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INTRODUCTION
----
Frequency Litt3Lance Heat
INTRODUCTION TO SERIES
This series of articles is intended as an intro-
duction to the vast range of transducers that exists
today. Instrumentation engineers are constantly
challenged to satisfy the increasing demands made
by their colleagues in other areas of specialisation
and may be called upon to measure an almost
infinite variety of physical phenomena.
Broadly defined, a transducer is any device by
means of which energy, available in one form, may
be changed to energy in another form. Energy can
exist in various forms such as electrical, mechanical,
acoustical and thermal and often the output energy
of a transducer is in the electrical form. Devices
which convert electrical power into, say, mechanical
force also come within our broad definition but are
often classified into a separate group known as
electrical machines. Some of these devices are
very important to the electronic engineer and small
rotary motors, stepping motors and related devices
crop up very frequently, as, for example, in equip-
ment using tape or paper as a recording medium.
Often the input energy will be in mechanical form
and the first section of the transducer may then
perform a conversion from say applied force to dis-
placement.
The subsequent conversion of displacement to
electrical energy would take place in a second
section and could employ one of the many principles
available such as: piezo electric effect, differential
transformer, capacitance resistance or inductance
variation, photo electric effect, magnetostriction,
etc. The nature of the electrical output from the
transducer depends on the principle involved in the
design and may be analogue, digital, frequency
modulated or some form of pulse train. In fact a
transducer may be based on almost any combination
of the various mechanical and electrical arrange-
ments available.
Some examples of commonplace transducers are
listed below and these will be covered in the series.
Measurement Required Possible Transducer
Shaft rotation or Coded optical disc
position
Linear displacement Variable resistance
element
Temperature Thermistor or variable
resistance devices
Ultrasonic sound Piezo-electrical
waves material
Mechanical strain Resistive or
semiconductor
strain gauge
Liquid flow Turbine type
flow -meter
300
tro fyrE
Liight
By P. R. ALLCOCkm 1vs tam E
IN GENERAL terms a transducer is a device which
converts (or transduces) energy from one form to
another. This definition is rather all -embracing since
it includes devices such as electric motors, car engines
and turbines whereas, at least through common usage,
the term normally refers to devices of a somewhat more
specialised nature.
In one category we have devices that can convert an
electrical input stimulus into a mechanical output
response, such as occurs in the moving coil loudspeaker,
whilst in a second category we can group those devices
that convert some physical quantity, property or con-
dition to an electrical output signal as occurs for
example with a pick-up cartridge.
It should be noted that transducers are not restricted
to the use of an electrical signal at the input or output
but such devices are by far the most common today
due to the widespread use of electrical and electronic
techniques in control, instrumentation, automation and
measurement and the relative ease of processing or
modifying such signals. For example, in many
industrial processes the electrical output of a transducer
is used, either directly or after processing, as a feedback
signal in a servo -loop to control the output of the system
in a specific manner.
In other applications a transducer might be connected
to a readout device, such as a counter, tape printer or
digital meter, and used to provide quantitative measure-
ment information to an operator. Since it is not
possible to control a process without measurement of
one or more variables it is clear that transducers play
an important part in a wide variety of modern engineer-
ing systems and measurement processes.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
The operating principles of the majority of trans-
ducers in common use are straightforward, but in
practice the utilization of these principles often involves
very careful design and precision engineering in order
that defects, which might otherwise limit the device
accuracy, are kept to a low level. Even with careful
manufacture, environmental factors such as tempera-
ture, vibration, shock and stray magnetic or electric
fields, must be taken into account if the best accuracy
is to be obtained.
Often several basic principles are used together to
achieve the required output. The term measurand is
often used to denote the quantity, condition or property
which the transducer translates into the required output
signal and in some cases the transducer does not respond
directly to the measurand but to a related variable.
For example, transducers designed to measure
acceleration are often activated by a displacement or
force which is related in a known way to the accelera-
tion.
* North Staffordshire Polytechnic
Practical Electronics April 1975
 The "two -stage" principle is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.
The first section translates the measurand into a dis- TABLE 1.1
placement or stress and this in turn acts as the stimulus SOME ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA THAT CAN
for the second stage which produces, the requisite out- BE EMPLOYED IN TRANSDUCER OPERATION
put. The second stage may generate the electrical Resistive Electromagnetic
output directly from the output energy of the mechani- Thermo Electric (Voltaic)
cal transduction stage in which case it is known as self Capacitive
generating. The alternative form, which requires an Inductive
external power source for excitation, is usually called Ionisation
a passive transducer. Photo Resistive
(Conductive)
Photo Electric (Emissive) Electrolytic
TRANSDUCER CLASSIFICATION Photo Voltaic
It is an almost impossible task to classify the whole
range of transducers now in use. However it is Piezo Electric Potentiometric
feasible to group them on the basis of their fundamental Piezo Resistive Magneto Resistive
operating principles as in Table 1.1, even though they
may be used in, or have evolved from, widely different
applications. If we assume that the resistance between A and B is
Even with such grouping it may be difficult to classify zero when the tank is empty the resistance RAH for a
a particular transducer uniquely because of overlap in liquid level of h will be R. h where Ro is the resistance
the various selection parameters used. For example a change per unit height of liquid. If we assume also
thermistor might be classed as a variable resistance that R. is constant i.e. the resistance element is perfectly
device or alternatively as a thermal device. Strictly uniform over its whole length L we can express the
speaking the thermal energy input is the measurand
which can be related to temperature but two distinct output voltage as V.= E (--) volts providing no
modes of operation are possible.
If the electrical currents are kept sufficiently small current is drawn via the output terminals ( Fig. 1.4).
the resistance will be dependent only on the heat input In some application it may be desirable to use a
whereas if larger currents are permitted some self - resistance element that is not uniformly wound in
heating will occur and the temperature will depend on which case the output voltage is no longer given by the
two sources of heat. above equation but by
( RAB
V0 =
VARIABLE RESISTANCE TRANSDUCERS ABC).
In the moving contact type, the measurand, either The way in which RAB varies with height h determines
directly or indirectly, causes a change in the resistance the characteristic law of the transducer since E and
of an electrical element. This change is usually Risc are fixed. For example the resistance element
caused by either a moving contact system or some Rm. could be wound on a thin wedge shaped sheet of
physical or chemical action. The basic principle of a insulating material as shown in Fig. 1.3. The resistance
moving contact system is illustrated in Fig. 1.2 and here per unit length, Ro, is not constant for this case and
changes in liquid level are used to move a sliding contact will in fact increase uniformly as the slider moves from
along the resistance element BC. B to C as long as the resistance wire is sufficiently fine

