very good cross-correlation
properties.

DemodulationCapacity for CDMA system: uplink

Definition of the capacity in CDMA system starting with uplink cases.
Calculation of Eb /N 0 (signal-to-noise ratio) for the j -th user that depend by the
bandwidth W of the system and the service bit rate R. We can also reduce by an
activity factor v j considering that if we have a call, the user cannot talk always.
Then we have the received power C j of this user respect the total of the
interference that is calculate as internal of interference I ∫ ¿¿ due to other users in the
same cell, inter interference due to the external users in other cells I ext and the noise
P N.
W , chip rate; R j service bit rate; v j activity factor; I tot −C j=I ∫ ¿+ I + P ¿, total
ext N

interference.

( )
Eb
=
W
∙
Cj
N 0 j v j R j I tot −C j
If we evaluate the useful power for j -th user solving the above equation we get, C j :
1
C j= I tot
W
1+

( )
Eb
v R
N0 j j j
Cj
The load factor for j -th user is calculated as L j = I . It is the amount of cell
tot

capacity consumed by j -th connection. It depends by the bit-rate, higher is the bit
rate, higher is the consumed capacity and by the required service target.
We can define the uplink load factor ηUL that is the sum of

118
Work Assignment

Description:

Title: design of a cellular system with the introduction of femto-cells.

Aim of the work:

In modern communication system, femto-cells are now deployed in the same

service area of base transceiver stations (BS) of cellular systems. During the
course, the student has studied how the planning of a cellular system is performed.

In this work assignment, the student should provide how the planning procedure is
changed when the network planner uses also femto-cells in its network
deployment. Note that the BS serving a femto-cell (namely femto-BS) can be
considered like a classical BS (namely macro-BS) but with reduced power and
then with reduced coverage capabilities respect to BS.

Finally, the student should provide preliminary results on comparison between the
case of planning with and without the use of femto-cells.

Hint:

First, consider the reason to add some femto-cells in the cellular system
deployment. Second, note that the constraints in the spectrum allocation remains (it
means that the overall bandwidth allocated to the service is the same for BS and
femto-BS). Third, re-write in the correct way the signal-to-interference plus noise
(SINR) that is used in the planning evaluation for user connected to the macro-BS
or to a femto-BS.

Concerning the results, the student can select a performance parameter for
comparison (e.g. the SINR in both cases) and produce results by the support of
computer calculations (e.g. the cumulative distribution function, cdf). In this study
the student can assume the parameters values (that can be different for femto-BS
and macro-BS) as suggested in the current literature. Some of them are: antenna
gains, path loss exponent, number of interferers

119
Question 1 - Define the quality parameter used in a realistic radio
system. Moreover, indicate the parameters, which the designer is able to
modify in the radio link budget and their relations.
dsds

120
Question 2 - Define the multiple access and describe the multiple access
techniques based on frequency division, time division and code division
by also verifying their orthogonality properties (LM32_E_RSW_L07
slide 9).
Multiple access and Multiplexing
The multiple access refers to the regulated use of the shared resources by several
users distributed in different places of the area. Analyzing the Uplink case, we
have a Base Station and many users that are trying to access to the Base Station
simultaneously, so we have multiple access that is M to 1. This should not be
confused with multiplexing concept where we have a combination of several
signals concentrated in a single place that should be transmitted simultaneously 1
to M like the case for downlink.

The multiple access can be applied using different strategies:

- If the multiple access is provided in a coordinated way, we don’t have
contention between the users (“contention free”). The techniques used
are:
o FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access;
o TDMA Time Division Multiple Access;
o CDMA Code Division Multiple Access.
- Contention-based access, in this case the collision can happen and the
protocol strategy should solve the contention and/or the collision when
it happen
FDMA - Frequency Division Multiple Access

121
In this case the frequency band is divided into channels of certain bandwidth such
that each conversation is carried on a different frequency. For instance, if we have
two signals arriving to the Base Station from two different users both at frequency
f0, the BS divide each resource in several subband and assign one of them to each
user. For example, User1 is assigned to the carrier f 1, User2 to the carrier f2 and so
on. In this case, the receiver will be synchronizing with one of these frequencies
and there will not be any collision.

TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access

The resources are divided in frames; each frame is divided in slots and each slot is
assigned to a specific user. The type of assignment is static so all the band is
assigned to one user just for a limited part of time. This technique is usual used
only for digitals signals. The output channel capacity must be greater than the sum
of each single tributary. The static multiplexing is good for the services with fixed
packet size and fixed data rate, but if we don’t have these characteristics, it is better
for the BS to use a statistical multiplexing.

Statistical multiplexing is more efficient when have incoming signal with different
bit rate and bursty traffic. The multiplexed channel is filled by the incoming

122
packets of the tributaries, we don’t have wasting of the resources when the user is
not transmitting, we can have delays due to the allocation, possibility to implement
queuing strategies based on the importance of the service or user. For instance, we
can give more weight to a voice service instead of other type of services.

CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access

It is also called “spread spectrum” technique, this because it transforms
narrowband signal (band Rb) that contain the information in a signal with large
bandwidth much more that the initial occupied bandwidth B ≫ Rb .
CDMA perform a spreading operation of the signal and the new one has a very
low spectral density, this because the power is the same. The simultaneous
transmission of several spread signals on the same bandwidth is possible of course
because all the signals have very low spectral density power. The receiver get the
sum of these signals transmitted in B, it collates (colleziona) the whole signal with
the code of the selected user (despreading operation). The other signals remain
with low spectral density while the selected signal can be properly demodulated.
The spreading technique is counterintuitive for spread efficiency in wireless
systems, but in average works better respect FDMA and TDMA.
The spread spectrum techniques are:
 frequency hopping;
 direct sequence;
 time hopping.
Related to the concept of orthogonality, we have it if the integral of two signals
belonging to different users, in time is 0.
∫ si (t )s j (t )dt =0 for j ≠ j
Based on the definition of orthogonality, FDMA and TDMA are providing
orthogonality, CDMA depend from which code group is adopted.
FDMA
For each area (cell), a bandwidth B is assigned to a service, each user is assigned a
sub-band Bch channel for all the time, there is a guard band to avoid overlapping of
the channels.

123
The i-th user signal is transmitted at carrier frequency f ci, due to the Parsival
theorem, the orthogonality is preserved since spectra of two different users are
disjoint and integral in time is 0. We can evaluate the efficiency of this strategy
that depend from the used spectrum that is the number of channels multiplied the
width of the band respect to the one assigned to the service.
B ch × n
η FDME =
B
TDMA
For each area (cell), each user is assigned the whole bandwidth B of the service but
for a time interval (slot), t s. After a Tframe, the user can transmit again in its assigned
time slot. The orthogonality is preserved since that all the users transmission are
not overlapped in time. For si (t )≠ 0, then other users are not transmitting s j ( t )=0 for
all j → orthogonality.
CDMA
For each area (cell), each user is assigned the whole bandwidth B of the service for
the whole frame duration. Each user is assigned a code that has special properties
that allow the receiver to properly distinguish among signals send by different
users. Orthogonality depends from which group of code is adopted. For si (t )≠ 0 and
s j ( t ) ≠ 0 but due to special properties:

124
Question 3 - Provide the planning in a cellular system based on an
orthogonal multiple access technique such as FDMA or TDMA by also
pointing out the relative interference analysis ((LM32_E_RSW_L09
slide 017)
Question 4 - Provide the frame structure in the GSM and describe the
data packets (or bursts) contained in each slot (LM32_E_RSW_L12
slide 22)
Question 5 - Provide the power up procedure of the GSM mobile station
after turning on power (LM32_E_RSW_L13 slide 32)
Question 6 - Define the handover in a cellular system and provide the
possible handover strategies in the UMTS (LM32_E_RSW_L18 slide
32)

125
1. How is the cordless classified according to the mobility?
- Fixed
- Stationary or ubiquitous OK
- Nomadic
- Mobile

