OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY — QC
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE — BS PSYCHOLOGY 2ND YEAR
PSYCHSOC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
SUBJECT: PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
(PHYP211)
WEEK 2
THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH TO
PSYCHOLOGY NEURONS AND ACTION
POTENTIALS
BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
● study of the physiological, evolutionary, and
developmental mechanisms of behavior and
experience. Much of biological psychology is devoted
to studying how the brain functions.
● emphasizes that the goal of this field is to relate
biology to issues of psychology. In comparison, the
field of neuroscience includes much of the same
content but with more emphasis on chemistry and
anatomy
● Focus on brain function (i.e., how neurons and glia
cells work): The activities of neurons and glia
somehow produce an enormous wealth of behavior
and experience.
● NEUROSCIENCE includes much that is relevant to
behavior but also includes more detail about anatomy
and chemistry.
DIVISIONS OF BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
● studies the neural mechanisms of behavior
through the direct manipulation of the brain in
controlled experiments surgical and electrical
methods of brain manipulation are most
common.
PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY
● Is similar to physiological psychology, except that
it focuses on the manipulation of neural activity
and behavior with drugs.
NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
● The study of the psychological effects of brain
damage in human patients.
PHYSIOPSYCHOLOGY
● The division of biopsychology that studies the
relation between physiological activity and
psychological processes in human subjects.
PHYSIOPSYCHOLOGY
● The division of biopsychology that studies the
relation between physiological activity and
psychological processes in human subjects.
COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
● newest division of biopsychology that focuses on
the neural bases of cognitive processes like
learning and memory, attention, and complex
perceptual processes.
● often employs human subjects; key methods are
noninvasive, functional brain imaging techniques
● often involves collaborations between
researchers with widely different backgrounds
(e.g., psychology, linguistics, computer science)
COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
● study of evolutionary and genetic factors in
behavior.
● features comparative and functional approaches
● features laboratory research as well as studies of
animals in their natural environments (ethology)
DIVERSITY OF BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES OF HUMAN & NON-HUMAN SUBJECTS
ADVANTAGES OF HUMAN ADVANTAGES OF
NON-HUMAN
● can follow ● have simpler
instructions nervous systems
● can report ● possible to use
subjective comparative,
experiences cross-species
● are often less approach
expensive ● fewer ethical
have a human brain constraints
EXPERIMENTS & NON-EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENTS
● the method used by scientists to study causation,
that is, to find out what causes what.
● almost single-handedly responsible for the
knowledge that is the basis for our modern way
of life.
● when a different group of subjects is tested under
each treatment condition of the experiment; this
is a between-subjects design.
● when same group of subjects can be tested under
multiple treatment conditions; this is a
within-subjects design.
➢ INDEPENDENT VARIABLES. manipulated by the
experimenter; these manipulations produce
different treatment conditions in an experiment.
➢ DEPENDENT VARIABLES. reflect the subject’s
behavior; this is what the experiment measures.
➢ CONFOUNDED VARIABLES. other unintended
differences among conditions that can influence
the dependent variable.
NON EXPERIMENTS
● The presence of confounded variables makes
experiments difficult to interpret because it is
impossible to tell how much (if any) of the effect
on the dependent variable was caused by the
independent variable and how much (if any) was
caused by the confounded variable.
A. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL. researchers
examine subjects in real world situations
who have self-selected into the specific
conditions (e.g., excessive alcohol intake);
in a sense these subjects have assigned
themselves to the treatment conditions.
PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH
PURE RESEARCH
● is motivated primarily by the curiosity of the
researcher; it is motivated by the desire to find
out how things work; it focuses on establishing
building blocks or basic concepts that may
provide information salient to many problems.
APPLIED RESEARCH
● is motivated by an attempt to directly use the
building blocks of basic research to answer
1 I MONCADA, HAZEL A.
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY — QC
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE — BS PSYCHOLOGY 2ND YEAR
PSYCHSOC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
specific questions; human and animal
problems are specifically addressed.
EVOLUTION, GENETICS & EXPERIENCE
Descartes (1596 1650) advocated a philosophy physical matter,
which behaves according to the laws of nature and is thus a
suitable object of scientific investigation; and
A. physical matter, which behaves according to the laws
of nature and is thus a suitable object of scientific
investigation; and
B. The human mind (soul, self, or spirit), which lacks
physical substance, controls human behavior, obeys no
natural laws, and is thus the appropriate purview of
the Church. The human body, including the brain, was
assumed to be entirely physical, and so were
nonhuman animals.
ETHOLOGY
● the study of animal behavior in the wild
INSTINCTIVE BEHAVIOR
● behaviors that occur in all like members of a species,
even when there seems to have been no opportunity
for them to have been learned.
THINKING ABOUT EVOLUTION
● Evolution does not proceed in a single line.
● We humans have little reason to claim evolutionary
supremacy. We are the last surviving species of a
family (i.e., hominins) that has existed for only a blip of
evolutionary time.
● Evolution does not always proceed slowly and
gradually. Rapid evolutionary changes (i.e., in a few
generations) can be triggered by sudden changes in
the environment or by adaptive genetic mutations.
● Few products of evolution have survived to the
present day; only the tips of the branches of the
evolutionary bush have survived. Fewer than 1% of all
known species are still in existence.
● Evolution does not progress to preordained
perfection; evolution is a tinkerer, not an architect.
● Not all existing behaviors or structures are adaptive.
● Not all existing adaptive characteristics evolved to
perform their current function. For example, bird
wings are exaptations; they are limbs that first evolved
for the purpose of walking.
● Similarities among species do not necessarily mean
that the species have common evolutionary origins.
Structures that are similar because they have a
common evolutionary origin are termed homologous;
structures that are similar but do not have a common
evolutionary origin are termed analogous.
HUMAN EVOLUTION
● Darwin presented three kinds of evidence to support
his assertion that species evolve:
1. Evolution of fossil records through progressively more
recent geological layers.
