Compression ons raintorcemert i required Ss 1 om 30% 20% 0.775 | 1 0 0.05) 219) 130.186 ko wie, (€) Design for torsion (see chapters 5 and 7) ar Irn Umax — in /3) t By ORE (09S%.) awa (®) (nyt) (d) Design for punching shear in stabs (see chapter 8) v= V jue Consult table 5.1 for values of us, For ve C7 <1.6¥e: Aww > (v — ve)ud /0.95fyv For Love <¥ 2 Qe: Aw > S{0.7 — vg) ud JO.95foe Appendix Figure AT Lever arm curve 379382 Index Analysis of structures beams 26-32 column moments 36, 39, 220, 228-232 damaged structure 141 frames 33-43, 228 lateral loads 40-43 retaining walls 294-304 Analysis of the section bending 57, 60, 65 clastic 87-91 flanged 66-73 uncracked 89-9] with axial load 77-84 Anchorage bond 97-99 Anchorage bond lengths 98, 275, 37 Area of bars 375 Balanced failure 80 Bars see Reinforcement Bases see Footings Beams analysis of moments and shears 25-32 analysis of sections $7, 60, 65 cantilever 170 continuous 25-32, 165-170 deflections 111-124, 331-335 design 142-177 design charts 59, 64, 148 doubly reinforced 62-66, 149-153 fective spans 143 ‘one-span 27, 145-146, 158-163 prestressed 305-349 reinforcement details 10-109, 151, 156-158, 160 singly reinforced 58-62, 147-149 sizing 143-145 Bearing pressures 249-252, 298 Bearing stresses at a bend 164 Bending moments coefficients 32, 167, 190 snvelopes 32, 37, 156, 165 redistribution 48-52, 73-16, 165 Bending with axial load 77-84, 221 Bends and hooks 98, 164 Bent-up bars 95-96, 163 Biaxial bending 239-241 Bond, anchorage 97-99 Bond lengths 377 Braced columns 33, 221, 226-227 Bundled bars 107 Cantilever beams 170-171 Cantilever retaining walls 300-304 Characteristic loads 17, 24, 374 Characteristic material strengths 12, 16 Circumference of bars 375 Coefficients of bending moments and shears 32, 167, 190 Columns amalysis of section 77-84 axially loaded 226 biaxial bending 239-241 braced 33, 221, 226-227 design 220-247 design charts 78-84, 228 effective height 222 loading arrangements 34, 39, 221, 230 moments 34, 39, 43, 221, 230, 243, 245-246 onerectangular section 83-84, 237-239 reinforcement details. 224-225 short 222-224, 226-227 simplified design 226-227, 238 slender 222-224, 241-246 substitute frame 33, 39, 230 uunsymenetrically reinforced 232-238 ‘Combined footings 256-259 ‘Composite construetion design 350-373 serviceability limit state 353, 355, 367-373 shear connectors 361-364 transverse reinforcement 364-367 types 350-352 ultimate limit state 353, 354, 356-360Compression reinforcement 62-66, 149-153 Conerete eharacteristic strength 12, 16 over 11, 105-106, 135, 250, 275, 280 cracking 6, 125-134, 275-276, 282-286 ercep 10, 115, 328, 333-334 durability 11, 134-136, 275 clastic modulus 4-5, 115, 334 shrinkage 6-10, 116, 131-134, 275, 293, 329 stress-strain curve 3, 5, 54 thermal expansion 2, 6, 9, 131-134, 277-281 Continuous beams analysis 27-32 curtailment of bars design 165-170 envelopes 32, 165 loading arrangements 2-26, 30 moment and shear coefficients 32, 167 Corbels 170-174 Counterfort retaining walls 295 Cover to reinforcement 11, 105-106, 135, 250, 275, 280 156-158 Cracking control 6, 130, 276-281 flexural 125-130 thermal and shrinkage 6-10, 131-134 Creep 10, 115, 328, 333-334 Creep coefficients 115, 329 Critical section 180, 253 Critical steel ratio 131, 280, 285, 287 ‘Curtailment of bars 156-158 Curvatures 116-118 Dead loads Deflections Design charts beams 59, 64, 148 columns 78-84, 228 Diagonal tension 93, 344 Distribution steel 109, 185 Doubly reinforced beams 62-66, 149-153 Dowels 225, 252 Durability 11, 134-135 18, 24, 374 111-124, 184, 331-335 Earth-bearing pressures 249-252, 302-303 Effective depth 56, 143, Effective flange width 154 Effective height of a column 222 Effective span 143, 187, 190 inex [282 Elastic analysis of a section 87-91, 294 Elastic modulus concrete 4-5, 115, 334 steel 54-55 End blocks 335-338 Envelopes, bending moment and shear force 32, 37, 156, 165 Equivalent rectangular stress block 55-57 Factors of safety global 19 partial 17-18, 248, 275, 297 Fire resistance 15, 105-107, 136 Flanged section see T-beams Flat slab 197-203 