2. Which system can be considered for local areas?

- WiMAX and Wi-Fi
- Wi-Fi and DECT OK
- LTE and WSN
- WiMAX and Bluetooth

3. Given a band-limited signal having the maximum frequency of

1.25 MHz, what is the minimum sampling frequency to avoid
aliasing?
- 2.5 MHz OK
- 1.25 Mhz
- 625 kHz
- 3.5 MHz

4. Which of these sentences is true for M-PSK modulation?

- Symbols have different energies
- For each M, the number of dimensions is equal to M
- The minimum distance is always equal d sqrt(2), where d is the distance
of the symbol from the origin of the axis
- The phase of the symbols are integer multiple of 2pi/M

5. Which of the following sentences is valid for the error probability

for binary modulation when Eb is the bit energy?
- Error probability for antipodal symbols is Pe=0.5 erfc(sqrt(Eb/N0)); ok
- Error probability for orthogonal symbols is Pe=0.5 erfc(sqrt(2E b/N0));
- Error probability for antipodal symbols is equal to Prob{n>sqrt(E b)/2},
when n is the AWGN noise amplitude i.e. Var[n]=N0/2;
- Error probability for antipodal orthogonal is equal to Prob{n>sqrt(E b/2)},
when n is the AWGN noise amplitude i.e. Var[n]=N0/2;

6. Which of the following sentences is valid for the Nyquist pulse?

- It suffers of adjacent carrier interference;

126
 - It suffers of inter-symbol interference; OK
- Its expression in time is limited: g(t) = 1 for t=[0,Ts];
- Synchronization errors do not affect the reception

7. What is the free space attenuation, when the transmitter antenna

gain is 20 dB, the receiver antenna gain is 20 dB, the transmitted
power is 20 dBm and the received power is -20 dBm by using the
Friis formula?
- Asf= 40 dB;
- Asf = 20 dB;
- Asf = 0 dB;
- Asf = -20 dB;

8. Which is the free space attenuation?

- (4 p d /l)2;
- (4 p l d)2;
- (4 l d /p)2;
- (4 p l /d)2;

127
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 – Introduction to wireless technologies...................................................................3
Topics..............................................................................................................................................3
Objectives........................................................................................................................................3
Basic Definitions..............................................................................................................................3
Classification: wireless services........................................................................................................5
Classification: physical extension......................................................................................................6
Classification: transmission data rate...............................................................................................7
Classification: mobility.....................................................................................................................7
Classification: Summary...................................................................................................................8
Technologies and systems................................................................................................................8
GSM system.....................................................................................................................................9
UMTS system: release 99.................................................................................................................9
UMTS system: HSPA.......................................................................................................................10
UMTS system: femtocells...............................................................................................................10
Long Term Evolution (LTE)..............................................................................................................11
ETSI Wireless standards..................................................................................................................11
HiperLAN1.........................................................................................................................................11
HiperLAN2.........................................................................................................................................12
HiperACCESS.....................................................................................................................................12
HiperMAN.........................................................................................................................................12
WiMAX system...............................................................................................................................12
Wi-Fi system..................................................................................................................................13
Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication, DECT.....................................................................13
Bluetooth.......................................................................................................................................14
Radio Frequency Identification, RFID..............................................................................................14
Wireless sensor network, WSN.......................................................................................................15
Example of WSN: ZigBee................................................................................................................16
Chapter 2 – Digital modulations: information, signals and modulations (part 1)....................17
Topics............................................................................................................................................17
Objectives......................................................................................................................................17
Information....................................................................................................................................17
Entropy of binary memoryless source.............................................................................................18
Communication System.........................................................................................................19
Signals...................................................................................................................................19
Signals Representation..........................................................................................................20
Fourier transform..................................................................................................................20
Signals Sampling theorem......................................................................................................21
Concatenated signal..............................................................................................................23
Modulations..........................................................................................................................23

