TA SERIES SLIDES BOOK OF

ENGLISH 2.0

FOR BSN 2ND SEMESTER

COMPILED BY
TUFAIL A.
BSN 2022-2026
TA SERIES FUTURE
NURSING
OF

KHYBER MEDICAL UNIVERSITY

 C0NTENTS
A. TOPIC: PARAGRAPH WRITING
1. Paragraph, Writing 01
2. Logical Order 05
3. Form of Verbs 06
4. Comprehend meanings of words in a paragraph 07
B. TOPIC: ESSAY WRITING
5. Basics of Writing an Essay 08
C. TOPIC: CV AND JOB APPLICATION
6. Curriculum Vitae 10
7. Application for Applying to a Job 12
D. TOPIC: STUDY SKILLS
8. Skimming and Scanning 15
9. Comprehension 16
10. Speed Reading 17
11. Summary 19
12. Precise Writing 20
13. Intensive and Extensive 22
14. Main Ideas 24
E. TOPIC: ACADEMIC SKILLS
15. Basics of Writing a Letter 26
16. Memo Writing 28
17. Minutes of Meetings 29
F. TOPIC: PRESENTATION SKILLS
18. Elements and Purpose of a Good Presentation 32
19. Progress Report 35

The updated edition of ENGLISH 2.0 incorporates presentation slides

from KMU INS 2023, along with supplementary slides from three
additional colleges.

Paragraphs & Topic Sentences
A paragraph is a series of sentences that are
organized and coherent, and are all related to a
single topic. Almost every piece of writing you do
that is longer than a few sentences should be
organized into paragraphs. This is because
paragraphs show a reader where the subdivisions
of an essay begin and end, and thus help the
reader see the organization of the essay and grasp
its main points.
Paragraphs can contain many different kinds
of information. A paragraph could contain a series
of brief examples or a single long illustration of a
general point. It might describe a place, character,
or process; narrate a series of events; compare or
contrast two or more things; classify items into
categories; or describe causes and effects.
Regardless of the kind of information they contain,
all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of
the most important of these is a topic sentence.
TOPIC SENTENCES
A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a
single controlling idea, which is expressed in a
sentence called the topic sentence. A topic
sentence has several important functions: it
substantiates or supports an essay’s thesis
statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph
and directs the order of the sentences; and it
advises the reader of the subject to be discussed
and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers
generally look to the first few sentences in a
paragraph to determine the subject and
perspective of the paragraph. That’s why it’s
often best to put the topic sentence at the very
beginning of the paragraph. In some cases,
however, it’s more effective to place another
sentence before the topic sentence—for example,
a sentence linking the current paragraph to the
previous one, or one providing background
information.
Although most paragraphs should have a topic
sentence, there are a few situations when a
paragraph might not need a topic sentence. For
example, you might be able to omit a topic
sentence in a paragraph that narrates a series of
events, if a paragraph continues developing an
idea that you introduced (with a topic sentence) in
the previous paragraph, or if all the sentences and
details in a paragraph clearly refer—perhaps
indirectly—to a main point. The vast majority of
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your paragraphs, however, should have a topic
sentence.
PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part
structure—introduction, body, and conclusion.
You can see this structure in paragraphs whether
they are narrating, describing, comparing,
contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of
the paragraph plays an important role in
communicating your meaning to your reader.
Introduction: the first section of a paragraph;
should include the topic sentence and any other
sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that
give background information or provide a
transition.
Body: follows the introduction; discusses the
controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis,
examples, and other information.
Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the
connections between the information discussed
in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s
controlling idea.
The following paragraph illustrates this
pattern of organization. In this paragraph the topic
sentence and concluding sentence (CAPITALIZED)
both help the reader keep the paragraph’s main
point in mind.
SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE
SENSE OF SIGHT IN NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of
the tiny pupil of the eye they put, on Mount
Palomar, a great monocle 200 inches in diameter,
and with it see 2000 times farther into the depths
of space. Or they look through a small pair of
lenses arranged as a microscope into a drop of
water or blood, and magnify by as much as 2000
diameters the living creatures there, many of
which are among man’s most dangerous
enemies. Or, if we want to see distant happenings
on earth, they use some of the previously wasted
electromagnetic waves to carry television images
which they re-create as light by whipping tiny
crystals on a screen with electrons in a vacuum. Or
they can bring happenings of long ago and far
away as colored motion pictures, by arranging
silver atoms and color-absorbing molecules to
force light waves into the patterns of original
reality. Or if we want to see into the center of a
steel casting or the chest of an injured child, they
send the information on a beam of penetrating
short-wave X rays, and then convert it back into
images we can see on a screen or photograph.
THUS ALMOST EVERY TYPE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC

RADIATION YET DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED TO
EXTEND OUR SENSE OF SIGHT IN SOME WAY.
George Harrison, “Faith and the Scientist”
COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates
clearly to the topic sentence or controlling idea,
but there is more to coherence than this. If a
paragraph is coherent, each sentence flows
smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or
jumps. A coherent paragraph also highlights the
ties between old information and new information
to make the structure of ideas or arguments clear
to the reader.
Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a
paragraph’s coherence may also be related to its
length. If you have written a very long paragraph,
one that fills a double-spaced typed page, for
example, you should check it carefully to see if it
should start a new paragraph where the original
paragraph wanders from its controlling idea. On
the other hand, if a paragraph is very short (only
one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need to
develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or
combine it with another paragraph.
A number of other techniques that you can use
to establish coherence in paragraphs are described
below.
Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in
paragraphs in which you define or identify an
important idea or theory, be consistent in how
you refer to it. This consistency and repetition will
bind the paragraph together and help your reader
understand your definition or description.
Create parallel structures. Parallel structures
are created by constructing two or more phrases
or sentences that have the same grammatical
structure and use the same parts of speech. By
creating parallel structures you make your
sentences clearer and easier to read. In addition,
repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive
sentences helps your reader see the connections
between ideas. In the paragraph above about
scientists and the sense of sight, several sentences
in the body of the paragraph have been
constructed in a parallel way. The parallel
structures (which have been emphasized) help the
reader see that the paragraph is organized as a set
of examples of a general statement.
Be consistent in point of view, verb tense,
and number. Consistency in point of view, verb
tense, and number is a subtle but important
aspect of coherence. If you shift from the more
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personal "you" to the impersonal “one,” from past
to present tense, or from “a man” to “they,” for
example, you make your paragraph less coherent.
Such inconsistencies can also confuse your reader
and make your argument more difficult to follow.
Use transition words or phrases between
sentences and between paragraphs. Transitional
expressions emphasize the relationships between
ideas, so they help readers follow your train of
thought or see connections that they might
otherwise miss or misunderstand. The following
paragraph shows how carefully chosen transitions
(CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the
introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.
I don’t wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule
head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus" houses
little brain from our subjective, top-heavy
perspective, BUT I do wish to assert that we should
not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large
animals have relatively smaller brains than related,
small animals. The correlation of brain size with
body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all
mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably regular. AS
we move from small to large animals, from mice to
elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons,
brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size.
IN OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains,
AND large animals have low ratios of brain weight
to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about
two-thirds as fast as bodies. SINCE we have no
reason to believe that large animals are
consistently stupider than their smaller relatives,
we must conclude that large animals require
relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals.
IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are
likely to underestimate the mental power of very
large animals, dinosaurs in particular.
Stephen Jay Gould, “Were Dinosaurs Dumb?”
SOME USEFUL TRANSITIONS
(modified from Diana Hacker, A Writer’s Reference)
To show addition:
again, and, also, besides, equally important, first
(second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in
the first place, moreover, next, too
To give examples:
for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that
is, to illustrate
To compare:
also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly
To contrast:
although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite,
even though, however, in contrast, in spite of,

nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand,
still, though, yet
To summarize or conclude:
all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in
summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum
up
To show time:
after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last,
before, during, earlier, finally, formerly,
immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly,
subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while
To show place or direction:
above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on,
here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)
To indicate logical relationship:
accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for
this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then,
therefore, thus
Types/categories of a Paragraph
Paragraph
A subdivision of a written composition that
consists of at least 3 to 5 sentences, deals with one
point.
Types of paragraphs
The four different types of paragraphs are
descriptive, narrative, expository, and persuasive.
These four types allow you to write about
absolutely anything that you want! By
understanding these different types of paragraphs
and what they are used for, the English world is
your oyster.
The descriptive paragraph
The descriptive paragraph describes something
and shows the reader what a thing or a person is
like. The words chosen in the description often
appeal to the five senses of touch, smell, sight,
sound, and taste. Descriptive paragraphs can be
artistic and may deviate from grammatical norms.
An example of a descriptive paragraph:
The lights grow brighter as the earth lurches away
from the sun, and now the orchestra is playing
yellow cocktail music, and the opera of voices
pitches a key higher. Laughter is easier minute by
minute, spilled with prodigality, tipped out at a
cheerful word. The groups change more swiftly,
swell with new arrivals, dissolve and form in the
same breath; already there are wanderers,
confident girls who weave here and
there among the stouter and more stable, become
from a sharp, joyous moment the center of a group,
and then, excited with triumph, glide on through
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the sea-change of faces and voices and color under
the constantly changing light.
This excerpt is taken from The Great Gatsby
by F. Scott Fitzgerald. In this paragraph you can
hear, see, and feel the setting in which the story
takes place.
Narrative paragraph
The narrative paragraph tells a story. There’s a
sequence of action or there’s a clear beginning,
middle, and end to the paragraph.
An example of a narrative paragraph:
It’s been almost ten years since I first ran for
political office. I was thirty-five at the time, four
years out of law school, recently married, and
generally impatient with life. A seat in the Illinois
legislature had opened up, and several friends
suggested that I run, thinking that my work as a
civil rights lawyer, and contacts
from my days as a community organizer, would
make me a viable candidate.
The persuasive paragraph
This type of paragraph tries to get the reader to
accept a particular point of view or understand the
writer’s position. This is the type of paragraph that
many teachers focus on because it’s useful when
building an argument. It often requires the
collection of facts and research.
An example of a persuasive paragraph:
Immigration contributes to the overall health of
the American economy. Despite recent concerns
related to the costs created by illegal and some
legal immigration to the United States, this country
has largely benefited from the skills, talents, and
ambition that immigrants bring with them.
American businesses gain from a good source of
affordable labor, while town and cities are
revitalized by immigrant families who strengthen
communities through civic participation the
generation of new economic activity.
This is the paragraph that appeared on the
page describing what a paragraph is. Your teacher
wrote it. I have an opinion about a particular topic,
and in this paragraph I want the reader to accept
or consider my position.
Expository paragraph
An expository paragraph informs the reader on a
subject. It provides information. Expository
paragraphs are found in the books that you read
for school or the instructions that you read when
trying to repair something on your house.
There are many different kinds of paragraphs
that provide information. The three main types of

expository paragraphs that we will explore here
are…
• informative
• cause and effect
• comparison / contrast
Example
English is the language spoken throughout most of
Canada, but in Quebec, the most populated
province, and in areas near Quebec, French is the
first language. Because of this, Canadians recognize
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French and English as official languages that are
used in business and government. Many people
are bilingual and easily go from French to English
and vice versa when speaking with tourists. The
farther west you go, the more English you’ll hear,
but it is common to meet people throughout the
country who are familiar with both languages.