2. He described striking structural similarities among
living species.
3. He pointed to the major changes that had been
brought about in domestic plants and animals by
programs of selective breeding.
➢ NATURAL SELECTION. heritable traits that are
associated with high rates of survival and reproduction
are the most likely ones to be passed on to future.
➢ FITNESS. In the Darwinian sense, is the ability of an
organism to survive and contribute its genes to the
next generation.
EVOLUTION & BEHAVIOR
SOCIAL DOMINANCE
● The males of many species establish a stable hierarchy
of social dominance through combative encounters
with other males.
COURTSHIP DISPLAY
● are thought to promote the evolution of new species.
TWO KINDS OF CELLS
NEURONS
● convey messages to one another and to muscles and
glands, vary enormously in size, shape, and functions.
The adult human brain contains approximately 86 billion
neurons, on average
GLIA
● smaller than neurons, have many functions but do not
convey information over great distances.
BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF BEHAVIOR
1. PHYSIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION. relates a behavior to
the activity of the brain and other organs. It deals with
the machinery of the body
2. ONTOGENETIC EXPLANATION. describes how a
structure or behavior develops, including the
influences of genes, nutrition, experiences, and their
interactions.
3. EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION. reconstructs the
evolutionary history of a structure or behavior.
4. FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION. describes why a
structure or behavior evolved as it did.
STRUCTURES OF ANIMAL CELL
➢ PLASMA MEMBRANE. The surface of a cell, a structure
that separates the inside of the cell from the outside
environment.
➢ NUCLEUS. the structure that contains the
chromosomes.
➢ MITOCHONDRION (plural: mitochondria). the
structure that performs metabolic activities, providing
the energy that the cell uses for all activities.
➢ RIBOSOME. the sites within a cell that synthesize new
protein molecules.
➢ PROTEINS. provide building materials for the cell and
facilitate chemical reactions.
➢ ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. a network of thin tubes
that transport newly synthesized proteins to other
locations.
STRUCTURES OF NEURON
The most distinctive feature of neurons is their shape, which
varies enormously from one neuron to another. Larger neurons
contain four major components: dendrites, cell body, axon, and
presynaptic terminal. The tiniest neurons may lack axons and
well-defined dendrites.
➢ MOTOR NEURON. with its soma in the spinal cord,
receives excitation through its dendrites and conducts
impulses along its axon to a muscle.
➢ SENSORY NEURON. specialized at one end to be highly
sensitive to a particular type of stimulation, such as
light, sound, or touch
COMPONENTS OF NEURONS
➢ DENDRITES. branching fibers that get narrower near
their ends. The dendrite’s surface is lined with
specialized synaptic receptors, at which the dendrite
receives information from other neurons.
➢ SYNAPTIC RECEPTORS. The dendrite receives
information from other neurons.
The greater the surface area of a dendrite, the more
information it can receive
➢ DENDRITIC SPINES. short outgrowths that increase the
surface area available for synapses
➢ CELL BODY, or SOMA. (Greek for “body”; plural:
somata), contains the nucleus, ribosomes, and
2 I MONCADA, HAZEL A.
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY — QC
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE — BS PSYCHOLOGY 2ND YEAR
PSYCHSOC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
mitochondria.
➢ AXON. a long, thin fiber of constant diameter. (The
term axon comes from a Greek word meaning “axis.”)
which is the information-sending part of the neuron,
sending an impulse toward other neurons, an organ, or
a muscle.
➢ MYELIN SHEATH. covered with an insulating material
with interruptions known as Nodes of Ranvier
➢ PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL. the end of each branch has
a swelling also known as end bulb or bouton. Axon
releases chemicals that cross through the junction
between that neuron and another cell.
➢ AFFERENT AXON brings information into a structure
(admit)
➢ EFFERENT AXON carries information away from a
structure (exit)
➢ INTERNEURON or INTRINSIC NEURON. cell’s dendrites
and axon are entirely contained within a single
structure
GLIA (NEUROGLIA)
The term glia, derived from a Greek word meaning “glue,”
reflects early investigators’ idea that glia were like glue that
held the neurons together.
➢ ASTROCYTES. The star-shaped which wrap around the
synapses of functionally related axons. Astrocytes
remove waste products as well, particularly those
created after neurons die. Astrocytes also cause blood
vessels to dilate to bring in more nutrients at times of
increased brain activity. They act as a recycling system
for glutamate released by neurons (absorbing excess
glutamate then converting it to glutamine and passing
it back into the neurons).
○ TRIPARTITE SYNAPSE. the tip of an axon releases
chemicals that cause the neighboring astrocyte to
release chemicals of its own, thus magnifying or
modifying the message to the next neuron
➢ MICROGLIA. Tiny cells; act as part of the immune
system, removing viruses and fungi from the brain
➢ OLIGODENDROCYTES. brain and spinal cord; builds the
myelin sheaths around certain neurons in the brain
and spinal cord. Schwann cells: A type of glia that
builds the myelin sheaths around certain neurons in
the periphery of the body. Radial glia: Guides the
migration of neurons and the growth of axons and
dendrites during embryonic development.
➢ SCHWANN CELLS. periphery of the body build the
myelin sheaths that surround and insulate certain
vertebrate axons
➢ RADIAL GLIA. guide the migration of neurons and
their axons and dendrites during embryonic
development.
RESTING POTENTIAL OF NEURON
All parts of a neuron are covered by a membrane about 8
nanometers (nm) thick.
The membrane of a neuron maintains an electrical gradient (a
difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside
of the cell).
In the absence of any outside disturbance (i.e., at rest), the
membrane maintains an electrical polarization (i.e., a difference
in electrical charge between two locations) that is slightly more
negative on the inside relative to the outside. This difference in
electrical potential or voltage is known as the resting potential.