K:2::.::ICXXXXXXXXXXXX:CI:XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXK
TAPERED

X
COMPLETE TRANSDUCER
X FORMER

X 0-..... X
X
INPUT

MESURAND
A
MECHANICAL
TRANSDUCTION
STAGE LINEAR/ANGULAR
X
ELECTRICAL
TRANSDUCTION
7
STAGE
1 ouTPUT

X DISPLACEMENT OR
STRESS
X
X Xtransducers
Fig. 1.1. Illustrating the "two -stage" principle of
CONTACTe
r

X:II:
:.:
X Fig. 1.3. A tapered or wedge-shaped element
used in resistive transducers
X
X
F VOLTS

LIMIT OF TRAVEL
X
X
RESISTANCE
ELEMENT
R2 -
X
XLENGTH L
V0 OUTPUT
X
X IRS X
X X
LIQUID
X
X X
X
hi
Fig. 1 2. A simple moving -contact system
o

Fig. 1.4. Variation of resistance Ft, with height

>P

X
X showing the basis of operation X
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
3111
Practical Electronics April 1975
 and the element carefully wound so that the turns can-
not move as the contact passes over their surface.
For the wedge profile shown in Fig. 1.3 the varia-
tion of R0 with height h will be as indicated
Fig. 1.5. The resistance per unit length is obviously
a function of h since as the slider moves along the
resistance element the length of each turn of the
resistance wire increases slightly. The variation of
R0 can be written as
Ro = R, + L (R2 - R1).
If we put h = 0 we find Ro = R, and for h = L (the
limit of slider travel) we find Ro = R2.
To determine the resistance between AB or BC we
need to add together the resistance of all the turns of
wire between the two points of interest. This is achieved
mathematically by integration and for the section
between A and B we have
RAB = fRodh
0
2 can easily destroy the element, especially when the
= hR, + 2-7.. (R2
- "'
At full height h = L and substitution in the above
equation then gives Rtic = ( ±2 R2) which is
simply the length of the element multiplied by the
average resistance per unit length.
The variation of output voltage with height for this
type of element is illustrated in Fig. 1.5 which also shows,
for comparison, the output of a uniformly wound
element operating from the same supply voltage.
The wedge element gives the greater rate of change
of output voltage providing the tank is at least
> whereas the uniform element gives the larger
output voltage for all heights except h = L at which
level both types give the same output voltage.
X X X X X X X X X X X X X1.1 -:X X XF
x /FL
x k
x x
X LNIFORM ELEMENT
//
/ TAPERED
X ELEMENT
X c'
>h
7
Fig. 1.5. Variation of output voltage with
X height X less than unity in which case the output is lower than
X X
X X
X (1-.)R
X 25 K per cent low providing K is small. For K = 0.1
X X
X
t
XRL1 vo X
X
X B
X resistor with a relatively large negative temperature
XFig. 1.6. Loading effects in transducer circuits :a:
X positive temperature coefficients are also available. A
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
LAWS
The details discussed so far have shown that it is
in possible to control the characteristic law of the trans-
ducer by suitable choice of resistance variation with
length of travel. In some applications it is the angular
rotation of a shaft that activates the moving contact and
in this case also it is possible, by choice of shape for the
resistance wire former, to produce a given characteristic
such as a sine or cosine variation of resistance against
angular position.
Tapered resistance elements are sometimes used in
bridge circuits to open out an otherwise cramped scale
at the extremes of angular travel. The log and reverse -
log audio volume controls use graded regions on the
track with different resistance values per unit angle a
rotation in an attempt to give a straight line piecewise
approximation to the specified law.
Obviously mechanical friction has to be kept to a
minimum in devices that have to operate with low
forces and wear of contact and wire can limit the useful
life. . The wire used in some precision potentiometers is
very fine to give good resolution and excessive currents
sliding contact is near to one end of the range of
adjustment, due to the concentration of heat over a
small region.
OUTPUT LOADING EFFECTS
No mention has been made of the loading that will
occur if the transducer output is fed to a resistance
which is not large relative to the. element resistance.
This form of loading is illustrated in Fig. 1.6 where the
load on the output is represented by the inclusion of
RL. If a represents the fraction of the resistance
element between A and B and 'R represents the total
resistance of the element the circuit is simply that of a
potentiometer having an upper portion of (1 - a)R
and a lower portion of aR in parallel with RL.
Analysis of the circuit gives the output voltage Vo
as:-
aE
Vo
1 + aR (1 - a)
(Ideal Unloaded Output Voltage)
1 + aK (1 -a)
X where K is the ratio of transducer element -resistance
to loading resistance.
X For a given value of K we see that the output voltage
X is correct for a = 0 and a = 1 (i.e. I/0 = 0 and I/0 = E
X at the limits of travel) but at intermediate settings of a
the output is in error and will always be less than the
X (ideal) true output.