Logical Order/ Transitions HOW TO WRITE A
PARAGRAPH
Logical order/ transitions
DEFINITION: it means to arrange evidence in an
order or a sequence and include transitions if
needed.
Logical division of ideas simply means that ideas
are grouped together, and each group is discussed
accordingly. They may be introduced in order of
importance, or in some other order that makes
sense to the reader. You would use transition
words such as firstly, secondly, thirdly to introduce
each group.
“Organizing the sentences in your paragraph
according to a logical order helps the reader to
follow the development of your ideas”. The rubric
says sentences flow logically and are all clearly
connected to the topic sentence.
How would we know which order is logical and
which to follow so for this purpose there are
certain kinds of logical orders according to which
paragraphs can be written some of them are given
under.
KINDS OF LOGICAL ORDER
• Chronological order
• Comparison/contrast
• Logical division of ideas
• Order of importance
• Cause and effect
Each kind of order uses particular words and
phrases (transition words) to show the
relationships between ideas.
Chronological Order we would use expressions of
time such as : first, next, after that, finally, before
the last war, after 2010, since then,
Example The rehearsal dinner will be on Friday
night. Afterward, we are hoping that many of the
guests will help to clean the area for tomorrow's
wedding. In these sentences, the transition
"afterward" highlights a chronology of events (first
the dinner, then the cleaning). Discuss in which
order of time the things happened
Comparison/ Contrast
In a paragraph describing differences (contrast),
you would use expressions like these: the most
significant difference, larger than, unlike, on the
other hand, in contrast, differ from
In a paragraph showing similarities
(comparison), you would use expressions such as:
similarity, similarly, as expensive as, just as, just
like, compare with, in comparison
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Example My life in Canada is very different
from my mother’s life in our old country. The main
difference is that, as a girl, I have access to
education in Canada. I am in high school now, and I
have studied a range of subjects: English, math,
chemistry, biology, physical education, music, and
lots more. My mother had very little formal
education, and most of her learning was from
traditional books at home. Another difference is
that I have more freedom than my mother had. I
can go out with my friends, see a movie, or play
soccer. My friends are both girls and boys.
Logical division of ideas simply means that ideas
are grouped together, and each group is discussed
accordingly. Logical division of ideas is a pattern of
organization in which you divide a topic into points
and discuss each point separately. for example:
REASON for owning a Samsung/Blackerry.
Order of importance, or in some other order that
makes sense to the reader. You would use
transition words such as firstly, secondly, thirdly to
introduce each group.
A cause and effect paragraph uses transition words
that express reasons and results, such as: the first
cause, the next reason, because of ... the first effect,
as a result, therefore
Transition words
Lastly, the effect poverty has on education needs
to be examined. Many students below the poverty
line do not have access to transportation and other
resources that allow them to take advantage of
school of choice.
Additionally, the services available through
programs within their area are lacking. It
follows logically that these students lack access to
quality education and services students in middle
class homes have.
As you can see, poverty can have an impact on
several aspects of an individual’s life. Not only does
it impact their work and home life, but their
education as well.
Therefore, as a community, it’s pivotal to provide
advanced services and assistance to individuals in
lower income areas.

Form of verbs CORRECT FORM OF VERBS IN A
PARAGRAPH/SENTENCE
Right Forms of Verbs
The verbs are the most variable element of the
sentences. The right form of verb encompasses
most of the
grammatical rules of English language. Every
element of a sentence eventually relates to the
verb. The verbs appear differently in a sentence on
the basis of their subjects (subject-verb
agreement), tenses, moods, voices, different
structures, modals, etc.
Rule 1: Subject-verb agreement: the verbs are
habitually followed by the subjects, and they must
agree with the subjects according to their number
and person.
Example: He were going to school. (incorrect)
He was going to school.(Correct)
Rule 2: when 2 subjects are connected together by
‘with’ , ‘along with’ or ‘as well as’ the verb will
follow the first subject.
Example: The shop with its furniture were gutted.
The shop with its furniture was gutted.
Rule 3: when 2 subjects are joined together by
‘either or’ neither nor’ ‘not only but also’ than the
verb follows the 2nd subject.
Example: Either he or his brothers has stolen my
watch. Either he or his brothers have stolen my
watch. (correct)
Rule 4:
The connector since has two usages. If since is used
to indicate a cause, the verbs of the two clauses
will be of the same tense.
Example:
I didn’t go since you didn’t come. Since you were
busy, I didn’t disturb you. If since is used to
indicate time, the verb of the second clause will be
different from the first.
We haven’t seen(present perfect) each other since
he left(.simple past) It has been 20 years since he
played football.
Rule 5: No sooner had, hardly had, scarcely had,
etc. are the adverbials that require a past perfect
tense and a past indefinite tense for the sentence.
Example:
No sooner had I reached home than she left.
Hardly had I finished writing before the teacher
ordered to stop writing.
Rule 6: Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, yet,
so) and although/though, as, because, till/until,
when, whenever, as soon as, while, which, what,
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that, etc. connect two clauses which have the
verbs of the same tense.
Example:
We went to London when we were young. I got up,
and he left the room. As soon as I came here, he
greeted me.
Rule 7: As conjunctions after and before are used
to connect two clauses which use past perfect
tense and past simple.
Example: Before I knew it, she had run out the
door.
Rule 8: Prepositions, articles are always followed
by nouns or gerund form of the verbs.
Example:
He is keen on moving to California. I am thinking
about doing the job.
Rule 9: The causative verbs always take the next
verb in its base form. See causative verbs and their
usages. HAVE - MAKE – HELP – LET
Example: I had him wash the dishes. He makes me
do all the work.
Rule 10: we always use singular verb after ‘many a’
but we use plural verb after ‘many’.
Example: Many a student were present in the class.
Many students were present in the class.
Modal Verbs
A modal verb, as defined by the Cambridge
Dictionary, is "a verb used with another rverb to
express an idea such as possibility that is not
expressed by the main verb". Will, shall and would
fit this description - they are all used with another
verb and cannot be used alone, and they express
some kind of meaning or attitude that modifies the
main verb (broadly speaking, will and shall are
about willingness or beliefs about the future, and
would is about unreal and hypothetical actions).
For example, I like coffee is different in meaning
from I would like a coffee, and I don't agree is not
the same as I wouldn't agree (using "would" makes
it a hypothetical disagreement, thus less direct and
possibly more polite).
We use modals to show if we believe
something is certain, possible or impossible, We
also use them to do things like talk about ability,
ask permission, and make requests and offers.

Comprehend meanings of words in a paragraph
Comprehension
Comprehension: means understanding. To
comprehend words in context means to
understand the meaning of a given word used in
the context or passage.
The meaning of unknown words which you
come across in your reading sometimes can be
known by their surroundings, that is, their contexts.
The context of the sentence can tell us the part of
speech of the unknown word. Using the context of
the paragraph to define unknown words can also
helpful.Often, using the context is the only way to
figure out the meaning of the word as it is used in
the sentence, passage, or chapter.
Example
Consider the word "bar". Bar is a common word.
But without surrounding words, you don't know if
it describes soap, a place that serves beer, a sand
formation at the beach, a way to lock the door,
or...
Readers often have trouble because they
identify the literal but incorrect meaning of a word
when they should identify the way it was used in
the passage.
Hints
A. Using The Part of Speech of the unknown word
as a help in reading.
One consideration in using the context is to
determine the unknown word's part of speech. The
words around the unknown word give you clues.
Once you know if the word is a noun or if it is an
adjective, it often is enough for you to continue
reading intelligently without having to stop to look
up the meaning of the word. After coming across
the word a few more times, you will know its
meaning more firmly than if you had just looked it
up.
For instance, The dying man designated his son
to receive his property.
1. Punctuation Clues
Punctuation clues are given when the unknown
word is set off by commas, parentheses, brackets,
or dashes. The information contained within the
punctuation marks sometimes means the same or
nearly the same as the unknown words. Or, the
unknown word might be set off from its meaning
by punctuation marks. Information set off by
punctuation marks may clarify rather than define
the word. Finding these clues is not foolproof.
Example of Punctuation Clue: Nicotine, a
colorless and oily drug in tobacco, stains the teeth
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of chainsmokers. The words between the
commas-a colorless and oily drug in tobacco-define
nicotine .
2. Definition Clues
Definition clues join the unknown word with the
word(s) that rename it or tell its meaning. The
clues precede or follow words that are or act like
linking verbs. A linking verb shows no action but
indicates being.
Examples of these verbs are: is, was, are,
means, i.e. (that is), involves, is called, that is, or
resembles.
For example: The mansion's piazza resembled a
large uncovered patio. The word resembled joins
piazza with its meaning so it is a clue that lets us
know that a piazza is a large uncovered patio.
3. Example Clues
Example clues tell you an example of an unknown
word follows. You derive the meaning of the
unknown word by determining what the examples
have in common. Example clues are usually
introduced by the following words and phrases:
such as, such, other, for example, and like.
Example of "Example" Clue: Potentates-such as
kings, queens, and emperors-are very powerful
and wealthy people. Since kings, queens, and
emperors are the rulers of countries, potentates
are rulers.
4. Contrast/ Comparison Clues
Example of Contrast Clue: My sister is extremely
neat in appearance while she is slovenly in her
housekeeping. The word "while" indicates that
slovenly means the opposite of neat. Thus, slovenly
means sloppy or messy.
Examples of Comparison Clue: Miss Johnson is
a prim, modest woman; likewise, many of her
friends are very proper.Likewise is used to
compare prim to proper. Proper means
respectable. Thus, prim has a similar meaning.