The resting potential is measured by very thin
microelectrodes. A typical resting membrane potential is -70
millivolts (mV). This may vary from one neuron to another.
➢ PHOSPHOLIPID MOLECULES. containing chains of fatty
acids and a phosphate group
➢ ELECTRICAL GRADIENT (POLARIZATION). a difference
in electrical charge between the inside and outside of
the cell.
ACTION POTENTIAL
Messages sent by axons are called action potentials.
➢ HYPERPOLARIZATION. increased polarization. Occurs
when the negative charge inside the axon increases
(e.g., -70 mV becomes -80 mV).
➢ DEPOLARIZATION. reduce its polarization toward zero.
Occurs when the negative charge inside the axon
decreases (e.g., -70 mV becomes -55 mV).
➢ SUBTHRESHOLD STIMULATION. produces a small
response that quickly decays
REFRACTORY PERIOD
At the peak of the action potential, the sodium gates snap
shut. As a result, the cell is in a refractory period during which it
resists the production of further action potentials.
1. ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD, the membrane
cannot produce another action potential, regardless of
the stimulation.
2. RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD, a stronger than-usual
stimulus is necessary to initiate an action potential.
KEY TERMS
1. MONISM the idea that the universe consists of only
one type of being
2. DUALISM - the idea that minds are one type of
substance and matter is another.
3. GENETIC DRIFT - a gene can spread by accident
through a process within a small, isolated population
4. BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER - mechanism that excludes
most chemicals from the vertebrate brain
5. ACTIVE TRANSPORT - a protein-mediated process that
expends energy to pump chemicals from the blood
into the brain.
6. GLUCOSE - brain's main fuel
7. AMINO ACIDS - building blocks of proteins
8. THIAMINE - Vitamin B1
9. KORSAKOFF'S SYNDROME - severe memory
impairments
10. SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY. some chemicals pass
through it more freely than others do.
11. SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP. protein complex,
repeatedly transports three sodium ions out of the cell
while drawing two potassium ions into it
12. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT. the difference in
distribution of ions across the membrane
13. ALL-OR-NONE LAW. the amplitude and velocity of an
action potential are independent of the intensity of
the stimulus that initiated it, provided that the
stimulus reaches the threshold.
14. VOLTAGE-GATED CHANNELS. axon channels regulating
sodium and potassium
15. LOCAL ANESTHETIC DRUG. such as Novocain and
Xylocaine, attach to the sodium channels of the
membrane, preventing sodium ions from entering.
16. PROPAGATION OF THE ACTION POTENTIAL. describes
the transmission of an action potential down an axon
17. SALTATORY CONDUCTION. jumping of action
potentials from node to node
18. LOCAL NEURONS. Neurons without an axon exchange
information with only their closest neighbors.
19. GRADED POTENTIAL. a membrane potential that
varies in magnitude in proportion to the intensity of
the stimulus.
WEEK 3
COMMUNICATION AT SYNAPSES
PROPERTIES OF SYNAPSES
Sherrington deduced the properties of the synapse from his
experiments on reflexes (an automatic muscular response to
stimuli). Reflex arc: the circuit from sensory neuron to muscle
response. Sherrington discovered that:
● REFLEXES. slower than conduction along an axon.
Automatic muscular responses to stimuli.
3 I MONCADA, HAZEL A.
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY — QC
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE — BS PSYCHOLOGY 2ND YEAR
PSYCHSOC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE

● Several weak stimuli presented at slightly ➢ NITRIC OXIDE. oddest transmitter (chemical formula
different times or locations produce a stronger reflex than a NO), a gas released by many small local neurons.
single stimulus does.
● Excitation of one set of muscles leads to a relaxation of
others. ACTIVATING RECEPTORS OF THE POSTSYNAPTIC
● REFLEX ARC. The circuit from sensory neuron to muscle CELL
response ➢ IONOTROPIC EFFECTS. When the neurotransmitter
attaches to its receptor, the receptor may open this
TEMPORAL SUMMATION channel—exerting
Sherrington found that repeated stimuli within a brief time have a ➢ METABOTROPIC EFFECT. produce a slower but longer
cumulative effect. He referred to this phenomenon as temporal
effect
summation, meaning summation over time.
➢ G PROTEIN. protein coupled to guanosine
➢ PRESYNAPTIC NEURON. neuron that delivers
triphosphate (GTP), an energy storing molecule.
transmission
➢ POSTSYNAPTIC NEURON. Neuron that receives it
➢ SECOND MESSENGER communicates to areas within
➢ GRADED POTENTIAL: Either depolarization (excitatory)
the cell
or hyperpolarization (inhibitory) of the postsynaptic
➢ Researchers often refer to the neuropeptides as
neuron.
NEUROMODULATORS, because they have properties
○ EXCITATORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL (EPSP). A
that set them apart from other transmitters .
graded depolarization; results from a flow of sodium
➢ HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS. drugs that distort
ions into the neuron. EPSPs are not action potentials:
perception, such as lysergic acid diethylamide
The EPSP’s magnitude decreases as it moves along the
(LSD)—chemically resemble serotonin
membrane
➢ NICOTINE. a compound present in tobacco, stimulates
○ INHIBITORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL (IPSP): A
a family of acetylcholine receptors, conveniently
temporary hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell
known as nicotinic receptors.