IIX In any reasonable system K should be considerably
the true value by approximately [100a (1 - a) K] per
cent. The maximum error for a given K value occurs,
as might be expected, when a = 0.5 and is of the order
(i.e. RL.= 10R) the maximum error at mid -travel
would be about 2.5 per cent low.
THERMISTORS
A thermistor is a heat -sensitive semiconductor
coefficient of resistance, although thermistors having
typical device will exhibit a resistance drop of about
4 per cent per degree temperature rise.
Practical Electronics April 1975
 Unlike the p -n junction of a semiconductor diode or
transistor, the thermistor does not depend on the D
effects that occur at a p -n interface and is not manu-
factured by doping silicon or germanium with impuri-
ties: Instead, a thermistor is made, using a sintering
process, from mixtures of the oxides of metals such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, copper, titanium and
magnesium. Leads are attached to metallised areas on
the thermistor body or connected during the controlled
heating processes.
A very wide variety of shapes and sizes are now
available ranging from small beads to large plates or
rods.
A protective coating of epoxy or fused glass is often
provided and some types are available in glass A selection of Mullard thermistors, (a) Diac NTC type,
envelopes, either evacuated or gas filled. Resistance (b) Plate NTC type, (c) PTC type, (d) Rod NTC
values at 25°C range from about in to several M a type, (e) Rod VDR type, (f) Bead in glass type
Early devices were very variable in characteristic and
it was difficult to match the characteristics of two resistance values of R, and R2 respectively we can
similar thermistors. Fortunately improvements in write:
manufacturing techniques have virtually eliminated R, A e ft IT, 11 1\
the shortcomings of the early devices and thermistors
are now available which are stable with time, matched R2 A e fl/T2e
and interchangeable to within a fraction of a degfee which shows that the ratio of the two resistances
over wide temperature ranges. depends only on ft for given values of T1 and T2. The
Thermistors now rival thermocouples in many value of ft usually lies in the range 2,000° to 5,500°
applications since stable amplification is invariably Kelvin and is specified by the manufacturer. Also it
required with thermocouples due to their low output is usual to quote a typical resistance value at some
voltage (typically of the order of 50 #V/deg C). The specific temperature, often 25°C. If the variables
main advantage of the thermistor over the thermo- with subscript 2 are taken as the given 25°C values,
couple is sensitivity. The output of the thermocouple then
is determined by the choice of the two metals and
cannot be changed. = R25e fi
Rt
1 )
298 -
Typical thermistor bridge or potentiometer circuits which allows R the resistance at T, Kelvin, to be
can give output voltage changes of 100 mV/deg C evaluated in terms of the resistance value at 25°C. For
which is some 2,000 times that of an equivalent thermo- example if a particular thermistor has R25 = 1k52and
couple. The useful temperature range of thermistors
is considerably less than for the thermocouple, being /1 = 5,000 the resistance at 0°C will be
limited to about -100°C to +400°C whereas thermo- 1 1 \

couples can operate over a range of thousands of R = 1,000 ( e 5,000 (273 - 298/ 1-
degrees. The thermocouple also has a more linear
output since its output voltage per unit temperature
change is more nearly constant. :115 V MI 151": .0.1: X XXXXXXX
X X
THERMISTOR POTENTIOMETER X
X
A simple potentiometer using a thermistor is shown
in Fig. 1.7. Obviously the same current flows through X X
both the thermistor and the fixed resistor. If the
ik(1 AT 25 °C
X
current is sufficiently small the self -heating of the X X
thermistor will be negligible and its resistance will
therefore depend on the ambient temperature. If this X kn

temperature rises the thermistor resistance will fall X XX

(assuming a negative temperature coefficient) and the X X
current will increase. The resulting increase in voltage
across the fixed resistor can be used as an indication X Fig. 1.7. A simple thermistor potentiometer X
of temperature but the voltage -temperature Xcircuit X
characteristic will not be linear. X X
The resistance -temperature relationship for a thermis-
tor is usually approximated by the equation X X
R = A e A7T X 1 X
where R is the resistance at temp. T° Kelvin, A and 13
1.9,UVA)
X
are constants for the particular thermistor, T is the X X
absolute temperature in Kelvin, and e is the base of TEMPERATURE T
X
natural logarithms, 2-7183. By taking logarithms of 1°K)
:4
7111:
Fig. 1.8. The inverse relationship of
both sides of this equation we see that Loge (R4) =
fl
Xtemperature and voltage of Fig. 7 X
This inverse relationship is sketched in Fig. 1.8.
X
For two temperatures T, and T2 and corresponding XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
;II
Practical Electronics April 1975
X
x-
X X X :4 XX X X X X :4 X X X :4 XXX:C4:4 X :4 X XX N:.: XX X X X X X X XX
X
X
X
X
X
X
:4
:4
X
X
X