Essay
Did you know the word ‘essay’ is derived from a
Latin word ‘exagium’, which roughly translates to
presenting one’s case? So essays are a short piece
of writing representing one’s side of the argument
or one’s experiences, stories, etc. Essays are very
personalized. So let us learn about types of essays,
format, and tips for essay-writing.
An essay is generally a short piece of writing
outlining the writer’s perspective or story. It is
often considered synonymous with a story or a
paper or an article. Essays can be formal as well as
informal. Formal essays are generally academic in
nature and tackle serious topics. We will be
focusing on informal essays which are more
personal and often have humorous elements.
Types of Essays
The type of essay will depend on what the writer
wants to convey to his reader. There are broadly
four types of essays. Let us see.
1. Narrative Essays: This is when the writer is
narrating an incident or story through the essay. So
these are in the first person. The aim when writing
narrative essays is to involve the reader in them as
if they were right there when it was happening. So
make them as vivid and real as possible. One way to
make this possible is to follow the principle of
‘show, don’t tell’. So you must involve the reader in
the story.
2. Descriptive Essays: Here the writer will describe
a place, an object, an event or maybe even a
memory. But it is not just plainly describing things.
The writer must paint a picture through his words.
One clever way to do that is to evoke the senses of
the reader. Do not only rely on sight but also
involve the other senses of smell, touch, sound etc.
A descriptive essay when done well will make the
reader feel the emotions the writer was feeling at
the moment.
3. Expository Essays: In such an essay a writer
presents a balanced study of a topic. To write such
an essay, the writer must have real and extensive
knowledge about the subject. There is no scope for
the writer’s feelings or emotions in an expository
essay. It is completely based on facts, statistics,
examples etc. There are sub-types here like
contrast essays, cause and effect essays etc.
4. Persuasive Essays: Here the purpose of the
essay is to get the reader to your side of the
argument. A persuasive essay is not just a
presentation of facts but an attempt to convince
the reader of the writer’s point of view. Both sides
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of the argument have to presented in these essays.
But the ultimate aim is to persuade the readers that
the writer’s argument carries more weight.
Format of an Essay
Now there is no rigid format of an essay. It is a
creative process so it should not be confined within
boundaries. However, there is a basic structure that
is generally followed while writing essays. So let us
take a look at the general structure of an essay.
Introduction
This is the first paragraph of your essay. This is
where the writer introduces his topic for the very
first time. You can give a very brief synopsis of your
essay in the introductory paragraph.
Some paragraph writing skills can be a help here.
Generally, it is not very long, about 4-6 lines.
There is plenty of scopes to get creative in the
introduction of essays. This will ensure that you
hook the reader, i.e. draw and keep his attention.
So to do so you can start with a quote or a proverb.
Sometimes you can even start with a definition.
Another interesting strategy to engage with your
reader is to start with a question.
Body
This is the main crux of your essays. The body is the
meat of your essay sandwiched between the
introduction and the conclusion. So the most vital
and important content of the essay will be here.
This
need not be confined to one paragraph. It can
extend to two or more paragraphs according to the
content.
Usually, we have a lot of information to
provide in the body. And the mistakes writers
generally make is to go about it in a haphazard
manner which leaves the reader confused. So it is
important to organize your thoughts and content.
Write the information in a systematic flow so that
the reader can comprehend. So, for example, you
were narrating an incident. The best manner to do
this would be to go in a chronological order.
Conclusion
This is the last paragraph of the essay. Sometimes a
conclusion will just mirror the introductory
paragraph but make sure the words and syntax are
different. A conclusion is also a great place to sum
up a story or an argument. You can round up your
essay by providing some moral or wrapping up a
story. Make sure you complete your essays with the
conclusion, leave no hanging threads.
 TA SLIDES BOOK SERIES

Tips for Essay Writing Solved Question for You

º Give your essays an interesting and appropriate Q: What is a thesis statement of essays?
title. It will help draw the attention of the reader Ans: The thesis statement is a clear, one-sentence
and pique their curiosity explanation of your position that leaves no doubt in
º Keep it between 300-500 words. This is the ideal the readers’ mind about which side you are on
length, you can take creative license to increase or from the beginning of your essay.
decrease it
º Keep your language simple and crisp. Unnecessary
complicated and difficult words break the flow of
the sentence.
º Do not make grammar mistakes, use
correct punctuation and spellings. If this is not
done it will distract the reader from the content
º Before beginning the essay organize your thought
and plot a rough draft. This way you can ensure the
story will flow and not be an unorganized mess.

9 / 36

Curriculum Vitae : DISCUSS THE BASICS OF
WRITING A CURRICULUM VITAE
CV
CV, which stands for curriculum vitae (a Latin
phrase meaning 'course of life'), is a document
used when applying for jobs. It allows you to
summarize your education, skills and relevant work
experience enabling you to successfully sell your
abilities to potential employers.
SIZE/LENGTH OF CV
A standard CV in the UK should be no longer than
two sides of A4.That said one size doesn't fit all.
For example, a school leaver or recent graduate
with minimal experience may only need to use one
side of A4. Although not used as often, a
three-page CV might be needed for those in
high-level
roles or for people who have gained a lot of
experience or worked in multiple jobs over the last
five
to ten years. For example, some medical or
academic CVs may be longer depending on your
experience. While it's important to keep your CV
concise you should also avoid selling your
experience short.
When writing a CV save space by only including the
main points of your education and experience.
Stick to relevant information and don't repeat.
Steps to include in a CV
Here are basic steps for writing a CV:
1. Create a header with contact information
Your header should be at the top of the page and
include your name, phone number and email
address so employers immediately know who you
are and how to reach you.
2. Write a professional summary
Your professional summary is a short bio that
introduces you to the reader. This section sums up
who you are what kind of person you are where do
your skills and interests lie.
3. Detail your education
Since a CV is mostly used for the academic job
search process, it’s important to include a section
on
your educational history. List your education in
reverse chronological order, with your most recent
degree first. Include both degrees you’ve earned
and those you’re pursuing.
4. Provide your work experience
Detail all your practical work experience so your
prospective employer can see your career path,
including:
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•Full-time and part-time employment
•Internships
•Research projects
•Lab work
•Volunteer work
•Field experience
Include the title of your position, the name and
location of your employer and employment dates.
Below this, list two to three bullet points that
explain your job duties.
5. List your relevant skills and achievements
List any abilities that apply to the potential job,
such as foreign languages or a type of software.
Try to include skills that relate to the job
description to make yourself a more desirable
candidate.
Also include any kind of achievements you have
earned or competitions you have won.
6. Include additional sections
CVs are usually longer than resumes so you can
detail all the achievements relevant to the
potential role. Add sections as needed to list all of
your accomplishments, including:
•Publications
•Presentation and lectures
•Community service
•Grants, fellowships or scholarships
•Awards and honors
•Professional memberships
•Consulting work
•Fieldwork
•Study abroad experience
•Conferences
How do I format a CV?
The layout of your CV also has an effect on its
success. Keep in mind the following tips when
crafting your CV:
• Avoid titling the document 'curriculum vitae' or
'CV'. It's a waste of space. Instead let your
name serve as the title.
• Section headings are a good way to break up
your CV. Ensure they stand out by making them
larger (font size 14 or 16) and bold.
• Avoid fonts such as Comic Sans. Choose
something professional, clear and easy to read
such
Arial, Calibri or Times New Roman. Use a font size
between 10 and 12 to make sure that potential
employers can read your CV. Ensure all fonts and
font sizes are consistent throughout.
• List everything in reverse chronological order.
Then the recruiter sees your work history and most

recent achievements first.
• Keep it concise by using bullet points. This type
of CV layout allows potential employers to skim
your CV and quickly pick out important information
first.
• Double check your margins - Having white space
around your CV will make it easier to read and
look less cluttered. Aim for 2.5 centimeter margins
all the way around. Don't be tempted to make
these smaller to fit more in.
• Use active verbs when possible. For example,
include words like 'created', 'analyzed' and
'devised'
to present yourself as a person who shows
initiative.
• A good CV doesn't have any spelling or grammar
mistakes. Use a spell checker and enlist a
second pair of eyes to check over the document.
• Avoid generic, over-used phrases such as 'team
player', 'hardworking' and 'multitasker. Instead,
provide real-life examples that demonstrate all of
these skills.
CV example
This example is a detailed CV for a zoologist:
Alice Johnson
685 Vine Grove Drive, Akron OH | 330-555-3563 |
alicekj@msu.edu
Professional Summary
I am a passionate zoologist who is interested in
furthering conservation efforts through research
that will help individuals better understand what
various species need to survive, thrive and grow.
I’m seeking a position that will utilize my
experience studying wild animals to help protect
and
serve populations.
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Education
Master of Science in Integrative Biology | 3.9 GPA |
2014
Michigan State University
Dissertation: “Variation in Piping Plover Survival
Across Different Environments”
Bachelor of Science in Zoology | 3.7 GPA | 2010
Michigan State University
Thesis: “Environmental Influences on the
Observable Evolution of Different Species”
Work Experience
Conservation Scientist, Population Biology |
2015–2019
Chicago Zoological Society | Brookfield, ILWildlife
Biologist | 2010–2012
Skills and certifications
The Wildlife Society, Certified Wildlife Biologist
Extensive knowledge of database software
including Team Desk, Knack and Table Plus
Ability to use DNA sequencers, Bioanalyzers and
fluorometers
Knowledge of state regulations regarding scientific
research
Awards and Honors
Outstanding Academic Achievement and Promise
in Zoology Award, Michigan State University
(2013)
Dan Bolin Undergraduate Student Award, Zoology
(2003)
Professional Memberships
Member of Zoological Association of America
Member of Society for Conservation Biology
Member of American Institute of Biological
Sciences

JOB APPLICATION
An application letter, also known as a "cover letter,"
is sent with your resume during the job application
process. A letter adds more personality to your
application by providing more details about your
background and interest in the position, while a
resume outlines your professional skills and experience
more.
What is a job application letter?
An application letter is a standalone document you
submit to a potential employer to express your
interest in an open position. The job application
letter explains who you are as a professional and
an individual. The letter should highlight your
achievements and skills, helping to get the
attention of the hiring manager or recruiter
responsible for reviewing applications. When
written well, this letter explains to the reader why
they should ask you in for an interview and
highlights the key qualifications that make you a fit
for the role.
A job application letter can impress a
potential employer and set you apart from other
applicants. In your letter, you may also want to
show your familiarity with the company to which
you’re applying. You can talk about how your
professional goals and aspirations align with the
company’s goals. It’s important to use your job
application letter to showcase aspects of your
personality.
Job application letter tips
When preparing a job application letter, follow
these tips to make sure your letter includes the
information a hiring manager needs:
1. Emphasize your skills and abilities
An application letter is your opportunity to sell
yourself as an excellent candidate for the open
position. Include specific examples of situations in
which you applied your experience, abilities and
skills to benefit the organization. It is also helpful
to include data that supports your claims.
2. Stay concise
Although it may be tempting to include a lot of
detailed information about yourself, it is important
to be concise. If a hiring manager receives a letter
that is multiple pages, they may not take the time
to read it. A brief letter is more manageable and
appealing.
3. Proofread the letter
Since this letter is serving as your first impression,
you want to make sure It is as positive as possible.
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Make sure your letter does not have any
grammatical or spelling errors to avoid a
potentially negative first impression.
4. Review the job listing keywords
Most job postings will include certain skills and
abilities that the hiring manager and supervisor
want applicants to possess. Including these
keywords in your application letter helps to show
the person reviewing it you would be a good fit in
that specific role.
5. Send a letter for every position to which you
apply
Unless a job posting specifically states not to send
an application letter, it is smart to send one for
each job to which you apply. This letter offers the
opportunity for a potential employer to learn more
about you and gives you the chance to set yourself
apart from other applicants.
How to format an application letter
When writing an application letter for a job, follow
these steps to make sure you include information
about yourself and your professional experience
that will appeal to a hiring manager:
ɵ Use a professional format.
ɵ Create the heading.
ɵ Address the letter to the hiring manager.
1. Use a professional format
A job application letter should be more
professional than a thank-you card or an email to
a coworker or friend. The alignment of the
document should include single spacing, one-inch
margins and left alignment. It’s best to use a
professional and traditional font, such as Times
New Roman, in a size from 10 to 12 points. Try to
keep your job application letter to one page.
When a hiring manager reviews your job
application letter, they will get their first
impression of you as a potential employee, so take
time to format it professionally and keep it concise.
2. Create the heading
Use a formal business heading for your job
application letter. The heading should include
your name and contact information, the date and
the company name and address. If you send your
job application letter via email, you can eliminate
your name and contact information from the
header and put it at the bottom of the email after
the signature instead.