128
Modulation: PAM..................................................................................................................24
Modulation: PSK....................................................................................................................25
Modulation: QAM.................................................................................................................26
Modulation: FSK....................................................................................................................27
Modulated signals examples..................................................................................................28
Chapter 3 – Digital modulations: demodulation, design parameters (part 2)..........................30
Topics............................................................................................................................................30
Objectives......................................................................................................................................30
Demodulation................................................................................................................................30
Demodulation examples.................................................................................................................31
Error probability for binary modulation..........................................................................................33
Demodulation Decision regions......................................................................................................35
Demodulation Principle scheme............................................................................................35
Parameters for design the system..........................................................................................36
Selection of the basic pulse....................................................................................................36
Bandwidth-power trade-off through the Shannon theorem...................................................38
Modulation comparison........................................................................................................39
Chapter 4 – Radio system design: antennas, radio transmission............................................40
Topics............................................................................................................................................40
Objectives......................................................................................................................................40
Maxwell’s equations......................................................................................................................40
Antennas...............................................................................................................................41
Antennas: near-field and far-field regions..............................................................................42
Electric field and Magnetic field in far-field............................................................................42
Main antenna parameters.....................................................................................................43
Antenna examples.........................................................................................................................45
Dipole Antenna..............................................................................................................................45
Horne Antenna...............................................................................................................................45
Patch Antenna...............................................................................................................................46
Horn with reflector Antenna...........................................................................................................46
Free space propagation: scenario...................................................................................................47
Free space propagation: Friis formula.............................................................................................48
Free space propagation..................................................................................................................48
Flat reflecting ground loss..............................................................................................................48
Flat reflecting ground loss......................................................................................................49
Chapter 5 – Radio system design: noise and link budget........................................................50
Topics............................................................................................................................................50
Objectives......................................................................................................................................50

129
 Noise modelling.............................................................................................................................50
Receiver noise: noise figure............................................................................................................50
Receiver noise.......................................................................................................................51
Wireless communication system principle scheme................................................................52
Transmitter side....................................................................................................................52
Propagation channel..............................................................................................................53
Receiver side.........................................................................................................................54
Quality parameters: randomness of a wireless link................................................................54
Quality parameters................................................................................................................55
Wireless link budget..............................................................................................................56
ρ=PTGTGRGCLTLRLkBTSB ......................................................................................................56
Wireless link budget: Supplementary loss..............................................................................56
Wireless link budget: highlighting the main parameters in the signal-to-noise formula.........56
Note on decibels.............................................................................................................................57
Chapter 6 – Wireless networks and Mobile wireless channel.................................................59
Topics............................................................................................................................................59
Objectives......................................................................................................................................59
Telecommunication networks: definitions and concepts................................................................59
Telecommunication networks/computer network: classification....................................................60
Telecommunication networks/computer network: offered transmission services..........................60
Telecommunication networks/computer network: software logical architecture...........................61
The Physical Layer.................................................................................................................63
The Data Link Layer...............................................................................................................63
The Network Layer................................................................................................................63
The Transport Layer...............................................................................................................64
Mobile wireless networks......................................................................................................65
Mobile wireless networks: ad hoc network............................................................................66
Mobile wireless networks: infrastructured network..............................................................67
Wireless propagation channel...............................................................................................68
Wireless channel: propagation mechanisms..........................................................................68
Wireless channel: statistical description................................................................................69
Path loss: models...................................................................................................................70
Large scale fading or shadowing model.................................................................................71
Small scale fading or fast fading.............................................................................................72

