MAGNETISM

∙ A property of materials that respond to an applied magnetic field that causes the material to be
either attracted or repelled.

Magnet

∙ A magnet (from Greek "Magnesian stone") is a material or object that produces a magnetic
field.
∙ Natural magnet – earth
∙ Artificial magnets – human-made magnets

Coulomb’s Law of Magnetostatics

Where: F = force exerted on the pole; N

k’ = magnetic constant = 1 x 10-7 N/A2(Wb/Am)

P1 , P2 = pole strengths; Am
r = distance between two interacting poles; m

LAW OF MAGNETIC POLES:

∙ Like poles of two magnets repel each other, whereas unlike poles attract.

Problem 1: A bar magnet 6 cm long has pole strengths of 950 Am each. An isolated n pole of
strength 100 Am is placed 3 cm directly above the N pole of the 6-cm bar magnet. Determine
the resultant force exerted on the n pole. 9. 796 N, 78.887° N of E

Earth’s Magnetic Field

❖ William Gilbert – discovered that the earth is a huge magnet.

❖ The NORTH POLE of a magnet in a compass points north because it is attracted to the
EARTH’S MAGNETIC SOUTH POLE – located near the EARTH’S GEOGRAPHIC NORTH
POLE.

Magnetic Field

∙ The region surrounding a magnet where the magnetic force can be detected. ∙ Magnetic lines of
force – the imaginary lines that indicate the path taken by an independent n pole in going from
the N to the S pole of magnet.
∙ Properties of Lines of Force:
▪ They do not touch each other.
▪ They do not cross each other.
▪ They are elliptical closed curves.

Magnetic Field of a Moving Charge:

Where: B = magnetic field

F = force exerted
q = amount of charge
v = velocity; speed
E = electric field intensity
UNITS: Tesla (T) = N/Am
Gauss (G) = dyne/Acm
Problem 2: Suppose a proton is moving east with a speed of 100 km/s through a magnetic field,
which has a value of 55µT upward. Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic force on
the proton. 8.81 x 10-19 N
Magnetic Field / Magnetic Flux Density (B)
∙ Number of lines of flux per unit area through any substance in a plane at right angles to the
lines of flux; vector field.
∙ Its direction, which is along the orientation of a compass needle.

∙ Its magnitude (also called strength), which is proportional to how strongly the compass
needle orients along that direction.

; p = the strength of the n pole

Where: B = magnetic field; N / (Am) = Wb/m2= Tesla (T)

()
P = the strength of the pole considered in (Am)

r = the distance between the point (the n pole) and the pole considered in

(m) k’ = magnetic constant, 1 x 10-7 N/A2

 ∙ Tesla – SI unit of magnetic flux density equal to webers per square meter. Named after the
Croatian-American engineer, Nikola Tesla.
∙ Gauss – CGS unit of magnetic field intensity equal to maxwells per square centimeter.
Named after the German Mathematician Johann Karl Freidrich Gauss.

Problem 3: The bar magnet is 15 cm long and has pole strengths 850 Am each. (a) Determine
the magnetic field at a point above the magnet which is 5 cm from the S pole and 12 cm from
the N pole of the bar magnet. (b) If the pole has strength of 50 Am, determine the force exerted
on it at the point. (a) 37.124 mT, 36.948° S of E (b) 1.8562 N, 36.948
Problem 4: Two bar magnets lie on the same straight line with the N poles facing each other.
The distance between their centers is 21 cm. The left magnet is 8 cm long with pole strengths of
800 Am each while the right magnet is 10 cm long with pole strengths of 1000 Am each.
Determine the magnetic field at the point midway between the two N poles. 5.731 x 10-3 N/Am
due west

Problem 5: Two bar magnets re parallel to each one another with their poles pointing in the
same direction. The upper magnet has pole strengths of 900 Am each while the lower magnet
has pole strengths of 750 Am each. The length of each magnet is 20 cm and the distance
between them is 16 cm. Determine the magnetic field at a point equidistant from the 4 poles.
15.736 mT due east

Magnetic Flux/Magnetic Flux Density

∙ Magnetic Flux – the entire group of magnetic field lines, which flow outward from the north
pole of the magnet.
∙ Magnetic Flux Density – the magnetic flux per unit area of a section perpendicular to the
direction of flux.
∙ Maxwell – unit of magnetic flux equal to one line of force. Named after the Scottish
physicist, James Clerk Maxwell.
∙ Weber – SI unit of magnetic flux equals to 108lines or maxwells. Named after the German
physicist, Wilhelm Weber.
(by Weber)
(by Maxwell)
Where: = magnetic flux; Weber (Wb)
B = magnetic flux density; Wb/m2
A = cross sectional area; m2
UNITS: Weber (Wb) = Tm2
Maxwell (Mx) = G cm2
Magnetic Force between Two Parallel Conductors
Magnetic Force per Unit Length

Where: µo = permittivity of empty space

 ∙ Parallel Conductors carrying currents in the SAME direction ATTRACT each other. ∙
Parallel Conductors carrying currents in the OPPOSITE direction REPEL each other.
Magnetic Materials
1. Ferromagnetic - materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are
strongly attracted to a magnet. These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of rare
earth metals, and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone.
2. Paramagnetic - substances, such as uranium, platinum, aluminum, sodium, manganese,
chromium and oxygen, are weakly attracted to either pole of a magnet. This attraction is
hundreds of thousands of times weaker than that of ferromagnetic materials, so it can
only be detected by using sensitive instruments or using extremely strong magnets.
3. Diamagnetic - means repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic substances, diamagnetic substances, such as bismuth, mercury, silver,
zinc, carbon, copper, water, and plastic, are even more weakly repelled by a magnet.