Example header:
Your name
Your city and ZIP code
Your phone number
Your email address
Date
Name of hiring manager or supervisor
Title of hiring manager or supervisor
Company name
Company physical address
By including a professional and detailed heading,
you can make it easier for the hiring manager to
follow up with you regarding the position.
3. Address the letter to the hiring manager
In your research, try to find the name of the person
reviewing applications for the job. Address your
letter to this person with a common business
greeting, such as “Dear Mr./Ms.” and their last
name. If you’re unable to find their preferred
gender pronouns (she/her, them/they) of the
individual reviewing your application, you can use
“Dear [first and last name]” or “Dear Hiring
Manager.”
How to write an application letter
ɵ Review information about the company and
position
ɵ Open the letter by describing your interest
ɵ Outline your experience and qualifications
ɵ Include aspects of your personality
ɵ Express appreciation
ɵ Close the letter
1. Review information about the company and
position
It’s best to write a new application letter for each
position you’re applying for so you can include
pertinent details and show your interest in the
particular open role. Spend some time reviewing
the company information, which you can likely find
on the website, as well as the position listing.
Compare your qualifications and experience with
the list of skills in that posting. You may also want
to think about specific experiences that have
prepared you for the role, such as leading a team
or managing a major event.
2. Open the letter by describing your interest
In the first paragraph of your letter, mention the
job title for which you’re applying and where you
saw the position posting. Include your specific
interest in the role and company so the reader
knows this is not a generic application letter.
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Briefly state the main experience or qualification
you have that makes you a good fit. This is the
section that will draw in the hiring manager as the
reader of your application letter, so it is important
to appeal to that person quickly and succinctly.
Example: “I saw the posting for the marketing
intern role on my university’s online job board, and
I am very interested. I’m drawn to your company’s
mission of innovation and putting the customer
first. I am in my final year of earning my bachelor’s
degree in marketing with a minor in
communications, so I feel my educational
experience has prepared me to work in a
fast-paced marketing department like the one
within your organization.”
Outline your experience and qualifications
The next few paragraphs of your letter should
highlight your experience, qualifications and skills,
positioned in a way that aligns with the company’s
goals and mission. For example, if you are applying
for a job with a nonprofit organization that
provides educational opportunities to underserved
community members, you could talk about your
experience with nonprofit organizations or
educational offerings. Since a job application letter
should stand on its own without a resume, it’s
helpful to include details about your experience
that relate to the position to which you’re
applying.
4. Include aspects of your personality
As you’re writing your job application letter,
consider how you can incorporate aspects of your
personality while remaining professional. A friendly
and engaging letter is likely to appeal to the reader,
especially when they can get an idea of how well
you might fit with the team.
For example, in the situation mentioned above,
explain in your letter you are good at connecting
with children or how you value community spirit.
5. Express appreciation
Before you sign off on your letter, express your
appreciation to the hiring manager for reviewing
your letter and considering you for the position.
The hiring manager is taking time out of their day
to read what you have written, so expressing your
gratitude for that time spent is a polite and
professional way to close the document.
Example: “I appreciate the time you have taken to
review my application letter. Since you likely
received a number of applications and letters for
this open position, I am extremely grateful for the
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time you have spent reading about me and what
would make me a good fit for this role.”
6. Close the letter
Many people use “Sincerely” or “Best” to close the
letter, although any professional sign-off is fine to
include. The final line of the letter should be your
full name. If you submit a hard copy of the letter,
include your signature above your typed name.
When submitting an application letter via email,
you should include your contact information
beneath your name, rather than including it in the
header.
Sending a job application letter
The format of your job application letter will
depend on how you are sending it to the hiring
manager or supervisor. If you plan to email the
application letter, the formatting will differ from a
printed, mailed letter. Your contact information
should be at the bottom of an email, beneath your
typed full name.
When emailing a job application letter, it is also
important to consider what subject line to use to
make sure the hiring manager opens the email
and reads your letter. When scanning their inbox,
the hiring manager will see the subject line you
included first, along with your name and email
address. The decision to read or delete an email
ultimately depends on what subject line you
choose, which means it is your chance to make a
first impression.
The best subject lines are professional, polite,
relevant and concise. When sending a job
application email, it is important to include the
title of the job into which you are inquiring or for
which you are applying. Making your subject line
specific also helps the reader categorize the email
properly and respond accordingly. Review your
subject line to make sure it is free of any errors.
Job application letter template
Consider the following template when planning
your job application letter:
Your name
Your address
Your email address
Your phone number
Date
Name of hiring manager or supervisor
Title of hiring manager or supervisor
Company name
Company address
Salutation [Dear Mr./Ms.],
Outline where you saw the job posting and
express your interest in working in this role.
Discuss some of your qualifications that would
make you a good fit for the job.
Describe your past experience in a way that
emphasizes your personality and skills, while also
showcasing how you align with the goals of the
company.
Express your appreciation to the hiring manager
for reviewing your letter. Include any follow-up
information, if applicable.
Closing [Sincerely, Best]
Your signature
Your name (printed)

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Scanning & Skimming:
If you know how to skim and scan when you are
reading, you won’t have to read everything
thoroughly and you will be able to take some
pressure off your brain. Moreover, these two
reading techniques will save a great amount of
your valuable time.
Scanning
Scanning is the act of searching a particular
information in a text with a particular approach.
For instance, if you want to know the meaning of
the word ‘virtuous’ from a dictionary, you will start
searching the letter V first, then I, and then R; by
then you probably will have found the word. This
process of searching is called scanning. It is a
technique of fast reading.
Purposes of Scanning
º To search for a word in a dictionary or index
º To find a phone number or an address in a
directory
º To check the time schedule of a program in an
agenda
º To check the price of a specific item in a catalog
º To know a particular information from a text
Scanning: Steps to Follow
º Before starting to scan a text for a particular
information, you know some basic things about
that text. You will not be able to scan a text
efficiently if you do not have a basic idea about
that text. If the text is completely unknown to
you, you should skim it first to get some ideas
about that text. This will help you to guess the
section or part of the text where you might find
the information you need.
º Notice how the information is arranged. It
can be arranged either alphabetically or
numerically. However, some texts are not
arranged at all. In that case, you have to guess a
section and scan it through to get your
information.
º Scanning a random unknown page of a text
is difficult. It may take more time than the usual.
However, it won’t take too much time if you
move your eyes vertically and diagonally
keeping in mind the exact letters or numbers
you are looking for.
Skimming
Skimming is the other technique of fast reading.
Skimming is the act of glancing through a text for
gathering a basic idea about that text. For
instance, if you want to read an interesting article
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on the newspaper and you do not have enough
time to read more than one article, you will skim
through most of the article to decide exactly which
article you want to read. Skimming will also save a
great amount of your valuable time if you know
how to skim a text efficiently
. Purposes of Skimming
º To see what is in the news on a website or on a
paper
º To look through a text to decide whether you
want to read it or not
º To look through the television guide/program
schedule to plan your evening
º To see through a catalog to choose an offer
º To go through the options after searching
something on Google
º And many more
Skimming: Steps to Follow
º Read the title first. Generally, titles will give you
the most important idea of the text. If the title
does not interest you, you will probably skip it at
once.
º Then read the sub-headings (if any) of the text.
It will give a basic idea about the text and what’s
in it.
º If there is no sub-heading, read the first line or
first few lines of the text. It will give you the gist
of the text.
º If you want to skim it further, you may read the
first lines of all the paragraphs and focus on the
emphasized (bolded & italicized) words in them
to get more ideas about the

COMPREHENSION
whatiscomprehension?
Comprehension is the ability to understand written
text, spoken word, and visual images.
Comprehension is also the ability to read a passage,
understand the passages and answer questions in
the passage.
It can also be defined as the ability of
somebody or the power to understand something
that was said in a language or a passage.
Comprehension is a crucial element of reading, it
entails a gradual process and it’s one of the skills of
an excellent reader.
Majorly, when you see someone who reads well,
he/she must have the skills.
Skillsofanexcellentreader
1. A good reading culture and pace.
2. The person will overcome bad reading habits
including:
* Reading out loud
* Losing concentration
* Cramming
* Head movement
* Pointing at words
* Vocalization
* Regression
* Wrong eyes movement
3. Adequate concentration: when reading a
passage or sentence you should concentrate and
focus on getting the points and the heart of the
passage.
4. Adequate vocabulary development: the more
you read, the more your vocabulary skills develop
6. The person will have attitudinal questioning.
WhatareBadreadinghabits?
Ɵ Reading out loud: it is prohibited to read out
loud whenever you are reading. Whenever you try
to do this while reading you will surely be
distracted by what is in your environment.
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Ɵ Losing concentration.
Ɵ Cramming: most students do this whenever
examination is at the corner, this is a bad reading
habit whenever you cram what you read it is easier
for you to forget, instead read to understand.
Ɵ Head movement: pin this, whenever you are
reading a passage do not move your head by
reading the character one by one.
Ɵ Pointing at words: don’t point at words when
you are reading, you will surely be distracted and
turn the reading into a joke.
Ɵ Vocalization & sub-vocalization.
Ɵ Regression.
Ɵ Wrong eyes movement: fix your attention to the
passage to avoid distraction while reading the
passage.
Ɵ Small recognition span.
Howtoanswercomprehensionquestions
Ɵ Below are the tips for writing a good
comprehension:
A. Read the question at the end of the passage to
get some information about the passage.
B. Read through the passage fairly rapidly to get a
general or broad view of the passage.
C. Re-read the passage fairly and slower than the
first reading. While re-reading, try to get the
message of each paragraph or thought of the
passage. At this point, make some jotting as you
read on.
D. This is the third reading, be poised to search for
answers to the questions on the passage while
reading.
E. Take note of punctuation marks, contextual
meaning, heightened expression, figurative and
technical use of language.
F. While reading the passage, try to identify the
relationship between sentences and sentences
structure