XA
:4
X
X
XRESISTANCE

TEMPERATURE

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
n

Fig. 1.9. A simple thermistor bridge circuit

A
..
\ PTE

NTC

>
A-B

Fig. 1.10. The curves of a positive and a negative

Xtemperature coefficient thermistor

The resistance tias changed by nearly five times for a

temperature change of 25 deg C.
One disadvantage of the simple circuit of Fig. 1.7 is
that the output voltage (across the fixed lk LI) will vary
with battery voltage which renders any calibration
useless. This can be avoided by using a null method
as shown in Fig. 1.9.

BRIDGE CIRCUITS
Fig. 1.11. A simple thermistor thermostat
TR1r

For positive temperature coefficient devices the

--

coefficient is only positive over a finite temperature

range as illustrated in Fig. 1.10 and it is usually difficult
to express the resistance -temperature variation by a
simple equation.
An interesting application of an n.t.c. thermistor is
shown in Fig. 1.11 where the circuit behaves as a thermo-
stat by operating the relay when the temperature falls
to a predetermined level, say to. Resistor R, is set
X
X
X
X
X

x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
l

equal to the resistance of the thermistor at the specified

The bridge is balanced, by adjustment of R, to giveto. At temperatures above to the differential action of
zero output voltage. For this condition the resistance TR1 and TR2 is such that TR2 is passing current whilst
R and that of the thermistor must be equal and hence TRI is off due to the fact that the voltage across R1 is
the temperature can be determined. Since the bridge greater than that across RT.
circuit is always balanced when a reading is taken As the temperature falls these two voltages become
changes in the battery voltage have no effect on the null more nearly equal and eventually current starts to flow
point providing current levels are sufficiently low to in TR1 at the expense of that in TR2. The current in
prevent self -heating. TRI flows via the relay coil and the resulting increase
When used at low current levels the thermistor in voltage drop causes the base voltage of TR2 to fall.
responds to the ambient temperature as the measurand. This further increases the current in TR1 and due to the
However in some applications the most significant regenerative action TR1 turns fully on and TR2 turns
heating effect is due to power dissipated in the thermis- off.
tor itself. As the current through the thermistor rises, The relay operates due to the flow of collector current
from some initial low value, the voltage drop across the in TRI which aids the existing relay current that flows
device rises. The onset of self heating eventually via R, and R2. Due to the positive feedback effect the
.occurs and at a certain temperature the voltage stops turn -on is rapid but the temperature will have to rise
increasing since the current increase is offset by the well above to before the circuit resets itself. This
falling resistance. effect is known as hysteresis.
Further increase in current (and power) causes the Ideally R2 should be made 4.6k11 so that the bridge
voltage to fall below this maximum value which is formed by the four "resistance arms" is balanced at
typically in the range 40° to 90°C. The temperature the trigger temperature. Under these conditions the
for maximum voltage drop depends on the ft factor and circuit is relatively insensitive to variation of supply
ambient temperature. Another feature which is voltage Vcc. R3 determines the current levels for TR1
important in some applications is that of thermal time and TR2 once Vcc and RT are fixed. A thermistor,
constant. An abrupt change of ambient temperature relay and battery in series can act in the same way but
or power dissipation causes an exponential type change operation will be very dependent on supply voltage and
in the thermistor body temperature. the switch -on instant will be less well defined.
As mentioned earlier the temperature coefficient is
large and can be shown to be equal to - B/T2 per degree Next month: Resistance thermometers, strain
for negative temperature coefficient devices. gauges, thermocouples and thermopiles.
304 Practical Electronics April 1975