(this occurs when K+ leaves the cell or Cl- enters the
➢ OPIATE DRUGS. derived from, or chemically similar to
cell after it is stimulated).
those derived from, the opium poppy
➢ SPATIAL SUMMATION. summation over space. Several
synaptic inputs originating from separate locations
exerting a cumulative effect on a postsynaptic neuron. INACTIVATION AND REUPTAKE OF
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
SEQUENCE OF CHEMICAL EVENTS AT A SYNAPSE ➢ ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE. breaks the receptor into
1. Neurons synthesize chemicals called two fragments: acetate and choline.
neurotransmitters. The presynaptic neuron takes up much or most of the released
2. Action potentials travel down the axon. At the axon of neurotransmitter molecules intact and reuses them. This
presynaptic terminal, the action potentials cause process, called reuptake, occurs through special membrane
calcium to enter the cell, which leads to the release of proteins called transporters.
neurotransmitters from the terminal into the synaptic ➢ CATECHOL-O-METHYLTRANSFERASE (COMT). Any
cleft (space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic transmitter molecules that the transporters do not
neuron). take will instead break down by this
3. Neurotransmitters, once released into the synaptic ➢ METHYLPHENIDATE (RITALIN). Another stimulant drug
cleft, attach to receptors and alter activity of the is often prescribed for people with attention
postsynaptic neuron. deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
4. The neurotransmitters will separate from their
receptors and (in some cases) are converted into NEGATIVE FEEDBACK FROM THE POSTSYNAPTIC
inactive chemicals. CELL
5. In some cells, much of the released neurotransmitter is ➢ AUTORECEPTORS. receptors that respond to the
taken back into the presynaptic neuron for recycling. In released transmitter by inhibiting further synthesis and
some cells, empty vesicles are returned to the cell release. That is, they provide negative feedback
body. TWO REVERSE TRANSMITTERS: Anandamide and 2-AG
6. Some postsynaptic cells send negative feedback (sn-2 arachidonoylglycerol).
messages to slow further release of the transmitter by ➢ CANNABINOIDS. active chemicals in marijuana, bind
the presynaptic cells to anandamide or 2-AG receptors on presynaptic
neurons, indicating, “The cell got your message. Stop
SYNAPSES, DRUGS, AND ADDICTIONS sending it.”
1. Drugs can affect synapses by either blocking the
effects (an antagonist) or mimicking (increasing) the
effects (an agonist) of a neurotransmitter. A drug that
is a mixed agonist-antagonist is an agonist for some
behavioral effects or doses and an antagonist for
others.
2. Drugs can influence synaptic activity in many ways,
including altering synthesis of the neurotransmitter,
disrupting the vesicles, increasing release, decreasing
reuptake, blocking its breakdown into inactive
chemicals, or directly stimulating or blocking
postsynaptic receptors.
3. Affinity: How strongly the drug attaches to the
receptor.
4. Efficacy: The tendency of the drug to activate a
receptor. HORMONES
A hormone is a chemical secreted by cells in one part of the
NEUROTRANSMITTERS body and conveyed by the blood to influence other cells.
At a synapse, a neuron releases chemicals that affect another neuron. ➢ 2 TYPES OF HORMONES
Those chemicals are known as neurotransmitters ○ PROTEIN HORMONES & PEPTIDE HORMONES

4 I MONCADA, HAZEL A.
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY — QC
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE — BS PSYCHOLOGY 2ND YEAR
PSYCHSOC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
composed of chains of amino acids
➢ PITUITARY GLAND. attached to the hypothalamus
○ Anterior Pituitary.
○ Posterior Pituitary. composed of neural tissue, can
be considered an extension of the hypothalamus
➢ NEURONS IN HYPOTHALAMUS
○ Oxytocin and Vasopressin (Antidiuretic Hormone).
migrate down axons to the posterior pituitary
➢ RELEASING HORMONES. flow through the blood to the
anterior pituitary. There they stimulate or inhibit the release
of other hormones.
KEY TERMS
1. INHIBITORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL (IPSP).
temporary hyperpolarization of a membrane
2. SPONTANEOUS FIRING RATE. a periodic production of
action potentials even without synaptic input.
3. CATECHOLAMINES. relationship among epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and dopamine—compounds
4. TRYPTOPHAN. precursor to serotonin, crosses the
blood–brain barrier by a special transport system that
it shares with other large amino acids.
5. MONOAMINE OXIDASE. breaks down these
transmitters into inactive chemicals, thereby
preventing the transmitters from accumulating to
harmful levels.
6. EXOCYTOSIS. bursts of release of neurotransmitter
from the presynaptic neuron. An action potential often
fails to release any transmitter, and even when it does,
the amount varies
WEEK 4
BRAIN ANATOMY
● NEUROANATOMY. the anatomy of the nervous system
➢ CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS). brain and the
spinal cord
➢ PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS). connects the
brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body
○ Somatic Nervous System. consists of the axons
conveying messages from the sense organs to the CNS
and from the CNS to the muscles.
○ Autonomic Nervous System. controls the heart,
intestines, and other organs.
THE SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is the part of the CNS within the spinal column. The
spinal cord communicates with all the sense organs and muscles
except those of the head
➢ DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA. cell bodies of the sensory
neurons are in clusters of neurons outside the spinal
cord
➢ GRAY MATTER. H-shaped in the center of the cord is
densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites.
➢ WHITE MATTER. Many neurons from the gray matter
of the spinal cord send axons to the brain or to other
parts of the spinal cord through this and contain
myelinated axons.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)
The autonomic nervous system consists of neurons that
receive information from and send commands to the heart,
intestines, and other organs.
➢ SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. "Fight or Flight"
system (prepares the body for action by increasing
heart rate, blood pressure, etc.). a network of nerves
that prepare the organs for a burst of vigorous activity,
consists of chains of ganglia just to the left and right of
the spinal cord’s central regions (the thoracic and
lumbar areas). Because the ganglia for the sympathetic
nervous system are near the spinal cord, they often act
as a single system. The sweat glands, adrenal glands,
the muscles that constrict blood vessels, and the
muscles that erect the hairs of the skin only receive
sympathetic input.
➢ PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. sometimes
called the “rest and digest” system, facilitates
vegetative, non emergency responses. The term para
means “beside” or “related to,” and parasympathetic
activities are related to, and generally the opposite of,
sympathetic activities.
● Preganglionic. long preganglionic axons
extend from the spinal cord to
parasympathetic ganglia close to each
internal organ.