What Is Speed Reading?
Speed reading is the process of rapidly recognizing
and absorbing phrases or sentences on a page all
at once, rather than identifying individual words.
The amount of information that we process
seems to be growing by the day, whether it's
emails, reports and websites at work, or social
media, books and magazines at home. We likely
feel pressure to get through this information more
quickly, so that we can "stay in the loop" and
make informed decisions.
Most people read at an average rate of 250 words
per minute (wpm), though some are naturally
quicker than others. But, the ability to speed read
could mean that you double this rate.
We'll now explore some of the skills that you can
use to accelerate your reading.
How to Speed Read
All speed reading techniques have one thing in
common: you avoid pronouncing and "hearing"
each word in your head as you read it, a process
known as as "sub-vocalization." Instead, you "skim"
lines or groups of words, as you can understand
words more quickly than you can say them.
One way to stop yourself from sub-vocalizing is
to focus on blocks of words rather than on
individual ones. Do this by relaxing your face and
"softening" or expanding your gaze on the page, so
that you stop seeing words as single, distinct units.
As you practice this, your eyes will skip faster
across the page.
Then, when you approach the end of a line,
allow your peripheral vision to take your eye to the
final set of words. This will help to stop pauses in
your reading (often at full points), meaning that
you scan across and down to the next line more
quickly.
Now let's look at three methods to boost your
reading speed:
1. The Pointer Method
Utah school teacher Evelyn Nielsen Wood was one
of the pioneers of speed reading. In the 1950s, she
claimed that she could read at up to 2,700 wpm if
she swept a finger along the line as she read.
This became known as the Pointer method,
and is also sometimes called "hand pacing" or
"meta guiding." Holding a card under each line and
drawing it down the page as you read works just as
well.
2. The Tracker-and-Pacer Method
This is a variant of the Pointer method where you
hold a pen, with its cap still on, and underline or
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track each line as you read it, keeping your eye
above the tip of the pen. This will help to increase
the pace at which you take in each line, and
improve your focus on the words. Whether you
actually underline the words is your choice.
Try to spend no more than one second on each line
and then increase your speed with each
subsequent page. You will probably find that you
retain very little information at first, but, as you
train your brain and you become more
comfortable with the technique, your
comprehension should improve.
3. The Scanning (or Previewing) Method
"Scanning" involves moving your eyes quickly
down the page – often down the center – and
identifying specific words and phrases as you go.
These can be key sentences (often the first
sentence of each paragraph), names, numbers, or
trigger words and ideas. Learning to expand your
peripheral vision can help with this.
You won't read every word, but your eye will
land on what is important to allow you to grasp the
basic idea.
When to Speed Read
These techniques can all help you to read more
quickly, but are they appropriate for what you're
trying to achieve?
Effective speed reading is a balance between
pace and comprehension. Studies have found that
the faster you read, the less information you take
in, particularly when it comes to remembering
detail.
So, speed reading is clearly not the answer if you're
reading a complex legal or technical document,
even if you are pushed for time. Similarly, it would
be sensible to slow down if the material you're
reading is new or unfamiliar, or if you have to
teach it to someone else.
When you need to understand only the basic
arguments or conclusions being presented, though,
using a speed reading technique can work.
This may especially be the case if you intend to go
back and re-read something more slowly when
you're less busy. In fact, one study has suggested
that skimming a text can improve your
comprehension the second time around.
Generally speaking, if you want to memorize
something, you'll need to read slowly, at less than
100 wpm. A normal rate for learning is 100-200
wpm, and for comprehension it is 200-400 wpm.
Speed reading is normally done at a rate of around
400-700 wpm. Anything above 500-600 wpm
 TA SLIDES BOOK SERIES

means sacrificing comprehension, although this

varies from person to person.
How to Improve Your Speed Reading
Knowing the "how" and "when" of speed reading is
only the first step to success. Here are some more
tips to help you:
Ɵ Avoid distractions. Create an environment
where there are as few interruptions and
distractions as possible, to allow you to focus fully
on the words in front of you.
Ɵ Go easy. Read an uncomplicated novel or a
simple online article to get a feel for which
technique is going to work best for you. Gauge
how much you've remembered or understood, and
set a timer to see how much faster you are now
reading.
Ɵ Cover words that you've already read. This
helps you to stop your eyes flitting back to earlier
words and slowing down your reading.
Ɵ Know what you want from the text. This can be
useful if you are using the skimming method, as it
primes you to pay attention when you see relevant
words, sentences or phrases. You can then slow
down at these points, or circle them for emphasis,
but otherwise move across the page quickly.
Ɵ Benchmark your progress. This way you can tell
whether your practice is paying off. There are
many free speed reading assessments online, such
as at ReadingSoft.com.
Ɵ Practice, practice, practice. You have to practice
speed reading to get good at it. The more you train
yourself, the more natural it will feel.

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Summary
How to Write a Summary
Meaning
using few words to give the most important
information about something
A "stand-alone" summary is a summary
produced to show a teacher that you have read
and understood something. It is common in many
100 and 200 level classes to get assignments that
ask you to read a certain number of articles and
summarize them. This is also a very common type
of writing assignment in graduate school.
How to produce a summary:
1.Read the article to be summarized and be sure
you understand it.
2.Outline the article. Note the major points.
3.Write a first draft of the summary without
looking at the article.
4.Always use paraphrase when writing a summary.
If you do copy a phrase from the original be sure it
is a very important phrase that is necessary and
cannot be paraphrased. In this case put "quotation
marks" around the phrase.
5.Target your first draft for approximately 1/4 the
length of the original.
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The features of a summary:
1. Start your summary with a clear identification
of the type of work, title, author, and main point in
the present tense.
Example: In the feature article "Four Kinds of
Reading," the author, Donald Hall, explains his
opinion about different types of reading.
2. Check with your outline and your original to
make sure you have covered the important points.
3. Never put any of your own ideas, opinions, or
interpretations into the summary. This means you
have to be very careful of your word choice.
4. Write using "summarizing language."
Periodically remind your reader that this is a
summary by using phrases such as the article
claims, the author suggests, etc.
5. Write a complete bibliographic citation at the
beginning of your summary. A complete
bibliographic citation includes as a minimum, the
title of the work, the author, the source. Use APA
format.

Precis-writing
A precis is a summary. Precis writing is an exercise
in compression. A precis is the gist of a passage
expressed in as few words as possible. A precis
should give all essential points so that anyone
reading it will be able to understand the idea
expressed in the original passage.
Note that precis writing is different from
paraphrasing. In a paraphrase you should give all
the details: you should not leave out any details. A
paraphrase will be at least as long and sometimes
longer than the original. A precis, on the other
hand, must always be shorter than the original. It
should express only the main theme that too as
briefly as possible.
What is Precis Writing?
Precis writing is summarizing a comprehension in
limited words, covering all the important aspects
and details of the passage given.
Rules of Precis Writing
To avoid making any errors in writing a precis,
follow a set of rules as mentioned below:
1. Read the comprehension carefully
2. Note down the important points
3. Make a rough draft of the precis
4. Make use of simple and precise language, as
much as possible
5. Draft the final precis once all the points have
been included
Important Features of a Good Precis
There are various components that make a good
precis. For candidates who have just started their
preparation for the upcoming Government exams,
knowing the features of a good precis is extremely
vital.
Discussed below are a few of the features
which shall help you write a good precis:
Length of the Precis: Do not write a lengthy precis.
In most cases, the number of words must be
almost one-third of the word count of the passage
or comprehension.
It should be convenient to read: Make sure that
the precis you write does not have too complex a
vocabulary or is too complicated to understand.
Cover all the essential points: While reading the
passage, make a note of the important points and
ensure that no point is skipped.
Must be coherent: The important terms with
respect to the passage must be included in the
precis as well.
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Use an appropriate Title: The precis needs to have
a title. So, the candidates must ensure that the title
is in sync with the comprehension.
Details in precis must match the details in the
passage: No other information apart from the one
given in the passage must be included in the precis
and all the important information mentioned in
the passage must certainly be included.
Dos for Precis Writing
Ɵ Begin with the basic idea of the passage to make
the precis convenient to read.
Ɵ Give a clear idea pertaining to what the reader is
about to read.
Ɵ While reading the passage, make a note of all
the important points and include them in the
precis.
Ɵ Follow the main idea of the passage with the
facts/points of improvement/ methods, etc. as
mentioned in the comprehension.
Ɵ Include all the important keywords and terms
which are used in the passage.
Ɵ Keep a track of the tenses you use. Data related
to historical events of the past must be described
in the past tense only.
Ɵ There must be a relation between the data you
are writing in the precis. It should have some
common links.
Don’ts for Precis Writing
Ɵ The length of the precis must be shorter than the
length of the passage.
Ɵ Do not over complicate the precis and use easy
vocabulary.
Ɵ Do not make assumptions or add information in
the precis as per your own imagination.
Ɵ Do not give your own opinion or criticism over
the comprehension.
Ɵ Avoid using abbreviations.
Ɵ Do not enter statements in the question format
in the precis.
Ɵ Don’t focus on any one point for very long. Keep
the information as precise as possible.
The above-mentioned dos and don'ts will help
candidates get a better idea of the concept and
also learn the correct approach with which the
precis needs to be written.
How long should a precis be?
There are no rigid rules regarding the length of a
precis. But as a general rule, it should not contain
more than a third of the total number of words in
the original passage.