eMa 1:1 D'
Mar 2 Ariliiefilliiiireirriittrafteatiiks Llght
Physianttittifis Fre*WitUbbekanc
Force Load Sound Frequency Distance Heat
materials have the property that their resis-
MANY
tance changes with temperatures and some of
these find application as temperature -sensing devices.
For metallic conductors the changes are very small when
compared with, say, negative temperature coefficient
thermistors, but metals have the advantage that their
resistance variation is nearly linear over wide tem-
perature ranges. Thermometers based on this variation
are usually called resistance thermometers. Semi-
conductor thermometers based on germanium, silicon
and carbon exhibit negative temperature coefficients of
resistance similar to the thermistors already mentioned.
RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
These devices usually employ a wire element made of
platinum, tungsten, nickel or nickel alloy, or special
metallic films. The platinum resistance thermometer
is the most accurate available and is used as the calibra-
tion standard in the International Practical Temperature
Scale. Resistance values range from about 0.1 S2 to
10k CI and the useful temperature range is approximately
-260°C to 1,000°C. .Less expensive and widely used
in many industrial applications are the nickel and
nickel -alloy resistance thermometers which can be used
over a temperature range of about -100°C to +320°C.
The unknown temperature is obtained from measure-
ments of the resistance of the thermometer element in
conjunction with published calibration curves, either
for the individual thermometer or for the particular
class of thermometer. For platinum, the properties
are sufficiently well known that mathematical expres-
sions have been devised to permit the user to determine
the temperature from the resistance value.
For accurate work an iterative solution is usually
necessary because of the complex nature of the expres-
sion. For temperatures within the range - 180 to
+ 620°C the empirical relationship known as the
Callendar-Van-Dusen equation is normally used.
For more sophisticated applications a more accurate
power series having 20 terms is available and
carefully compiled computer programs are necessary
to handle the calculations.
Over the range 0°C to 300°C the resistance variation
for a platinum type thermometer is about 2 to 1
compared to a variation of about 1,000 to 1 for the
resistance of a thermistor element over the same
temperature range.
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Silicon -crystal thermometers have been used for the
temperature range -50°C to + 250°C and offer a
reasonably linear relationship but require individual
calibration. Germanium crystals with closely con-
trolled impurity levels have also been used in cryogenic
404
eed Fo
r
(very low) temperature measurements, especially below
25° Kelvin, and also require individual calibration.
NULL METHODS
For constant or slowly changing temperatures the
usual method of resistance measurement involves a
Wheatstone bridge circuit arrangement whereas for
more rapid readings a direct readout method is
necessary. The thermometer element is usually remote
from the measuring point and connection is therefore
made by means of a three- or four -wire cable to provide
compensation for the resistance of the connecting leads.
Fig. 2.1 shows one possible circuit arrangement.
Terminals A, B, C of the bridge are joined to leads 1, 2,
and 3 respectively and a balance is obtained by adjust-
ment of Rv. At balance we find that Rv r1 =
RT r3 + Rs where r1 and r3 represent the resistance
of leads and 3 respectively. Rearranging this
1
equation we have RT = (Rv - Rs) (r1 - r2).
Ideally the term (r1 - r2) should be zero as this will
then minimise error due to temperature variations along
the connecting cable. Resistor Rs can be set to any
convenient value compatible with the adjustment range
of Rv and the variation of RT over the temperature
interval of interest. The null sensitivity of a bridge is
greatest when all four arms have the same resistance
value and for this circuit this would imply that Rv +
= Rs + r3 + RT = R.
This last equation can be used to indicate a suitable
nominal value for R. Since RT varies with the
temperature being measured the choice of Rs is a
compromise.
By switching points A, B, C to leads 4, 3 and 2
respectively as shown dotted, a second reading can be
taken and the two results averaged to minimise error
due to lead resistance variation.
JUNCTION ERRORS
Thermo -electric voltages at the junctions of any dis-
similar metals can cause errors when the bridge is used
with a d.c. supply. The use of a low frequency a.c.
supply can help in this respect but introduces problems
of its own. As with the thermistor bridge, self -heating
due to current flow must be minimised as otherwise
systematic error could be introduced.
An alternative approach is to pass a constant known
current through the thermometer resistance element and
to measure the resulting potential difference by, say, a
digital voltmeter. This method is used in some semi-
conductor thermometer systems where the relatively
large resistance change partly compensates for the low
sensitivity of the method.
North Staffordohlr Polyterchnle
Practical Electronics May 1975
THERMAL INERTIA XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
The most significant problem that the instrumentation X X
engineer must solve is that of ensuring that the tempera-
ture sensing element or device is in fact at the same
BRIDGE SUPPLy

temperature as the subject for measurement. Often it
is necessary to either protect the sensing element from
the environment in which it operates or to cement or
otherwise secure it in place. Materials commonly
used for both these purposes have low thermal con-
ductivity and consequently there is a significant
temperature difference between the element and its
environment.
In some situations the sensing element may absorb
' significant amounts of heat energy from the environ-
ment or the device to which it is attached, thus causing
a change in the temperature being measured. Thermal
inertia effects may also be a problem when rapid
temperature fluctuations are being examined.
X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
X X
X B C X
X X
X
X
, ,, CONNECTIONS -
SEE TEXT

X
REFERENCE VALUES
Temperature reference points relating to specific
X I. WIRE
-
TO ELEMENTS
X
states of matter are currently used to define the Inter- X X
national Practical Scale of Temperature. Some of the X RESISTANCE
ELEMENT X
states used are shown in Table 2.1. Fig. 2.1. One form of null bridge for tempera- X
Table 2.1 Xture measurement X
Temperature in SEMICONDUCTOR GAUGE
X
X
BONDED FOIL GAUGE

degrees Kelvin Physical "State"

x c
ELEMENT

20.28 Boiling point of hydrogen at

90188
standard pressure
Boiling point of oxygen at a \ MX

273.16
standard pressure
Triple point of water
X c FLEMeLE

43W
4 EPDXY
373-15 Boiling point of water TRA A% CASE
LEADS
692.73 Freezing point of zinc
1,235.08 Freezing point of silver Fig. 2.2. The basic physical form of the foil
1,337-58 Freezing point of gold and the semiconductor strain gauge