Electromagnetism

∙ Study of the connection between electricity and magnetism.

Development of Electromagnetism:

1. HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED – experimentally determined that a current produces

magnetic field.
2. ANDRE MARIE AMPERE – established the AMPERE’S LAW
3. MICHAEL FARADAY – established the LAW OF EMF INDUCTION
4. JOSEPH HENRY – the same observation to Michael Faraday
5. JAMES CLERK MAXWELL – summarized all of electromagnetism with his
MAXWELL’S EQUATION.
∙ Electromagnetic Induction
FARADAY’S LAW – A change in the magnetic flux over some time interval must occur
for an emf to be induced.
LENZ’S LAW (Hendrich Lenz) – The current caused by the induced emf travels in the
direction that creates a magnetic field with flux opposing the change in the original flux
through the circuit.

Electromagnets

∙ It is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through
it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a
core of "soft" ferromagnetic material such as steel, which greatly enhances the magnetic
field produced by the coil.

Generators
 ∙ A generator is the reverse of electric motor: it converts mechanical energy into electric
energy by moving a conductor through a magnetic field.
∙ Has fixed magnet and moving coiled wires.

Electric Motors

∙ Some electric motors rely upon a combination of an electromagnet and a permanent

magnet, and, much like loudspeakers, they convert electric energy into mechanical
energy.

Transformers

∙ It is a device used for increasing or decreasing an AC voltage.

 ∙ It consists of two coils of wire known as the primary and secondary coils. The two coils
can be interwoven (with insulated wire); or they can be linked by an iron core which is
laminated to minimize eddy current losses.
∙ It is designed so that all the magnetic flux produced by the current in the primary coil
also passes through the secondary coil.
▪ Types:
1. Step-up: Ns > Np then Vs > Vp

2. Step-down: Ns < Np then Vs < Vp

Problem 6: An AC Transformer on a pole near a factory steps the voltage down from 3600 V to
120 V. The transformer is to deliver 1 MW to the factory at 90 % efficiency. Find the (a) power
delivered to the primary coil.
(b) current in the primary.
(c) current in the secondary.
(d) If the number of turns in the primary is 400, how many turns does the secondary have?
1.11 x 106 W; 308.33 A; 8333.33 A; 14 turns

Capacitors

∙ Capacitors enable the filtering of signals and it provides a fundamental memory element.
The capacitor is an element that stores energy in an electric field.
 ∙ It is a device used to tune the frequency of radio receivers, eliminate sparking in
automobile ignition systems, or short-term energy for rapid release in electronic flash
units.
∙ A parallel plane capacitor consists of two metal plates, each of area A, separated by a
distance d. The plates carry equal and opposite charges.
∙ Capacitance:

Where: C = capacitance; Farad(F)

Q = charge to be stored in the plates; C
V = voltage; V
∙ The capacitance C does in general depend on Q or V. Its value depends only on the
size, shape, and relative position of the two conductors, and also on the material that
separates them.

Where: = permittivity of free space; 8.85 x 10-12 C2/Nm2

A = area of plates
d = distance between the two plates
Problem7: (a) Calculate the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor whose plates are 20cm x
3.0 cm and are separated by 1.0-mm air gap. (b) What is the charge on each plate if a 12-V
battery is connected across the two plates? (c) What is the electric field between the plates? (d)
Estimate the area of the plates needed to achieve a capacitance of 1 F, given the same air gap
d. (a) 53 pF (b) 6.4 x 10-10C (c) 1.2 x 104 V/m (d) 108 m2
∙ Capacitors connected in series combine like resistors in parallel.
Electric Charge:

Voltage:

Equivalent Capacitance:

∙ Capacitors connected in parallel combine like resistors in series.

Electric Charge:

Voltage:

Capacitance
 ∙ The capacitance C represents the efficiency of storing charge.

∙ Typical capacitor values are in the mF (10-3F) to pF (10-12F)

∙ The energy stored in capacitor is:

Inductors
∙ It is a circuit element that has a large inductance, such as closely wrapped coil of many
turns.
∙ The inductor is a coil which stores energy in the magnetic field.

∙ Inductance (L) – is the measure of the opposition to the rate of change of current;
represents the efficiency of storing the magnetic flux.

∙ Self-Induced emf : ; UNIT: Henry (H) = V/A/s = Ωs ∙ Inductors in series

combine like resistor in series.

∙ Inductors in parallel combine like resistor in parallel.

∙ The energy U stored in an inductor is:

Problem 8: Three capacitors 3 µF, 5 µF and 10 µF, are connected together. Find the equivalent
capacitance of the group if they are all in (a) series (b) parallel. 1.6µF; 18µF

Problem 9: Two capacitors give an equivalent capacitance of 8 pF when connected in parallel

and an equivalent capacitance of 1.5 pF when connected in series. What is the capacitance of
each capacitor?

Problem 10: Four inductors 60mH, 20mH, 40mH and 70mH are connected together. Find the
equivalent inductance of the group if they are all in (a) series (b) parallel.