● Postganglionic. Shorter postganglionic fibers
then extend from the parasympathetic
ganglia into the organs themselves
HINDBRAIN (RHOMBENCEPHALON)
● the posterior part of the brain consists of the medulla,
the pons, and the cerebellum.
○ Medulla, or medulla oblongata. an enlarged
extension of the spinal cord
○ Pons. lie anterior and ventral to the medulla. Like the
medulla, it contains nuclei for several cranial nerves.
○ Cerebellum. a large hindbrain structure with many
deep folds. It has long been known for its
contributions to the control of movement, and
important for balance and coordination
MIDBRAIN (MESENCEPHALON)
● the middle of the brain, although in adult mammals it
is dwarfed and surrounded by the forebrain.
○ Tectum. roof of the midbrain
○ Superior and Inferior Colliculus. swellings on each
side of the tectum; important for sensory
processing—the inferior colliculus for hearing and the
superior colliculus for vision.
○ Tegmentum. intermediate level of the midbrain
○ Substantia nigra. gives rise to a
dopamine-containing pathway that facilitates
readiness for movement.
FOREBRAIN (PROSENCEPHALON)
● the most prominent part of the mammalian brain,
consists of two cerebral hemispheres, one on the left
and one on the right.
○ Cerebral Cortex. Outer portion
○ Limbic System. form a border around the brainstem.
AMYGDALA
● part of the circuit that is most central for evaluating
emotional information, especially with regard to fear.
THALAMUS
● pair of structures (left and right) in the center of the
forebrain.
HYPOTHALAMUS
● a small area near the base of the brain just ventral to
the thalamus, has widespread connections with the
5 I MONCADA, HAZEL A.
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY — QC
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE — BS PSYCHOLOGY 2ND YEAR
PSYCHSOC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
rest of the brain
● The hypothalamus contains distinct nuclei, which we
examine in the chapters on motivation and emotion
PITUITARY GLAND
● an endocrine (hormone-producing) gland attached to
the base of the hypothalamus. In response to
messages from the hypothalamus, the pituitary
synthesizes hormones that the blood carries to organs
throughout the body.
BASAL GANGLIA
● group of subcortical structures lateral to the thalamus
● integrate motivational and emotional behavior to
increase the vigor of selected actions.
BASAL FOREBRAIN
➢ NUCLEUS BASALIS. receives input from the
hypothalamus and basal ganglia and sends axons that
release acetylcholine to widespread areas in the
cerebral cortex
HIPPOCAMPUS
● a large structure between the thalamus and the
cerebral cortex, mostly toward the posterior of the
forebrain
VENTRICLES
The nervous system begins its development as a tube
surrounding a fluid canal. The canal persists into adulthood as
the central canal in the center of the spinal cord, and as the
ventricles, four fluid-filled cavities within the brain
➢ CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF). a clear fluid similar to
blood plasma
➢ MENINGES. membranes that surround the brain and
spinal cord.
CEREBRAL CORTEX
The most prominent part of the mammalian brain.
➢ OCCIPITAL LOBE. at the posterior (caudal) end of the
cortex, is the main target for visual information
● primary visual cortex or striate cortex.
posterior pole
● cortical blindness. Destruction of any part of
the striate cortex
➢ PARIETAL LOBE. lies between the occipital lobe and
the central sulcus
● Central sulcus. deep groove in the surface of
the cortex
● postcentral gyrus, or primary somatosensory
cortex. posterior to the central sulcus,
receives sensations from touch receptors,
muscle-stretch receptors, and joint receptors.
➢ TEMPORAL LOBE. lateral portion of each hemisphere,
near the temples. It is the primary cortical target for
auditory information.
➢ FRONTAL LOBE. containing the primary motor cortex
and the prefrontal cortex, extends from the central
sulcus to the anterior limit of the brain.
● Precentral gyrus. also known as the primary
motor cortex; specialized for the control of
fine movements, such as moving a finger.
● Prefrontal cortex. most anterior portion.
Forms a large portion of the brain in
large-brained species. Receives information
from all of our senses.
RESEARCH METHODS
Describing the structure of the brain is a straightforward endeavor.
Understanding how the brain works is more difficult. The main
categories of methods for studying brain function are as follows:
1. Examine the effects of brain damage.
2. Examine the effects of stimulating a brain area.
3. Record brain activity during behavior.
4. Correlate brain anatomy with behavior.
KEY TERMS
1. HYDROCEPHALUS. overgrown head; mental
retardation, although the results vary from one person
to another.
2. PRIMATES. monkeys, apes, and humans
3. LAMINAE. layers of cell bodies that are parallel to the
surface of the cortex and separated from each other
by layers of fibers
4. KLÜVER-BUCY SYNDROME. Temporal lobe damage can
lead to a set of behaviors
5. PREFRONTAL LOBOTOMY. surgical disconnection of
the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the brain.
6. DELAYED-RESPONSE TASK. People with damage to the
prefrontal cortex have trouble with this in which they
see or hear something, and then have to respond to it
after a delay.
7. BINDING PROBLEM. how various brain areas produce
a perception of a single object
8. BROCA'S AREA. Additional patients with loss of speech
also showed damage in and around frontal cortex
9. ELECTRIC LESION. a crude technique that damages the
axons passing through as well as the neurons in the
area itself
10. GENE-KNOCKOUT APPROACH. directs a mutation to a
gene that regulates one type of cell, transmitter, or
receptor.
11. TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION (TMS). the
application of magnetic stimulation to a portion of the
scalp, can stimulate neurons in the area below the
magnet, if the stimulation is sufficiently brief and mild.