Uses of precis writing
Most people read carelessly and fail to fully
comprehend the meaning of the passage. Precis
writing forces them to pay attention to what they
read because no one can write a summary of a
passage unless they read it carefully. So
summarizing teaches one to read with
concentration.
Precis writing also improves your overall
writing skills. It teaches you how to express your
thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively. You
learn to choose your words carefully and construct
your sentences in a logical and concise manner.
Frequently Asked Question – Precis Writing
Q.1. What do you mean by precis writing?
Ans. Precis writing is a summary or a gist of a
comprehensive passage that is supposed to cover
all the details and important aspects of the passage
and convey the summary with the use of minimal
words.
Q.2. How do you write a precis?
Ans. To write a good precis, read the passage given,
note down the important points and main idea of
the passage, use simple and clear words and draft
a final precis in precise language.
Q.3. Does a Precis need a title?
Ans. Whether asked or not you are supposed to
give a title to the precis. The title should convey
the core idea of the passage.
Q.4. What should be avoided in precis writing?
Ans. To write a good precis do not do the
following things – do not use any abbreviations, do
not give any question in your precis, do not express
your own opinion, do not keep it long, and avoid
using complex vocabulary.
Q 5. How long can a Precis Writing be?
Ans. The length of a précis varies greatly. A precis
can be 100 to 200 words or approximately
one-fifth to one-sixth of the length of the original
comprehension.
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Comprehension Passage:
Everybody knows what a “good” man means and
how he should be. Our definition of a good man is
the one who does not smoke, or drink or avoids
the usage of bad language. A good man is ideally
expected to converse in front of men as he would
in front of women. He is also expected to attend
the Church regularly and have correct opinions on
all subjects. He has a wholesome horror of
wrong-doing and realizes that it is our painful duty
to reprimand sin. He is not anticipated to have
wrong thinking and has the authority to protect
the young. His duties are not just restricted to the
professional front but also needs to spend quality
time doing good deeds. He must be patriotic and a
keen believer of military training, he should
promote industry, must be sober and have virtue
among wage earners and their children. He must
be a role model for all and it is expected that he
leads a way which the younger generation would
willingly follow. Above all, of course, his “morals”
in the narrow sense must be admirable.
Precis Writing:
Title: Attributes of a Good Man
The characteristics of a good man are known and
he is expected to be religiously profound, must not
smoke, drink or use bad language. His behaviour
must be the same for all genders and he is
expected to be a role model for the young ones. He
must know his duties and avoid taking up the path
of sin. He must be good not only in the
professional space but also help people in need. He
must be someone who can be admired and is
praiseworthy.
Candidates may note that all the information
which was mentioned in the comprehension has
been precisely covered in the precis in
understandable and easy to read language, along
with an appropriate title.
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Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
EXTENSIVE READING INTENSIVE READING
COMPARISON

Meaning Extensive reading is an approach to Intensive Reading is a reading method

language learning in which long text wherein learners are supposed to read the
and a large amount of material are short text carefully and deeply so as to gain
read by the students for general maximum understanding.
understanding.

Nature Supplementary Comprehensive

Purpose For acquiring information or for For understanding the literal meaning of the
pleasure. text.

Covers Reading of novels, magazines, Reading of textbooks.

newspaper.

Material Reading material is selected by the Reading material is decided and

Selection individual himself. recommended by the teachers.

Involves Reading of a number of books on a Reading of a book again and again to extract
similar concept or subject. its literal meaning.

Use of No Yes
dictionary

Helpful in Developing reading fluency Developing reading skills, vocabulary and

grammatical knowledge.

Definition of Extensive Reading
Extensive Reading can be defined as a casual
reading performed for pleasure or gaining general
understanding on a topic when the students are
engrossed in a book, magazine or newspaper. In
this approach students read long texts and refer to
various supporting study material, only to enjoy
the reading and gaining a better understanding of
the concept.
That is why, for extensive reading, the readers
look for easy, interesting and amusing books, so as
to improve their reading fluency and speed as
well. The text is comparatively simple, containing a
few unfamiliar words.
22 / 36
The individual can select the book or material
of his choice, on the topic that matches their
interest. Further, there is no follow-up discussion
to be held in the class for what the students have
learnt during their reading.
Extensive Reading is just to encourage the
habit of reading in students for pleasure and
make them a voracious reader. Hence, it does not
really matter as to whether the reader understands
each word written in the text or not, to get the
basic concept of the passage.
In addition to this, the extensive reading method
gives an opportunity to the students to read lots of

material, which they select for themselves
according to their reading speed and capability.
Definition of Intensive Reading
Intensive Reading can be understood as the
reading method which requires intimate study of a
text with the objective of getting its literary or
linguistic meaning. The readers are supposed to
read the text with concentration and due care, in
detail, as it has certain learning aims and tasks.
Basically, it is the in-depth reading of a
comparatively shorter piece of reading material, to
gain complete knowledge from it. It aims at
identifying the answers to the questions of reading
comprehension. Moreover, it can be used for the
purpose of skimming and scanning, and the
concatenation of the sentences.
It involves an analysis of the text by the
deconstruction of the sentences and looking over
each word, phrase and collocation which is not
understandable with an aim of extracting the
essence and meaning of the text as much as
possible and learn the grammar and syntax rules.
Further, the goals of intensive reading include
understanding the gist and subject matter of the
text, improving grammar and vocabulary, and
understanding the thought of the author behind
the text. The main focus of the learner is on the
language used, rather than the text.
Key Differences Between Extensive and Intensive
Reading
The main points of difference between extensive
and intensive reading are explained below:
1. In extensive reading the reader reads multiple
books, newspaper, magazines etc. to get a general
understanding of the topic of their interest.
Conversely, Intensive reading is concerned with
classroom learning, wherein the student is
compelled to read some text as many times as
required to deeply understand the topic.
2. Extensive Reading is a supplementary reading
which is concerned with decoding of the written
material. On the other hand, intensive reading is
comprehensive in nature, as it involves
comprehension of the written text.
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3. Extensive reading is reading for fun,
entertainment and pleasure, as well as to gain a
basic understanding of something. However, the
primary focus of intensive reading is to understand
the literal meaning of the text being read.
4. Extensive reading involves a reading of novels,
journals, newspaper and magazines. As against,
intensive reading is all about textbook reading.
5. As the topic is chosen by the teacher in case of
intensive reading, it may not be appropriate as per
the student’s interest. On the contrary, in
extensive reading, the students are free to choose
the material they want to read.
6. Extensive reading is concerned with reading
different books and other study material based on
a similar concept or idea. In contrast, intensive
reading involves reading the given material, again
and again, to understand it in full.
7. In extensive reading, readers are not supposed
to use a dictionary, as understanding each and
every word contained in the material is not vital.
As opposed, in intensive reading readers have to
use the dictionary, to understand the meaning of
every single word which is unfamiliar to them.
8. While extensive reading is important for
improving the reading speed and fluency of the
reader, intensive reading develops critical thinking,
analytical skills in the reader, along with improving
reading skills, vocabulary and grammatical
knowledge.
Conclusion
In a nutshell, extensive reading is mainly used
when an overall or superficial knowledge is
required on a subject, as no focus is made on the
detailed study. On the other hand, intensive
reading is used where due attention is required, to
learn specific details about the topic or subject
under study.

Main idea & supporting
ideas HOW TO IDENTIFY THEM IN A TEXT
Main idea
• Its is the key information that the author wants
you to know after reading the text. Main idea is the
central and most important idea in a passage.
• It may be stated or implied.
• Main idea is bigger than summary as summary
has all the key details that happened in the text,
while main idea is what those details add up to.
• When an author writes he has idea in mind which
he wants to convey.
Example
An article about the creek in the forest, how
everyone wants to drink from it, but the otters
want to swim in it but the bears want to fish in it,
beavers want to build a damn in it to turn the
whole thing in a pond. Now this paragraph is the
summary of the article because we talk about the
events that happened. Right!
The main idea here on the other hand is the
conflict/fight over who has access to the
creek. Main idea is that different animals want to
use the creek.
Your brain gets stronger when you exercise it, just
like muscles get stronger when you exercise them.
Training your brain isn't always easy or
comfortable. In fact, your brain uses up 20%of the
oxygen and blood in your body because it works so
hard. Here are some examples of how your brain
grows when you learn new things. Learning math
strengthens the parts of the brain that are linked
to memory, thought, and action. Imagine that!
Remember when you first learned how to add
and subtract? You got faster and faster with more
practice. That's because your neurons, those are
brain cells, your neurons were learning how to
work with each other, and then your memory
improved. Learning and practicing things helps
your brain work faster. Learning and practicing
helps strengthen and change our brains. Your brain
is changing and creating new neural pathways.
Neural is similar to neuron.
Your brain is changing and creating new
neural pathways when you struggle to learn
something new.
So struggle is important. In other words, there's a
lot happening in your brain when you're learning.
All learning can build new information pathways,
but learning things that are challenging for you can
supercharge your brain growth. In other words, the
more you're challenged, the faster you learn.
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Main idea of that passage
Learning new information can strengthen your
brain.
What I did here was took something from
each paragraph and saw the intent of the writer
behind it. Don’t get so hung up on tiny details that
you will be unable to see the big idea.There are 4
effective ways to identify the main idea of a
passage.
1. Read the passage then try to identify the main
idea. What is the paragraph about?
2. Summarize the Passage
3. After reading the passage summarize it in your
own words in one sentence.
4. Look for Repetition of Ideas Start looking for
repeated words, phrases, or related ideas.
Topic is what the passage is going to talk about.
Subject of the paragraph. Who or what the passage
is about? The answer will give you the topic.
Example
Potato chip was an invention that accidentally
happened. George Crum was a chef
trying to please a customer who kept sending his
French fries back to the kitchen
with the complaint that he wanted them crispier
and thinner crumb kept slicing potatoes and
cooking
them until they became the crispy potato chips we
know today.
Topic here is potato chip as it is the what the
paragraph is about. Now the topic will eventually
help
you in figuring out the main idea.
Main idea is what the author wants me to learn
the most about the topic.
Main idea is topic sentence. Topic sentence is
usually at the beginning of a paragraph but some
times
it is found at the end as well acting as the
concluding sentence or in very rare cases in the
middle of a
paragraph too.
Main idea
• The main idea is the central, or most important,
idea in a paragraph or passage.
• Another term for the main idea is ‘topic sentence’
while the topic is simply called ‘topic.’
• The main idea may be stated or it may be
implied.
• When the main idea of a paragraph is stated, it is
found in the topic sentence of the paragraph..
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• The main idea may be stated in the first sentence Example sleep helps sharpen your thinking, it also
of a paragraph and then be repeated or restated at helps you to concentrate better and work faster.
the end of the paragraph Sleep heals your body and proper sleep helps your
• Stated main idea is mostly in the topic sentence organs to function fully. Main idea here is sleep is
while implied main idea is not in that case the topic good for health all the other details support that
sentence is only about the topic. idea.
Supporting details
Supporting details are general information that
clarifies, supports, or explains the main idea in
greater detail, proving the main idea’s credibility
with supporting details and examples from the text
in order to better understand the story and what
the main idea is. So, mainly these details are the
other information in the passage that explains the
main idea.