Floors see Slabs Footings allowable soil pressures 249 combined 256-259 horizontal loads 249, 268 pad 250-256 piled 265-273, raft 264-265 strap 259-261 strip 261-264 Foundations see Footings Frames analysis 33-43 braced 33-39 laterally loaded 40-43 loading arrangements 25-26, 34, 221 unbraced 33, 40-43, 221 with shear walls 47 Gravity retaining walls 295, 296-297 Hooks and bends 98, 160, 164 Joints construction 277 contraction and expansion 277-280 Lap lengths 99-100, 377 Laps 99-100, 377 L-beams see T-beams Lever arm 58-59, 77, 148 Lever-arm curve 59, 148 Limit state design 14-22, 282-294 Limit stares serviceability ultimate 15 Links 94-95, 101-102, 151, 160-163, 174, 225, 346 Load combinations 25-26 15, 04-134, 248CHAPTER 1 Properties of reinforced concrete Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that can be formed into many varied shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangular column, to a slender curved dome or shell. Its utility and versatility are achieved by cambining the best features of concrete and steel. Consider some of the widely differing properties of these two materials that are listed below. Concrete _ Steel strength in tension poor ‘good strength in compression good good, but stencler bars will buckle strength in shear fair good good comodes if unprotected good poor ~ suffers rapid loss of strength at high temperatures it can be seen from this list that the materials are more or ess complementary. Thus, ‘when they are combined, the steel is able to provide the tensile strength and probably some of the shear strength while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the steel to lve durability and fire resistance, This chapter can present only a briel introduction to the basic properties of concrete and its steel reinforcement. For a more Comprehensive study, it is recommended that reference should be made to the specialised texts listed in Further Reading at the end of the book.Properties of reinforced concrete iB 1.2 |) Stress-strain relations ‘The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and sirains in the conerete and the steel reinforcement, To carry out the analysis and design of a member it is necessary to have a knowledge of the relationship between these stresses and strains. This knowledge is particularly important when dealing with reinforced concrete which is a composite material; for in this case the analysis of the stresses on a cross-section of a member must consider the equilibrium of the forces in the concrete and steel, and also the comps ty of the strains across the cross-section. 1.2.1 Concrete Concrete is a very variable material, having a wide range of strengths and stress-strain curves. A typical curve for concrete in compression is shown in figure 1.2. As the load is, applied, the ratio between the stresses and strains is approximately linear at first and the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material with virtually a full recovery of displacement if the load is removed, Eventually, the eurve is no longer Hinear and the concrete behaves more and more as a plastic material, If the load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be complete and a permanent deformation would remain, The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to be a constant value of approximately 0,0035, irrespective of the strength of the concrete. ‘The precise shape of the curve is very dependent on the fength of time the load is applied, a factor which will be further discussed in section 1.4 on creep. Figure 1.2 is typical for a short-term loading. Concrete generally increases its strength with age. This characteristic is illustrated by the graph in figure 1,3 which shows how the increase is rapid at first, becoming more: ‘gradual later. The precise relationship will depend upon the type of cement used. That 40 30 20 10 a 7 28 3 1 5 day days days months year years ‘age of concrete (log scale stress | i i “00035 Strain Figure 1.2 Stress-stran curve for concrete in compression Figure 1.3 Increase of concrete strength with age. Typical curve