12. OPTOGENETICS. using light to control a limited
population of neurons
13. ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPH (EEG). records electrical
activity of the brain through electrodes— ranging from
just a few to more than a hundred—attached to the
scalp
14. EVOKED RESPONSES. useful for many purposes,
including studies of infants too young to give verbal
answers
15. MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY (MEG). measures the
faint magnetic fields generated by brain activity
16. POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET). provides a
high resolution image of activity in a living brain by
recording the emission of radioactivity from injected
chemicals
17. FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
(fMRI). less expensive and less risky
18. PHRENOLOGY. process of relating skull anatomy to
behavior
WEEK 5
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY
MATURATION OF THE VERTEBRATE BRAIN
The human central nervous system begins to form when the
embryo is about two weeks old. A neural tube forms around a
fluid-filled cavity; this structure eventually sinks under the skin
surface and develops into the hindbrain, midbrain, and
forebrain.
The fluid-filled cavity becomes the central canal and the four
ventricles. The human brain weighs approximately 350 grams at
birth and around 1,000 grams at one year of age. The average
adult brain weighs between 1,200 and 1,400 grams. Growth
and Development of Neurons.
5 STEPS OF NEURON DEVELOPMENT
1. PROLIFERATION: Production of new cells; cells along
the ventricles of the brain divide to become neurons
and glia.
2. MIGRATION: Movement of primitive neurons and glia
toward their final destination in the brain. Chemicals
known as immunoglobulins and chemokines guide the
new cells to their eventual destination in the brain.
6 I MONCADA, HAZEL A.
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY — QC
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE — BS PSYCHOLOGY 2ND YEAR
PSYCHSOC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
3. DIFFERENTIATION: Neurons develop
an axon and dendrites (this distinguishes neurons from
other cells in the body); the axon grows before the
dendrites, while the neuron is migrating toward its
destination
4. MYELINATION: Glia cells produce myelin sheaths
around axons which allow for rapid transmission. In
humans, myelin forms first in the spinal cord before
forming in the brain. Myelination begins during the
prenatal period and continues into adulthood. The
process by which glia produce the insulating fatty
sheaths that accelerate transmission in many
vertebrate axons
5. SYNAPTOGENESIS: Formation of synapses begins long
before birth, but it continues throughout life, as
neurons form new synapses and discard old ones. This
is the last step in neural
● GENES. units of heredity that maintain their structural
identity from one generation to another.
● CHROMOSOMES. strands of genes
● DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA). double-stranded
molecule
● RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA). a single-strand chemical
● ENZYMES. biological catalysts that regulate chemical
reactions in the body.
● HOMOZYGOUS GENE. same genes on your two copies
of some chromosome
● HETEROZYGOUS GENE. unmatched pair of genes
● DOMINANT GENES. shows a strong effect in either the
homozygous or heterozygous condition.
● RECESSIVE GENES. shows its effects only in the
homozygous condition.
EPIGENETICS
● deals with changes in gene expression.
➢ HISTONES. bind DNA into a shape that is
more like string wound around a ball
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
➢ HERITABILITY. ranges from zero, indicating no genetic
contribution to the variation, to one, indicating
complete control.
➢ MONOZYGOTIC TWINS. one egg
➢ DIZYGOTIC TWINS. two eggs
DETERMINANTS OF NEURONAL SURVIVAL
While working on the sympathetic ganglion, Rita
Levi-Montalcini discovered that muscles that synapse with the
axons from the ganglia don’t determine how many
neurons are produced but which synapses survive.
She discovered that muscles produce and release nerve
growth factor (NGF), which promotes the survival and growth
of axons. Axons that don’t receive enough NGF degenerate and
their cell bodies die.
All neurons are born with this suicide program and will
automatically die if the right synaptic connection is not made
➢ NERVE GROWTH FACTOR (NGF). promotes the survival
and growth of the axon
➢ BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR (BDNF).
most abundant neurotrophin in the adult mammalian
cortex. Initially, all areas of the developing nervous
system produce far more neurons than will survive into
adulthood. This loss of cells is a natural part of
development.
➢ APOPTOSIS. a programmed mechanism of cell death
➢ NEUROTROPHIN. Never growth factor; a chemical that
promotes the survival and activity of neurons.
VULNERABLE DEVELOPING BRAIN
Compared to the mature brain, the developing brain is more
vulnerable to malnutrition, toxic chemicals, and infections.
➢ FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME. Caused by alcoholic
consumption during pregnancy. A condition marked
by hyperactivity, impulsiveness, difficulty maintaining
attention, varying degrees of mental retardation,
motor problems, heart defects, and facial
abnormalities.
Infant brains are especially sensitive to alcohol because it
suppresses the release of glutamate, the brain’s main excitatory
transmitter. Thus, neurons receive less excitation and undergo
apoptosis. Prenatal exposure to cocaine or cigarette smoking is
associated with attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
and other behavioral deficits.
Children exposed to antidepressant drugs during pregnancy
have increased risk of heart problems. Social influences also
affect the developing brain. Children of impoverished or abused
mothers have increased problems in both academic and social
functioning.
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT AND BEHAVIORAL
DEVELOPMENT
➢ ADOLESCENCE. widely regarded as impulsive and
prone to seek immediate pleasure. Research shows
adolescents are able to make reasonable, mature
decisions when they have had time to consider the
options carefully. However, they are impulsive when
making quick decisions, especially in the face of peer
pressure.
➢ OLD AGE. On average, people’s memory and reasoning
fade beyond age 60 because neurons alter their
synapses more slowly. The volume of the hippocampus
also gradually declines. In addition, the frontal cortex
begins thinning at age However, there is great variance
in the level of deterioration in different people. Higher
performing older adults activate more brain areas to
make up for less efficient activity.
PLASTICITY AFTER BRAIN DAMAGE
BRAIN DAMAGE AND SHORT-TERM RECOVERY
● Brain damage can result from a number of causes, including
tumors, infections,exposure to radiation or toxic substances,
and degenerative conditions such as Parkinson’s and
Alzheimer’s disease.