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LETTER WRITING
Letter Writing
A letter is a written message that can be
handwritten or printed on paper. It is usually sent
to the recipient via mail or post in an envelope,
although this is not a requirement as such. Any
such message that is transferred via post is a letter,
a written conversation between two parties.
types of letters.
• Formal Letter: These letters follow a certain
pattern and formality. They are strictly kept
professional in nature, and directly address the
issues concerned. Any type of business letter or
letter to authorities falls within this given category.
• Informal Letter: These are personal letters. They
need not follow any set pattern or adhere to any
formalities. They contain personal information or
are a written conversation. Informal letters are
generally written to friends, acquaintances,
relatives etc.
Formal VS Informal
The main difference between formal and informal
letters is that formal letters professionally address
someone, and informal letters address someone in
a personal way. Other differences include:
Formal letters follow a specific format, while
informal letters can follow any format. The tone of
a formal letter is professional and official, while the
tone of an informal letter is friendly.
People usually write formal letters in the first
or third person, while informal letters can be from
any point of view.
Formal letters are focused and concise and do
not include filler or fluff.
Formal letters are usually typed, while informal
letters can also be handwritten.
Formal letters include a date and contact
information at the top.
Unlike informal letters, formal letters do not
include grammatical trends like contractions (can't,
don't, I've), slang or idioms.
Most formal letters are no longer than one
page, while informal letters can be any length.
Format of writing
Identify the type of letter
This obviously is the first step of the letter writing
process. You must be able to identify the type of
letter you are to be writing. This will be dictated by
the person the letter is addressed to and the
information that will be conveyed through the
letter. Suppose you were writing to the principal of
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your college to ask for leave, this would be a
formal letter
2] Make sure you open and close the letter
correctly
Opening a letter in the correct manner is of utmost
importance. Formal letters open with a particular
structure and greeting that is formal in nature.
Informal letters can be addressed to the person’s
name or any informal greeting as the writer
wishes.
3] Establish the main intent of the letter
Once you start writing, make sure to get to the
point as soon as possible. Especially in formal
letters, it is important to immediately make clear
the purpose of the letter.
4] Be careful of the language
A letter is always supposed to be polite and
considerate. Even if it is a complaint letter, the
point must be made in a careful and courteous
manner. So it is necessary to use polite expressions
and civil language in all types of letters.
5] Length of the letter
And the other important factor to be considered is
the length of the letter you are writing. It should be
kept in mind that formal letters are generally to
the point, precise and short. Lengthy formal letters
tend to not have the desired effect on the reader.
The length of an informal letter is determined by
the message in the letter and the relation to the
recipient.
Format
Writing a Formal Letter – Parts of a Formal Letter
When writing a formal letter, always be respectful
and conscious of your language, no matter what
the subject of the letter might be. To write a
formal letter, there are some points to be
remembered.
1. Always start with the sender’s address
2. This is followed by the date.
3. The receiver’s address comes next. The receiver
can be the name of the firm or the one who
represents the firm.
4. The subject of the letter is very important. It is a
statement of the purpose of the letter. It should be
written in a single line.1. The salutation can be
Dear Sir/Ma’am. If it is a person you know well,
you can address them by their name, ‘Dear C.E.O’.
5. The body of the letter can be written in 3
paragraphs.
A. The first paragraph should be aimed at
introducing yourself and stating the purpose of
your letter.
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B. The second paragraph should furnish all the Types of formal letters
information about the matter. There are different types of formal letters, as
C. The third paragraph can be a concluding discussed, and they can generally be labeled under
paragraph where you lay out your expectations the following terms:
regarding the matter. • Business Letters
6. To close the letter, you can use a complimentary • Letters of Application
closing like ‘Yours faithfully’, ‘Yours sincerely’ etc. • Letters to Newspapers
7. Unlike informal letters, the signature should
include your name (in block letters) and
designation below your signature.

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MEMO WRITING Example of a memo

Writing a business memorandum (memo)
Establish the purpose
In business, the purpose of a memo is to provide
or request information from people within your
organization. It is important to carefully consider
the key point of the memo and who should
receive it. A memo that is written clearly using a
friendly and professional tone avoids any
opportunity for misinterpretation.
Structure of a memo
Part 1: HEADER
TO: provide the names and titles of everyone
who will receive your memo
FROM: provide your complete name and title
DATE: provide the complete and accurate date –
don’t forget to include the year
SUBJECT: provide a brief, yet specific description
of what the memo is about
Part 2: MESSAGE
Introduction – explain the purpose
Body – addresses the information required
Conclusion – (Summary and possible
recommendations)
Note:
Each paragraph contains one main idea or point.
A paragraph can be one sentence long.
Arrange points in a logical sequence.

28 / 36

Formal Meeting and Minutes
What is a Formal Meeting?
A formal meeting is a per-planned gathering of two
or more people who have assembled for the
purpose
of achieving a common goal through verbal
interaction.
Formal meetings are characterized by their
predetermined topics, a set of objectives and
formal notices.
Formal meetings are typically lead by a
chairperson with the discussions and agreements
recorded in a
written form known as minutes.
What is formal meeting like?
A formal meeting is like conducting an orchestra
with a conductor (chairperson) and musicians
(meeting
participants) coming together in a per-planned
place at a set time to play a musical piece (agenda)
that they
perform together (agreed outcomes).
Purpose of a Formal Meeting?
The purpose of a formal meeting is to discuss the
list of predetermined topics and address the set of
objectives, and make decisions relating to them.
Formal meetings are a requirement of some
companies to
promote transparency and accountability. These
meeting allow proper discussions to be taken
about issues
within the company.
Different Types of Formal Meetings?
Annual General Meeting – These are usually a
requirement of a company. Employees and
Shareholders
will meet to discuss progress in the past year, and
what to do in the next one.
Planning Meetings – Groups will gather together
to plan what to do and how to do it.
Review Meetings – Participants will gather to
discuss what has been done, how successful it was
and
whether it could have been done differently.
What’s Involved with a Formal Meeting?
Many formal meetings follow a set pattern. This
helps to give the meeting an organized structure.
This pattern is usually set out in an agenda,
which is circulated to participants in advance,
along with a
copy of the minutes from the last meeting.
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At the beginning of a meeting, participants will
agree to the accuracy of the minutes from the last
meeting.
Attendees will give updates on any action items
from the previous meeting.
The items on the agenda will then be discussed.
Minutes (official notes) will be taken throughout
the
meeting. There often has to be a certain number of
people present for the members to be able to
conduct
valid business.
How do formal meetings impact on organizational
goals?
Formal meeting help attendees to understand the
organizational goals of the company whilst giving
them
the chance to discuss and amend these
organizational goals.
Decisions are often taken in formal meetings
which can affect the organizational goals of a
business.
What terms are used in managing formal
meetings?
Agenda – An agenda sets out the structure of the
meeting.
Minutes – Minutes are a formal record of the
events which occur during a meeting.
Motion – A motion is a proposal or a suggestion
within a meeting.
Chairperson – The chairperson is in charge of the
meeting and decides who can speak and when.
Order – If more than one person is speaking at
once, or if the meeting is becoming an argument,
rather
than a discussion, the chair may call “order”.
Quorum – This refers to the minimum number of
people required for the meeting to remain valid.
5 Steps on How to Run a Formal Meeting
Step 1: Set objectives:
A clear objective will encourage people to
attend the meeting because they will understand
its intent. It
also will set the foundation for a focused meeting.
Meetings usually have one of two objectives – to
inform or to decide.
Step 2: Assemble attendees:
Create a list of who needs to attend this meeting.
Think carefully about whether or not someone
needs
to be in the room for the duration of the meeting.

Be definitive when you invite people to a
meeting.
Step 3: Create an agenda:
An agenda is a list of the key items to review in
order to meet your objective. It can be something
you
use for yourself or hand out at the meeting. The
upside of handing out an agenda is that it provides
a the meeting about what happened, or to keep
script for people to follow. The downside is that it
may distract your attendees; it could tempt them
to
jump to issues you’re not ready to cover.
Step 4: Maintain control:
Once the meeting has begun, it is your
responsibility to keep it moving and keep it focused.
Here are
some tips for accomplishing this:
Start on time, even if people are late. If you wait
until the last person arrives, you train people to be
late.
Briefly state what the meeting is about.
If you have passed out an agenda, be sure
everyone follows it so that you accomplish your
objectives.
If discussion drags on a topic and a decision is
not being made, it is your job to interject and say
something like, “For the sake of the timeline of the
project, we need to make a decision.”
If it is apparent that something cannot be
resolved, determine what will be necessary to
resolve it in the
future and add it to the project timeline.
Crowd control: You have to be firm if the group
gets off track and suggest that the matter be
discussed at
another time.
Schedule the next meeting at the end of the
current one.
If you called the meeting, you are responsible
for taking notes or appointing someone to take
notes.
Step 5: Follow up:
Once the meeting has ended, you still have work
to do.
Put together and distribute an action list
summarizing what was covered, what was resolved,
and what
actions need to be taken for issues requiring
further clarification. This should come straight
from the
meeting notes.
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Make sure to thank people for attending and
participating. They will be happy to know their
time was appreciated.
Minutes of Meetings:
Minutes of meetings can be defined as the
written record of everything that's happened
during a meeting.
They're used to inform people who didn't attend
track of
what was decided during the meeting so that you
can revisit it and use it to inform future decisions.
Purpose of Minutes of Meeting
Meeting minutes provide a written record of what
was discussed and agreed at a meeting, so you and
your
colleagues will have the same recollections from
the meeting and the same ideas about what was
agreed.
With good meeting minutes, you make sure
everyone knows what was decided and what needs
to be
achieved by what date.
Not taking meeting minutes can be costly in
terms of both time and money, for example when
you and your colleagues have different
recollections of what was agreed during a meeting.
In the worst case, if meeting minutes are not
written you may end up having to repeat the
meeting. So, getting into the habit of taking
meeting minutes is good practice.
Steps to write meeting minutes
Create an outline: Take notes under each meeting
agenda item as the meeting progresses.
Check-off attendees as they enter the room: Have
each person introduce themselves at the beginning
of the meeting, especially if you don’t know them.
Record decisions or notes on action items: Record
these decisions or action items as soon as they
happen to transcribe accurately.
Ask for clarification if necessary: Don’t be afraid to
ask for clarification if something is unclear. It
avoids
having to come back to it later when things are not
as fresh in our memories.
Don’t try to capture it all: Capturing it all would be
impossible. Instead, listen attentively for major
decisions, action items, problems or solutions.
Record it: With permission, consider recording the
meeting on your phone or a recording device if you
are worried about missing important content in
your meeting minutes.

Sample:
Agenda & the Meeting
Agenda 1. The need for digital library at INS
Peshawar
2. Internet facility in the campus
3. Cafeteria
4. The need for Sick Room and Guest Room
A meeting was held at INS KMU to discuss various
problems faced by the students and the faculty.
The following worthy members attended the
meeting chaired by worthy Vice Chancellor KMU.
The Registrar KMU
The Treasurer KMU
The Coordinator and faculty members INS
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After detailed discussion the following points of
the agenda were agreed upon.
1. The house agreed to establish a digital library to
facilitate the research scholars.
2. Looking at the urgency of the issue, they decided
to improve the internet facility.
3. The idea of cafeteria was postponed till the start
of face to face classes.
4. The idea of Sick Room was unanimously
endorsed; however, there were some reservations
from the
Treasurer about Guest Room because of the
limited developmental funds.