for a trade C30 concrete made with a class 42,5 Portland cementReinforced concrete design Figure 1.1 Composite action wf Composite action The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength. Because of this, nearly all reinforced concrete structures are designed on the assumption that the concrete does not resist any tensile forces. Reinforcement is designed to carry these tensile forces, which are transferred by bond between the interface of the two materials. If this bond is not adequate, the reinforcing bars will just slip within the conerete and there will not be a composite action, Thus members should be detailed so that the concrete can be well compacted around the reinforcement during construction. In addition, some bars are ribbed or twisted so that there is an extra mechanical grip. ‘In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, it is assumed that there is a perfect bond, so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the strain in the adjacent concrete, This ensures that there is what is known as ‘compatibility of strains’ across the cross-section of the member. ‘The coefficients of thermal expansion for stee! and for concrete are of the order of 10 « 10°® per °C and 7-12 x10 per °C respectively, These values are sufficiently cloxe that problems with bond seldom arise from differential expansion between the two materials over normal temperature ranges. Figure 1.1 illustrates the behaviour of simply supported beam subjected to bending and shows the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tensile forces, while the compression forces in the top of the beam are carried by the concrete. AU Strain Section AA Distribution Tension Cracking A Reinforcement Wherever tension occurs itis likely that cracking of the concrete will take place. This cracking, however, does not detract from the safety of the structure provided there is good reinforcement bond to ensure that the cracks are restrained from opening so that the embedded steel continues to be protected from corrosion. When the compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of the concrete, then steel reinforcement must again be provided, but in these cases it is only required to supplement the load-carrying capacity of the concrete. For example, compression rein forcement is generally required in a column, where it takes the form of vertical bars spaced neat the perimeter. To prevent these bars buckling, steel binders are used to assist the restraint provided by the surrounding concrete.F.K. Kong and R.H. Evans, Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete, Chapman & Hall, London, 1988 RM, Lawson, Commentary on BS $980 Part 3 Seetion 3.1, Composite Beams. The Steel Construction Institute, 1990, T.Y, Lin and N.H. Bums, Design of Prestressed Conerete Structures. J. Wiley, Chichester, 1983, ‘T.J, MaeGinley and B.S. Choo, Reinforced Concrete Design Theory and Examples. E & F N Spon, London, 1990, W.H. Mosley, R, Hulse and J.H. Bungey, Reinfareed Concrete Design to Eurocode 2, Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1996. A.M. Neville, Properties of Concrete, 4th edn, Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, 1998, A.M, Neville and J.J. Brooks, Concrete Technology. Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, 1987. A\H, Nilson and G. Winter, Design of Concrete Structures, McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead, 1991 C.E, Reynolds and J.C. Steedian, Reinforced Concrete Designer's Handbook, 10th edn. E & FN Spon, London, 1988, Concise EuroCode for the Design of Concrete Buildings. British Cement Association, Crowthome, Berks, 1993 Worked Examples for the Design of Concrete Buildings. British Cement Association, ‘Crowthorne, Berks, 1994. Further reading {ser384 fl inaex Loading arrangements 25-26, 34, 221, 249, 297 Loads characteristic 17 dead 24 imposed or live 24, 282, 297 typical values 374 Long-term deflection 332, 335 Loss of prestress 327-331 112, 119-123, Magnel diagram 321-324 Material properties 1-13, 54 Maximum bar spacing L05S—107, 109, 151, 160, 164, 186, 