STRAIN GAUGES
RESISTANCE DECREASES AS WIRE X
X
CONTRACTS

Yet another application of the "change of resistance" X

principle is in the field of strain measurement. Strain XX
ES
gauges are transducers in which the resistance of a wire
or foil element is varied by physical means. The most
CLAMPED
AMPED X
universal type is the bonded foil gauge but bonded :4
semiconductor gauges are also available and find
increasing applications.
The basic construction of two types is shown in Fig.
2.2. The gauge is usually cemented to the surface of
X
:I:
X
t J ES
AMPFE

)TILT OF PILLAR
,CAUE TO FLEXING
:I4

some part or member in which a strain will be produced
by an applied stress. In the usual arrangement two or
more gauges, are employed and arranged in such a way
that the stress -induced resistance changes combine to
cause an output whilst allowing cancellation of resis-
tance change due to, say, temperature effects.
The foil gauge for example has a metallic pattern
which gives a larger resistance change when stressed
This usually occurs when the
along the preferred axis.
stress increases the foil path length and decreases the
cross sectional area, both of which cause an increase in
gauge resistance. The semiconductor gauge
experiences a change in crystalline structure which
leads to a change in resistance due to the piezo-resistive
effect. The effect is much greater than that obtained
with wire or foil gauges but the variation is less uniform.
WIRE GAUGE
A further type is the unbonded wire gauge such as
the biradial gauge shown in Fig. 2.3. In this type the
May 1975
Practical Electronics
XX
....-p OF PLATES
X RESISTANCE INCREASES AS WIRE X
X 2.3. The biradial wire strain gauge where X
Xresistance changes are additive because of
the physical arrangement
X
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
resistance elements consist of fine wire wound round
the small posts and connected in a bridge circuit.
Pressure applied to the centre of the diaphragm causes
a tilting of the four posts in such a way that the elements
on one side of the diaphragm increase resistance whilst
those on the other side decrease. The resistance
changes are additive in that they both act to cause the
bridge to become unbalanced in the same sense.
Temperature induced resistance changes affect all four
arms of the bridge equally and consequently errors due
to temperature are minimised.
405
OTHER RESISTIVE CHANGES
Strain is not the only measurand that can be used to
cause a change in resistance. For example electrolytes,
in general, exhibit a resistance which varies with the
degree of concentration, within certain limits. Elasto-
mers and special paints have also been developed in
which the applied pressure gives rise directly to a change
in resistance of the material.
Strain gauges are sometimes used as the electrical
transduction stage of more complex devices in which
an electrical output is desired. Unbonded gauges find
application in pressure measurement, accelerometers
and similar devices. The dimensional deformation or
strain of an "elastic" material is related to the force or
stress by Hooke's Law and the proportionality
constant over a restricted range. However, excessive
inputs can damage or alter the characteristics of many
types of gauge.
FOIL GAUGES
The bonded foil gauge is widely used as it is cheap
and readily cemented to the workpiece. The gauge
must be aligned so that the strain coincides with the
axis of the gauge. The resistance change occurs for
two distinct reasons. Resistance can be defined by
R = p - where p is the material resistivity, L is the
A
material length and A is the cross-sectional area of
the material.
When the wire or foil is in tension, L increases and
A is reduced, both effects giving rise to an increase in
resistance.
The second reason is due to the change of resistivity
when the material is under stress. Strain gauges can
:iXXXXXXXXXXXXXX:4:4X?C
C (TWISTING OUE
APPUED TORO.
,AuGE GI IN TENSION
Fig. 2.4. Two commonly used arrangements
of foil strain gauge where linear force and
torque are under investigation
EPOPU SEAL
"CONVENTIONAL
CURRENT- FLOW
GOLD ELECTRODE
FOR PLATING
ACTION
SILVER CASE
RESERVOIR
ELECTRODE
ELECTROLYTE
Fig. 2.5. The symbol for and basic structure
of the electrochemical cell, useful in timing
applications
406
Table 2.2
Nominal gauge factors for some common
materials
Material Nominal gauge factor
Nickel (pure) -121
Nichrome +24 to +23
Constantan +2.0 to +2.1
Chrome! ±2.5
Soft Iron 4.2
Platinum 4.8
Carbon 2-20.0 (typical)
Solid state (doped crystal) 100 to 5,000
is
be used in both compression and tension and two of
the commonly used arrangements are shown in Fig.
2.4.
The output of strain sensitive devices is usually
specified in terms of a so-called gauge factor. This is
the relationship between the change in resistance, the
basic resistance, the change in length and the basic
length.
AR/ R
This can be expressed as
AL/L where AR and AL
represent the changes of resistance and length respec-
tively and R and L represent the unstrained values of
resistance and length.
The gauge factor is really a measure of the sensitivity
of the transducer and a typical gauge might have a
resistance of 10052 to 15052 and a gauge factor of
approximately 2.0. Nominal gauge factors for some
common materials are given in Table 2.2.
The main problems met with strain gauges are the
requirement for care in mounting, the fragility and the
need for temperature compensation.
Mounting requirements are usually specified by the
manufacturer and the instructions should always be
followed if reliable results are to be obtained. It is
the quality of the cement bond that determines the
coupling between the resistance element and the work -
piece. A dummy gauge, positioned to experience the
same temperature as the working gauge is a useful
technique for temperature compensation although
multiple gauge systems achieve the same result and
give a greater output due to the "additive" resistance
changes.
Thermal -potential effects can be avoided by using
a.c. for the bridge supply and amplification of a.c.
signals is easier than d.c. Self heating effects must be
kept small and pulse excitation has been used in some
applications to give a greater peak output voltage
whilst keeping the average heating effect to a minimum.
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
Special electro-chemical cells are now available that
can be utilised for the measurement of total charge flow
or time. The cells rely on the movement of ions
between a silver case and an inner gold electrode,
Fig. 2.5.
The direction of ion movement depends on the direc-
tion of current flow and when the gold inner electrode
is free of ions the resistance of the cell and hence its
voltage drop rises.
During the "plating" process the cell behaves
essentially like a low value resistor of around 3052 and
for normal current levels this implies a voltage drop
across the cell of a few millivolts. This state continues
during the clearing or de -plating period until the gold
Practical Electronics May 1975
electrode is completely free of silver ions. The cell
voltage -drop then increases rapidly to about 1.2V. An Table 2.3
approximate equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.6. THERMOCOUPLE CHARACTERISTICS
The switch S opens when the gold electrode is un- Platinum-
plated and the cleared cell then behaves as a low voltage Iron- Chromet- Copper- Platinum
Constantin Rhodium
Zener in shunt with a large capacitor of about 200,uF. Temperature Constantan Alumet