Presentation
What is Presentation?
• A presentation is a means of communication that
can be adapted to various speaking situations, such
as
talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing
a team.
• A presentation in the context of public speaking
can be described as an activity where a presenter
presents his/her ideas, explains a process, provides
information, or raises questions regarding a subject
for
public debate.
Types of Presentations
• Presentations can be presented for different
purposes. Before presenting a presentation, it is
necessary
that you have a clear idea regarding the purpose of
the presentation.
• There are 5 most common types of
presentations:
• Informative
• Persuasive
• Instructional
• Arousing
• Decision Making
Informative
• You might need to create an informative
presentation to explain important details tied to a
topic before an audience. This type of presentation
might be brief, with essential information. Such a
presentation is usually based on facts and avoids
too many complicated details and assumptions.
• Examples: Class lectures, research findings,
technical information, results from experiments,
etc.
Persuasive
• A persuasive presentation is geared towards
convincing the audience to believe a specific point
of view.
Such a presentation might conclude with a call to
action.
• Examples: Product demos, presentations on
social issues, debates, etc
Instructional
• Such a presentation might be to provide an
audience with instructions, such as regarding a
process, or the use of a product. Such
presentations are usually longer, as they require
demonstrations and detailed
explanation of each aspect of the topic.
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• Examples: Tutorials for using a software, device
or machine, employee orientation presentations,
explanation of a course syllabus, etc.
Arousing
• This type of presentation is meant to make the
audience think about a certain topic. This can be to
appeal to the intellect and emotions of the
audience to point them towards a certain point of
view or to start a social debate.
• Example: Religious speech, presentation about a
taboo, motivational presentation, etc.
Decision Making
• Some presentations are conducted with the sole
aim of providing facts and figures to help the
audience
reach a decision. This might include a business
presentation about say, market share, profits,
project
revenue and market competition; so that the
board members might be able to decide a future
course of
action for the company.
• Examples: Business meetings, presentation about
legislation and laws etc.
Elements of a Presentation
• Making a presentation is a way of communicating
your thoughts and ideas to an audience.
• Following are the key components of a
presentation:
– Context
– Presenter
– Audience
– Message
– Reaction
– Methods
– Impediments
Context
• Ask yourself the following questions to develop a
full understanding of the context of the
presentation.
–When and where will you deliver your
presentation? (Live or prerecorded)
– Will the presentation be to a small group or a
large crowd? (live or web based)
– What is the audience expecting to learn from you
and your presentation?
• All these aspects will change the presentation.
Presenter
• The role of the presenter is to communicate with
the audience and control the presentation.

• Remember, though, that if you want some kind
of interaction this may mean handing over the
control to
your audience.
Audience
• Before preparing material for a presentation, it is
worth considering your prospective audience.
• Tailoring your talk to the audience is important
and the following points should be considered:
– The size of the group or audience expected.
– The age range - a talk aimed at retired people will
be quite different from one aimed at teenagers.
– Gender - will the audience be predominantly
male or female?
– Is it a captive audience or will they be there out
of interest?
– Will you be speaking in their work or leisure
time?
– Do they know something about your subject
already or will it be totally new to them? Is the
subject part
of their work?
– Are you there to inform, teach, stimulate, or
provoke?
– Can you use humor and if so what would be
considered appropriate?
Message
• The message or messages are delivered by the
presenter to the audience.
• The message is delivered not just by the spoken
word (verbal communication) but can be
augmented by
techniques such as voice projection, voice tone,
body language, gestures, eye contact, and attitude
or
authentic passion displayed (non-verbal
communication), and visual aids, such as
PowerPoint slides.
• The message will also be affected by the
audience’s expectations. For example, if you have
been billed as
speaking on one particular topic, and you choose
to speak on another, the audience is unlikely to
take your
message on board even if you present very well.
They will judge your presentation a failure,
because you
have not met their expectations.
Reaction
• The audience’s reaction and therefore the
success of the presentation will largely depend
upon whether
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you, as presenter, effectively communicated your
message, and whether it met their expectations.
• As a presenter, you don’t control the audience’s
expectations. What you can do is find out what
they have been told about you by the conference
organizers, and what they are expecting to hear.
Only if you know that can you be confident of
delivering something that will meet expectations
Method
• How will the presentation be delivered?
• Presentations are usually delivered direct to an
audience.
• However, there may be occasions where they are
delivered from a distance over the Internet, or
recorded and posted on the internet, then people
may be able to access it for several years.
• This will mean that your contemporaneous
references should be kept to a minimum
Impediments
• Many factors can influence the effectiveness of
how your message is communicated to the
audience.
• For example background noise or other
distractions, an overly warm or cool room, or the
time of day and
state of audience alertness can all influence your
audience’s level of concentration.
• As presenter, you have to be prepared to cope
with any such problems and try to keep your
audience
focused on your message.
Means to Present a Presentation
1. Oral Only
• This might simply include a presenter speaking
directly to the audience, without any visual aid.
This type of presentation can be difficult, since it
can be hard to grab audience attention without
any visual aid. If you are looking to give an oral
presentation, you must have very good
presentation skills and a compelling story to tell
your audience. In fact, your audience is likely to be
more interested in your presentation if you can
present your ideas, concepts and explanations like
a story.
• While it might seem unlikely that someone would
resort to an audio only presentation, however, this
too
can be quite an effective method for creating a
sense of mystery of making your audience pay
more

attention to the content of your presentation. Such
a presentation might be presented in the form of a
story, read out or played via an audio device
2. Visual Only
• This might include a set of images or a video
playing out before an audience.
• Such a presentation might include slides or a
video clip with text that the audience requires to
read to
understand the visuals, a silent animation with a
symbolic message, or a set of images played like a
slideshow.
3. Visual & Oral
• This is the most common method of presenting a
presentation. Whether it is a presenter directly or
remotely presenting a presentation, or a video
presentation playing out before an audience, the
use of both visual and an oral explanation is usually
the most effective method for presenting a
presentation. Such a presentation may also include
background music, and audio effects to make the
presentation more
compelling.
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• Other than presentation software, and the use of
devices like projectors, monitors and TV screens,
visual
and oral presentations might also include
photographs, whiteboards, and handouts
Tips for Effective Presentations
• Show your Passion and Connect with your
Audience . ...
• Focus on your Audience's Needs. ...
• Keep it Simple: Concentrate on your Core
Message . ...
• Relax, Breathe and Enjoy.
• Smile and Make Eye Contact with your
Audience. ...
• Use your Voice Effectively.
• Start Strongly. ...
• Tell Stories. ...
• Remember the 10-20-30 Rule for Slideshows. ...
• Use your body too.

What Is a Progress Report?
A progress report is a document that shows the
progress that your team is making towards completing
a project.
Progress reports give an overview to either a
supervisor, a manager, a team leader, a colleague or a
client on:
Ɵ The status of the project
Ɵ The milestones achieved
Ɵ Responsibilities of each employee or team member
Ɵ The issues faced by various team members...and
other important factors that affect project completion
This report is essentially a project management
mechanism to prevent issues before they happen, to
ensure that the project will be finished on-time, and to
keep those involved informed of the project's progress.
How often the progress report should be submitted (e.g.
daily, weekly, monthly, etc.) will heavily depend on the
project's scope and complexity.
In general, you want your progress reports to
provide meaningful insights. Setting a daily reporting
schedule for a long-term project may lead to progress
reports with surface-level answers.
Therefore, you may want to set a reasonable
schedule and give a progress report template with
standardized questions on project progress and key
issues.
Giving these questions in advance will encourage
your team members to think about their responses
more thoroughly before handing in the report.
Why Is a Progress Report Important?
The importance of progress reports lies beyond keeping
track and managing your different projects happening
simultaneously. Progress reports also provide valuable
insights on how your team can finish projects more
effectively.
Aside from giving an overview of the projects taking
place, a well-structured progress report template also
allows the project manager to identify key issues
affecting the team's productivity and a project's
progress toward completion.
These insights can then be fed into a knowledge
base, which contains best practices on how to manage
and execute future projects.
Best Practices On How To Write a Progress Report
1. Treat a progress report like a Q&A
A simple way to start learning how to write a progress
report is by treating the progress report format as a
question and answer sheet on the project's progress.
You need answers on the progress, the blockers and the
next tasks to do that lead to project completion.
Nothing more. Nothing less.
2. Include questions on progress, plans and problems
(PPP).
PPP is a management technique for status reporting
that focuses on project progress toward completion.
Questions related to PPP lead to specific and
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meaningful answers, instead of generic ones with
unnecessary details. It's used by many people at Skype
and Apple to get useful and relevant project facts.
Progress - These include milestones, goals achieved,
finished tasks and validated items that contribute to
project completion.
Plans - These include things to do, short- and long-term
objectives, and other plans that affect project
completion.
Problems - These are blockers and issues that affect
project completion.
Each Project should have answers with 3-5 items. If
your team is having a hard time filling out the progress
reports because they're too frequent, you might want
to change the frequency they're submitted.
3. Allow meaningful completion of the progress report
An often-neglected aspect of the progress reporting
process is ensuring that the information acquired is at a
high quality. Two things help achieve this: setting the
right schedule and encouraging specific answers.
Setting appropriate deadlines is key. People doing
long-term projects that last for a year or more may not
want to submit daily progress reports. A wrong
schedule might lead to unsatisfactory answers. That
said, make sure that you set actual dates for submission.
Otherwise, people may always put them as a last
priority task.
Moreover, you should encourage formulating specific
answers. For example, this can be emphasizing for
answers to include relevant metrics, instead of vague
descriptions. This helps you track progress more
meaningfully.
4. Use section headings to make reading and writing
simpler
Add section headings in your progress report format to
make the process of writing and reading the report a lot
easier. When learning how to write a progress report,
section headings help you focus on providing valuable
information about the progress, in itself.
The purpose of a progress report is to give clarity on
the progress of a project, not to describe every single
aspect about what's currently happening in the project.
Plus, the project manager reading the project will
have an easier time reading and remembering key
elements in it.
5. Use simple and straightforward language
Learning how to write progress reports means using a
progress report format with a language that's clear and
straight to the point. Unless your project requires you
to use jargon and technical language, keep your
sentences simple, straightforward and easy to
understand.
Progress Report Format Template Example Using PPP
(Progress report using PPP)
Using PPP, a progress report format structure should
have the following sections:
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Introduction - This helps understand what project this
report is about. Simply ask what they're working on to
start the progress report.
PPP section - This is the main body of the progress
report, and it should give enough information on the
overall status of the project. As you will read in the next
section, Scrum
Genius allows you to have an overview of the goals and
blockers reported in the status reporting process to
derive important insights from.
Anything else to add? - This section may also provide
more holistic comments on how this project is being
done.

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