130
Characteristic parameters of wireless channel.......................................................................72
Chapter 7 – Multiple access techniques (first part)................................................................74
Topics............................................................................................................................................74
Objectives......................................................................................................................................74
Duplexing..............................................................................................................................74
Duplexing: strategies.............................................................................................................75
Multiple access and Multiplexing...........................................................................................75
Multiplexing: FDM.................................................................................................................76
Multiplexing: TDM.................................................................................................................77
Multiplexing: statistical multiplexing.....................................................................................77
Multiple access......................................................................................................................77
CDMA: Frequency Hopping (FH).............................................................................................81
CDMA: Direct Sequence.........................................................................................................81
CDMA: spreading and despreading........................................................................................82
Chapter 8 – Multiple access techniques (second part)............................................................84
Topics............................................................................................................................................84
Objectives......................................................................................................................................84
CDMA: properties (continues)...............................................................................................84
CDMA: presence of a jammer................................................................................................84
CDMA: multiple access property............................................................................................85
CDMA: multiple access..........................................................................................................86
CDMA: presence of multipath................................................................................................86
CDMA: RAKE receiver............................................................................................................87
CDMA codes..........................................................................................................................87
Pseudo-noise sequences........................................................................................................88
Pseudo-noise sequences: properties......................................................................................89
Walsh-Hadamard codes.........................................................................................................89
Packet Radio access...............................................................................................................90
ALOHA...................................................................................................................................91
ALOHA: pure-ALOHA efficiency..............................................................................................91
ALOHA: pure-ALOHA/slotted-ALOHA.....................................................................................92
Carrier Sense Multiple Access................................................................................................92
CSMA:Strategies....................................................................................................................93

131
CSMA: for wireless packet radio............................................................................................93
CSMA: CSMA with collision avoidance...................................................................................93
Space Division Multiple Access..............................................................................................94
Chapter 9 – Planning for radio cellular systems (first part): orthogonal multiple access.........95
Topics............................................................................................................................................95
Objectives......................................................................................................................................95
Cellular concept.....................................................................................................................95
Cellular concept: frequency reuse..........................................................................................97
Cellular concept: cellular splitting..........................................................................................97
Cellular concept: consideration..............................................................................................98
Cellular coverage...................................................................................................................99
Cellular system planning......................................................................................................103
Cellular system planning: interference analysis for FDMA/TDMA........................................103
Cellular system planning: 2nd tier interference.....................................................................104
Cellular system planning: interference analysis for FDMA/TDMA........................................106
Cellular system planning: C/I for uplink and C/I for downlink...............................................106
Cellular system planning: cell sectorization..........................................................................107
Work Assignment............................................................................................................................107
Question 1 - Define the quality parameter used in a realistic radio system. Moreover, indicate
the parameters, which the designer is able to modify in the radio link budget and their
relations..............................................................................................................................108
Question 2 - Define the multiple access and describe the multiple access techniques based on
frequency division, time division and code division by also verifying their orthogonality
properties (LM32_E_RSW_L07 slide 9).................................................................................109
Multiple access and Multiplexing.........................................................................................109
Question 3 - Provide the planning in a cellular system based on an orthogonal multiple access
technique such as FDMA or TDMA by also pointing out the relative interference analysis
((LM32_E_RSW_L09 slide 017).............................................................................................113
Question 4 - Provide the frame structure in the GSM and describe the data packets (or bursts)
contained in each slot (LM32_E_RSW_L12 slide 22).............................................................113
Question 5 - Provide the power up procedure of the GSM mobile station after turning on
power (LM32_E_RSW_L13 slide 32).....................................................................................113
Question 6 - Define the handover in a cellular system and provide the possible handover
strategies in the UMTS (LM32_E_RSW_L18 slide 32)............................................................113
1. How is the cordless classified according to the mobility?..............................................114

132
2. Which system can be considered for local areas?.........................................................114
3. Given a band-limited signal having the maximum frequency of 1.25 MHz, what is the
minimum sampling frequency to avoid aliasing?..................................................................114
4. Which of these sentences is true for M-PSK modulation?.............................................114
5. Which of the following sentences is valid for the error probability for binary modulation
when Eb is the bit energy?...................................................................................................114
6. Which of the following sentences is valid for the Nyquist pulse?..................................114
7. What is the free space attenuation, when the transmitter antenna gain is 20 dB, the
receiver antenna gain is 20 dB, the transmitted power is 20 dBm and the received power is -
20 dBm by using the Friis formula?......................................................................................115
8. Which is the free space attenuation?...........................................................................115

133