Whilst not strictly a transducer the device behaves as a mV mV mV mV

variable voltage cell and can be used in event counting,
timing and related applications. -100 -4.63(41) - (-)
(40)
-3.35(28)
0 (38)
- (-)
0 (5.6)
0 0 (50) 0
+25 +1.28(52) +1.00(40) +0.99(41) +0.14(6.0)
2.58(53) +2.02(41) +2.04(43) +0.30(6.5)
THERMOCOUPLES -450
100 5.27(54) 4.10(42) 4.28(47) +0.64(7.3)
Thermocouples are heat-input/electrical-output self +200 10.78(56) 8.13(40) 9.29(53) +1.44(8.5)
generating transducers and depend for their operation +400 21.85(55)
- (-) 16.40(42)
41.13(39)
-- (-)
(-)
+3.25(9.5)
+ 9.57(11 .5)
on the fact that if two different metal conductors are +1,000
joined at their extremities to form a loop, a current will Figures in brackets represent the rate of change of voltage
flow round the circuit dependent on the temperature with temperature in µV/deg C
difference between the two junctions. Reference junction is 0°C for all types
This phenomenon of thermo-electricity was dis- Approximate Useful Temperature Range
covered by Seebeck in 1821 and named after him.
The corresponding reverse action, whereby current Iron-Constantan -200°C to +900°C
flow through a junction of dissimilar metals gives rise Chromel-Alumel -180°C to +1,100°C
Copper-Constantan ---250°C to +400°C
to the liberation or absorption of heat, was not dis- Platinum-Platinum Rhodium 0°C to +1,500°C
covered until 1834 by Peltier. From the proportion-
ality of the Peltier effect one might assume that the
Seebeck e.m.f. would also be proportional to the
temperature difference between the respective junctions,
but this is not so.
A third effect, known as the Thomson effect, which
is that of heat being liberated or absorbed when a GOLD ELECTRODE

current flows along a conductor in which there is a

temperature gradient, accounts for the discrepancy and
is similar to the Peltier effect but occurs in homogenous o0,,,
conductors rather than at a junction. These effects
are in addition to the normal 12R heating that occurs
when a current I flows in a resistance R.
SILVER ELECTRODE

THERMOCOUPLE BEHAVIOUR
To understand the behaviour of thermocouples it is Fig. 2.6. The equivalent circuit for the electro-
necessary to understand that the nett e.m.f. in a circuit chemical cell
of homogeneous conductors depends only on the - JUNCTION AT TEMPERATURE 71

nature of the metals and temperatures of the metal

junctions. From this, if the junctions are at the same
temperature, the circuit has zero nett e.m.f. In a circuit
containing several dissimilar conductors and junctions
the e.m.f. generated by any one junction is uniquely UPPER WIRE -.I. -CONSTANTANIA COPPER -NICKEL ALLOY)

related to the temperature of that junction if all other

junctions are kept at some constant reference tempera-
ture.
These situations are illustrated in Figs. 2.7 and 2.8. - JUNCTION AT TEMPERATURE 72
Assume that the temperature of the lower junction in 71