● Closed head injury is caused by a sharp blow to the head
that does not actually puncture the brain. The most common
cause of brain damage in young people. Closed head injuries
damage the brain because of rotational forces that drive the
brain tissue against the inside of the skull.
LATER MECHANISMS OF RECOVERY
➢ INCREASED BRAIN STIMULATION. Diaschisis is a
decreased activity of surviving neurons after other
neurons are destroyed. Behavioral deficits due to
diaschisis can sometimes be improved with the use of
stimulant drugs.
➢ REGROWTH OF AXONS. Under certain circumstances,
damaged axons can grow back. However, regeneration
is minimal in the mature mammalian central nervous
system, possibly because of a large amount of scar
tissue or the secretion of growth inhibiting chemicals
➢ AXON SPROUTING. Sprouting is a normal condition, as
the brain is constantly adding new branches of axons
and dendrites and withdrawing old ones. This process
accelerates in response to damage.
➢ COLLATERAL SPROUTS. A newly formed branch from
an uninjured axon. The collateral sprouts attach to a
synapse vacated when the original axon was
destroyed. This process is initiated by neurotrophins
secreted by the cells that have lost their source of
innervation.
KEY TERMS
1. SEX-LINKED GENES. genes on the sex chromosomes
(designated X and Y in mammals)
2. AUTOSOMAL GENES. All other chromosomes are
autosomal chromosomes, and their genes
3. SEX-LIMITED GENES. present in both sexes but active
7 I MONCADA, HAZEL A.
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY — QC
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE — BS PSYCHOLOGY 2ND YEAR
PSYCHSOC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
mainly in one sex.
4. MUTATION. a heritable change in a DNA molecule
5. PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU). genetic inability to
metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine
6. EVOLUTION. change over generations in the
frequencies of various genes in a population.
7. ARTIFICIAL SELECTION. choose individuals with a
desired trait and make them the parents of the next
generation
8. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY. concerns how
behaviors evolved.
9. ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR. an action that benefits
someone other than the actor.
10. KIN SELECTION. selection for a gene that benefits the
individual’s relatives.
11. RECIPROCAL ALTRUISM. the idea that individuals help
those who will return the favor.
12. GROUP SELECTION. According to this idea, altruistic
groups thrive better than less cooperative ones
13. FOCAL HAND DYSTONIA. Musician's cramp and can
threaten a musician’s career.
14. CLOSED HEAD INJURY. a sharp blow to the head that
does not puncture the brain.
15. CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT (STROKE). temporary
interruption of normal blood flow to a brain area
16. ISCHEMIA. result of a blood clot or other obstruction
in an artery.
17. HEMORRHAGE. Result of a ruptured artery
18. EDEMA. the accumulation of fluid
19. TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR (tPA). breaks up
blood clots
20. DENERVATION SUPERSENSITIVITY. enhanced response
21. PHANTOM LIMB. a continuing sensation of an
amputated body part.
WEEK 6
VISION
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTION
Animals need to perceive the things around them. Objects
emit energy that stimulates the receptors that transmit
information to an animal’s brain. One’s brain codes the
information that but that information does not resemble what
one actually sees until it is interpreted.
Each receptor is specialized to absorb one kind of energy and
transduce it into an electrochemical pattern in the brain.
Impulses in certain neurons indicate light and impulses in other
neurons indicate sound. Another aspect of coding is frequency
of a response, or how fast a neuron is firing. This controls for
the intensity of a feeling, like pain.
THE EYE AND ITS CONNECTIONS TO THE BRAIN
● PUPIL. opening in the center of the iris (a band of
tissue that gives our eyes their color) in which light
enters the eye. The pupil is focused by the lens
(adjustable) and cornea (not adjustable) and projected
to the retina.
● RETINA. rear surface of the eye, which is lined with
visual receptors. Light from the left side of the world
strikes the right half of the retina and vice versa; light
from below strikes the top half of the retina and vice
versa.
ROUTE WITHIN THE RETINA
➢ BIPOLAR CELLS. located closer to the center of the
eye. Bipolar cells send their message to ganglion cell
➢ GANGLION CELLS. located still closer to the center of
the eye. Ganglion cell axons join together, and then
loop around and travel back to the brain.
➢ AMACRINE CELLS. get information from bipolar cells
and send it to other bipolar, amacrine, and ganglion
cells. They are important for complex processing of
visual information. The ganglion cells join together to
form the optic nerve
➢ OPTIC NERVE. exits through the back of the eye.
➢ BLIND SPOT. point at which it leaves (also where the
blood vessels enter and leave) because it has no
receptors
➢ FOVEA (meaning “pit”), a tiny area specialized for
acute, detailed vision. Found in the central portion of
the macula specialized for acute, detailed vision.
➢ MIDGET GANGLION CELLS. ganglion cells in the fovea
of humans and other primates. These cells are small
and each receives an input from a single cone.
VISUAL RECEPTORS
➢ RODS. abundant in the periphery of the human retina,
respond to faint light but are not useful in daylight
because bright light bleaches them
➢ CONES. abundant in and near the fovea, are less active
in dim light, more useful in bright light, and essential
for color vision.
➢ PHOTOPIGMENTS. Both rods and cones this;
chemicals that release energy when struck by light. It
consists of 11-cis-retinal bound to proteins called
opsins.
OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY
➢ NEGATIVE COLOR AFTERIMAGE: visual phenomena
that occur when you stare at a colored object under a
bright light without moving your head and then look at
a plain white surface.
You would see a replacement of the red you had been staring
at with green, green with red, yellow and blue with each other,
and black and white with each other.
According to this theory, we perceive color in terms of paired
opposites: white-black, red-green, and yellow-blue.
Opponent-process theory states that negative afterimages
result from fatiguing a response by opponent-process cells (e.g.,
a cell that responds to green light becomes fatigued after
prolonged stimulation, which results in a red afterimage when
the green light is removed).