225, 275 Maximum steel areas 108, 147, 224-225, 378, Minimum bar spacing 107, 160 Minimum steel areas 108, 147, 161, 180, 185, 196, 222-225, 271, 281, 287, 377 Modular ratio 90, 294 Modulus of elasticity see Elastic modulus Moment coefficients 32, 190, 194 Moment envelopes 32, 37, 156, 165 Moment redistribution 48-52, 56-7, 73-76, 149, 179 Moments in columns 34, 39, 43, 221,230, 243, 245-246 Neutral-axis depth 56-57, 59, 66 Nominal reinforcement 108, 147, 161, 180, 195, 286 Non-rectangular sections 83-84, 237-239 Overturning 21, 26, 297 Pad footings 250-256 Parabola, properties of 86 Partial safety factors 17-18, 248, 275, 297 Permissible bearing pressures 271 Permissible stresses 19, 284, 294, 315 Pile caps 268-273 Piled foundations 265-273 Prestressed concrete analysis and design 308-349 cable zone 324-327 deflections 331-335 end block 335-338 losses 327-331 Magnel diagrams 321-324 Ppost-tensioning 310 pretensioning 308-309 serviceability 315-335 shear 344-349 transfer stress 316-317 ultimate strength 338-343, Punching shear 180-184, 198, 202, 253, 271 Raft foundations 264-265 Rectangular stress block 55-59 Reetangular-parabolic stress block 55, 84-86 Redistribution of moments 48-82, 56-51, 73-16, 149, 179 Reinforcement areas 375 bond lengths 377 characteristic strengths 12, 16 circumference 375 lap lengths 99, 377 iaximum and minimum areas 108, 147, 161, 180, 185, 196, 222-225, 271, 281, 287, 377 properties 5, 12, 54-55 spacing 105-107, 151, 160, 164, 185, 225 torsion 100-103, 174-177 untensioned 342-343 Retaining walls analysis and design 296-304 cantilever 296, 300-304 counterfort 295 gravity 295, 297 Serviceability limit state cracking 125-134, 282-286, 294 deflections 111-124, 331-335 durability 11, 104, 134-135 factors of safety 17-19 fire resistance | 15, 105-107, 136 Shear beams 29, 93-97, 160-163 concrete stresses 95, 160 footings 253, 254-255, 270 prestressed beams 344=349 punching 180-184, 198, 202, 253, reinforcement 93-97, 160-163, 172, 346-349 slabs 179-184, 202 torsion 100-103, 174-177 Shear wall structures resisting horizontal loads 43-46 with openings 47 with structural frames 47-48Figure 1.4 ‘Modul of elasticity of concrete 4 1 Reinforced concrete design shown is for the typical variation of an adequately cured concrete made with commonly used class 42.5 Portland Cement, Some codes of practice allow the concrete strength used in design to be varied according to the age of the concrete when it supports the design load, BS 8110 does not permit the use of strengths greater than the 28-day value in calculations, but the Modulus of Elasticity may be modified to account for age as shown overleaf. Modulus of elasticity of concrete Ir ig seen from the stress-strain curve for conerete that although elastic behaviour may be assumed for stresses below about one-third of the ultimate compressive strength, this relationship is not truly linear, Consequently it is necessary to define precisely what value is to be taken as the modulus of elasticity. stress strain ‘A number of alternative definitions exist, but the most commonly adopted is E = Bs where F, ig known as the secant or static modulus, This is measured for a particular concrete by means of static test in which a cylinder is loaded to just above one-third of the corresponding control cube stress and then cycled back to zero stress. This removes the effect of initial “bedding-in’ and minor stress redistributions in the concrete under load, Load is then reapplied and the behaviour will then be almost linear; the average slope of the line up to the specified stress is taken as the value for Z. The testis described in detail in BS 1881 and the result is generally known as the instantaneous static modulus of elasticity. “The dynamic modulus of elasticity, Bay, is sometimes referred to since this is much easier to measure in the laboratory and there is a fairly well-defined relationship between F and Fey. The standard test is based on determining the resonant frequency of 4 laboratory prism specimen and is also described in BS 1881. It is also possible to obtain a good