RETINEX THEORY
● Theory proposed to account for color constancy. A
combination of the words retina and cortex. When
Information from various parts of the retina reaches
the cortex, the cortex compares each of the inputs to
determine the brightness and color perception for
each area.
➢ COLOR CONSTANCY. ability to recognize the color of
objects despite changes in lighting. This ability is not
explained by the trichromatic theory or the
opponent-process theory.
OVERVIEW OF THE MAMMALIAN VISUAL SYSTEM
Rods and cones make synaptic connections with horizontal
cells and bipolar cells. Horizontal cells make inhibitory contact
onto bipolar cells, which in turn synapse with amacrine cells
and ganglion cells. All these cells are in the eye. Axons of the
ganglion cells from each eye form the optic nerves. The optic
nerves from the left and right eyes meet at the optic chiasm,
where in humans half of the axons from each eye cross to the
opposite side of the brain. Most of the ganglion cell axons go to
the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus. Most
axons form the LGN synapse in the visual areas of the cerebral
cortex.
PROCESS IN THE RETINA
Because the retina contains such a large number of receptors
(120 million rods and 6 million cones) we have cells that
respond to a particular pattern of visual information to extract
meaningful visual data. An example of this is lateral inhibition.
Lateral inhibition is the reduction of activity in one neuron by
activity in neighboring neurons); a technique of the retina to
sharpen the boundaries of visual objects
8 I MONCADA, HAZEL A.
 OUR LADY OF FATIMA UNIVERSITY — QC
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE — BS PSYCHOLOGY 2ND YEAR
PSYCHSOC EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE

5. LATERAL INHIBITION. the reduction of activity in one

FURTHER PROCESSING
➢ RECEPTIVE FIELD. portion of the visual field that
excites or inhibits a specific cell in the visual system of
the brain
● PARVOCELLULAR NEURONS. have small
receptive fields and respond best to visual
details and color. These cells synapse only
onto cells of the LGN.
● MAGNOCELLULAR NEURONS.have larger
receptive fields and respond best to moving
● stimuli. Most of these cells synapse onto cells
of the LGN, but a few connect
● to other areas of the thalamus.
● KONIOCELLULAR NEURONS. have several
different functions and their axons connect to
the LGN, other areas of the thalamus, and the
superior colliculus
SIMPLE AND COMPLEX RECEPTIVE FIELDS
A simple cell has a receptive field with fixed excitatory and
inhibitory zones. The more light shines in the excitatory zone,
the more the cell responds. The more light shines in the
inhibitory zone, the less the cell responds.
➢ COMPLEX CELLS. located in areas V1 and V2, do not
respond to the exact location of a stimulus. A complex
cell responds to a pattern of light in a particular
orientation (e.g., a vertical bar) anywhere within its
large receptive field
➢ END-STOPPED, or HYPERCOMPLEX CELLS. resemble
complex cells with one exception: An end-stopped cell
has a strong inhibitory area at one end of its
bar-shaped receptive field. The cell responds to a
bar-shaped pattern of light anywhere in its broad
receptive field, provided the bar does not extend
beyond a certain point
neuron by activity in neighboring neurons
6. PRIMARY VISUAL CORTEX in the occipital cortex, also
known as area V1 or the striate cortex because of its
striped appearance.
7. BLINDSIGHT. the ability to respond in limited ways to
visual information without perceiving it consciously
8. FEATURE DETECTORS. neurons whose responses
indicate the presence of a particular feature.
9. SENSITIVE PERIOD. when experiences have a
particularly strong and enduring influence
10. RETINAL DISPARITY. the discrepancy between what
the left and right eyes see
11. STRABISMUS (or strabismic amblyopia). also known
as “lazy eye,” a condition in which the eyes do not
point in the same direction
12. ASTIGMATISM. a blurring of vision for lines in one
direction (e.g., horizontal, vertical, or one of the
diagonals), caused by an asymmetric curvature of the
eyes.
13. INFERIOR TEMPORAL CORTEX. learn to recognize
meaningful objects.
14. VISUAL AGNOSIA. meaning “visual lack of knowledge”
is an inability to recognize objects despite otherwise
satisfactory vision
15. PROSOPAGNOSIA. impaired ability to recognize faces.
16. MOTION BLINDNESS. being able to see objects but
unable to see whether they are moving or, if so, which
direction and how fast
17. SACCADES. Activity does not decrease while your eyes
are following a moving object.

VENTRAL AND DORSAL PATHS PREPARED AND ARRANGED BY:

The primary visual cortex (V1) sends information to the
secondary visual cortex (area V2), which processes the
information further and transmits it to additional areas
➢ VENTRAL STREAM. through the temporal cortex the HAZEL A. MONCADA
perception pathway or the “what” pathway, because
of its importance for identifying and recognizing
PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OLFU-QC,
objects. EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
➢ DORSAL STREAM. through the parietal cortex is the
action pathway or the “how” pathway, because of its
importance for visually guided movements.
➢ Damage in one stream of the other will result in
different deficits.
● Damage to the dorsal stream (parietal cortex)
seems to have the most normal vision. They
can read, recognize faces, and describe
objects in detail. They Know what things are
but not where they are. They cannot
accurately reach out to grab an object.
● Damage to the ventral stream sees where but
not what. They can see where objects are and
grab them, but cannot make sense of a
television program because they have trouble
identifying what things are.

KEY TERMS
1. YOUNG-HELMHOLTZ THEORY (trichromatic theory).
We perceive color through the relative rates of
response by three kinds of cones, each one maximally
sensitive to a different set of wavelengths.
2. VISUAL FIELD. the part of the world that you see
3. NEGATIVE COLOR AFTERIMAGE. a replacement of the
red you had been staring at with green, green with
red, yellow and blue with each other, and black and
white with each other
4. COLOR VISION DEFICIENCY. Complete color blindness,
perception of only black and white, is rare.
9 I MONCADA, HAZEL A.