estimate of Exy from ultrasonic measuring techniques, which may ‘sometimes be used on site to assess the concrete in an actual structure, The standard test for Hy is on an unstressed specimen, lt can be seen fiom figure 1.4 that the value obtained represents the slope of the tangent at zero stress and Ey, is therefore higher than £,, The relationship between the two moduli is given by Static modulus B, = (1.25Beq — 19) kNémm? ‘This equation is sufficiently accurate for normal design purposes. , lA - Etat) Strain380 Further reading (a) British Standards and Eurocodes BS 1881 BS 4449 BS 4466, BS 4482 BS 4483 BS 5057 BS 5328 BS 5896 BS 5950. BS 6399 BS 8002 BS 8604 BS 8007 BS 8110 DD ENV 1992-1-1 DD ENV 206 Draft prEN 10080 Methods of testing concrete Specification for carbon steel bars for the reinforcement af concrete Specification for bending dimensions and scheduling of reinforcement for concrete Cold reduced steel wire for the reinforcement of concrete Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete Concrete admixtures Part 1: Guide to specifying concrete Specification for kigh tensife steet wire and strand for the prestressing af concrete Structural use of steelwork on buildings. Part 3: Design in composite consinection Design loading for buildings Earth retaining structures Foundations Code of practice for the design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous liquids Struetural use of conerese, Parts 1, 2 and 3 Eurocode 2; Design of concrete structures, Part | Conerete — performance, production, placing and compliance criteria Steel for the reinforcement of concrete (b) Textbook and other publications A.W. Beeby and R. $. Narayanan, Designers Handbook to EureCode 2. Thomas Telford, London, 1995. JH. Bungey and 8. G. Millard, The Testing of Concrete in Structures, 3rd edn, Chapman & Hall, Londen, 1995. R. Hulse and W.H, Mosley, Reinforced Concrete Design by Computer, Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1986, R, Hulse and W.H, Mosley, Prestressed Concrete Design by Computer. Macrnillan, Basingstoke, 1987, M.K. Hurst, Prestressed Concrete Design, 2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, London, 1998.Short columns 222-224, 226-227 Shrinkage 7-10, 116, 131-134, 285, 329 Slabs continuous, spanning one direction 190-192 fla 197-203 hollow block 203-205 ‘one-span, spanning one direction 187-190 ribbed 203-207 spanning, two directions stair 209-212 strip method 218-219 waffle 203, 207-209 Slender column 222-224, 241-246 193-197, Spacing of reinforcement 105-107, 151, 160, 164, 185, 225 Span-effective depth ratios 109-111, 123-125, 184-188, 199 Stability 136-141, 249, 296 Stairs 209-212 Steel characteristic stresses 12, 16 stress-strain curves. 3-6, 54-55, 339 yield strains 55 Stirrups see Links Swap footings 259-261 Stress blocks 55, 84-91 Stresses anchorage 97-99, 275, 285 bond 97-99, 275, 285 concrete, characteristic 11, 16 permissible 19, 284, 294, 315, shear 95, 344-349 steel, characteristic 12, 16 ‘Stress—strain curves 3-4, 54-57, 339 Strip footings 261-264 Strip method 218-219 Substitute frame braced 33-39 column 33, 39, 230 continuous beam 33-34 I 385 Index ‘Tanks 274-294 ‘T-beams analysis 66-73 design 154, 168 flange reinforcement 108-154 flange width 154 second moment of arcé span-effective depth 1 Tendons 308-310 ‘Thermal cracking 9, 131-134, 285-286 Thermal movement 6, 9-10, 278 Tie forces 137-141 39 10 ‘Torsion analysis 100-103, design 174-177 ‘Transfer stresses 305, 315-317 ‘Transmission length 309 ‘Triangular stress block 87-91, 113-114, 294 Ultimate limit state factors of safety 1718, 248, 275, 297 loading arrangements 25-26, 179, 221, 296-298 prestressed concrete 338-343 stability 26, 249, 296 Uneracked section 89-91, 113-114 Untensioned steel in prestressed concrete 342 Walls 246-247 Water-retaining structures elastic analysis 87-91 elastic design 294 joints 277-280 limit state design 282-294 reinforcement details 280-281 Weights of materials 374 Wind loading 18, 24, 40, 248 Wire fabric 376 Yield lines 213-217 Yield strains 55 ‘Young’s modulus see Elastic modulus