Fig. 2.7 is T2 and that T2 is greater than Ti the tempera- Fig. 2.7. Thermocouple current with dis-
ture of the upper junction, the nett Seebeck voltage will similar conductors and a temperature
cause a current I to flow. The current will depend on difference between the two junctions
the circuit resistance and the nett voltage. For the 71 I REFERENCE JUNCTION I
copper-constantan combination with T2 = 100°C and
Tt = 0°C the nett voltage is approximately 4-2mV.
The nett voltage versus temperature difference
relationship is not perfectly linear and at T2 = 300°C
the voltage would be approximately 14.6mV. Fig. 2.8
illustrates the case where a measuring device has been CCERER

incorporated and it can be seen that two additional COKSTANT014

junctions have been introduced at A and B. If A and
B are maintained at the reference temperature T1 no
error is introduced by the meter even though the
circuit between A and B may not be entirely made of TO MEASURING JUNCTION

copper. (If other junctions of dissimilar metals exist Fig. 2.8. Effect of introducing a measuring
within M these should also be at the temperature T1.) Xdevice and associated extra junctions
Present day thermocouples cover a very wide range
of temperatures from about -250°C to + 1,600°C with XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
May 1975 407
Practical Electronics
 XXXX:M:XXXXXXXXX:.:::.::4:14 REFERENCE JUNCTIONS
X X A= METAL Ill The reference junction in a laboratory can be

X
XMEASURINGX
® ®
-JNCTION
X
B = MET AL 121
provided by using melting ice in a thermally insulated
flask but for industrial environments a specially made
temperature -compensated junction is often used. The
:4 VOLTAGE
A COPPER
VOLTAGE :4 thermocouple is often well -removed from the point at
which the information is required and special compen-
MEASUFM
DEVICE
X sating leads are available for this purpose. These may
X
B B

EFERENCE MEASURING :4
X be simply finer gauge wires of the same materials as the
XUNCTION JUNCTION REFERENCE JUNCTIONS
thermocouple wires, or special alloys which match the
thermocouple characteristics over restricted tempera-
X 0 REFERENCE JUNCTIONS ture ranges.
X A
:4 In the latter case the compensated leads must be
X 7.1,'Crdr---.<
4 0
Xa correctly connected to the thermocouple leads as each
wire only "matches" one of the thermocouple materials.
Three possible arrangements for connecting a thermo-
:4 Ex TENSION OR COMPENSATION LEADS :4 couple to the measuring device are shown in Fig. 2.9a,
X ICIF MATERIAL A AND B OR
BI X b and c, and the position of the "cold" reference
junction is clearly indicated for each case. Method
e Ii, Fig. 2.9. How the thermocouple and measur-
ing device can be interconnected (a) is suitable when the indicator is close to the point
meN114 at which the measurand exists.
CHROMEL-CONSTANTAN IRON-CONSTANTAN
Method (b) avoids the need for long lengths of
expensive thermocouple material but requires the two
CHROMEL- ALUMEL reference junctions to be at the same temperature and
fairly close to the environment being investigated.
35
The third method, (c), uses extension leads having
1 3D
thermoelectric properties that are vitually identical
25
with the actual thermocouple leads to which they are
Q 20 J'OPPER-CONSTANTAN
connected. The two reference junctions can now be
Mull
15

U.
III
well removed from the environment being measured
10
but must still be held at the same temperature.
X 5 PLATINUM -PLATINUM RHODIUM

II For accurate measurements the voltage measuring

X 0
0 200 400 600 BOO 1000 1200 1400 IWO
device should impose negligible loading on the thermo-
TEMPERATURE °C (REFERENCE (n) 0°C) couple circuit. High input -resistance digital volt-
% Fig. 2.10. Output/temperature curves for meters are taking the place of the earlier potentiometer
Ise various thermocouple materials voltage measurement systems and in automated

STRIP BENDS AS
^A systems analog-digital convertors change the low-level
thermoelectric voltages to a form more suited to the
-wN By ARROWS POSITION SENSING
4- ELEMENT computer or other data -processor.
(VARIABLE R. L OR Cl

THERMOPILE
PIN ACTUATOR
A thermopile is simply a series arrangement of several
CBI -METALLIC ,-PIF thermocouples to give a higher output. In some
applications the multiple structure is used to sense the
111 average temperature over a particular region of interest.
:a: 111%
Some types have blackened hot junctions to provide
Fig. 2.11. Basic bimetallic device where MUM better absorption of radiant energy and are sealed into
:14 dissimilar metals produce mechanical action a container with transparent windows and lens to
form a radiation pyrometer. Other types of pyro-
1

when subject to temperature change

Moim:
meters use mirrors to avoid the wavelength restrictions
that occur with the lens type.

thermoelectric potentials of 10 to 70#V/deg C. Long BIMETALLIC DEVICES

term stability is not as good as that obtainable with the
If strips of two metals having different coefficients
best resistance thermometers and at high temperatures
many thermocouple materials suffer gradual embrittle- of expansion are bonded together to form a composite
ment due to oxidation or reduction. leaf or spring, any subsequent change in temperature
will tend to deform the original shape. The effect is
Thermocouples can be made up from base metals,
rare metals or non-metals such as semiconductor increased by selecting metals with widely different
materials. The most commonly used thermocouples coefficients of expansion and the resulting deformation
are listed in Table 2.3 and the variation of output is monitored by means of a displacement sensor, as
shown in Fig. 2.11.
voltages with temperature is illustrated in Fig. 2.10.
As with resistance thermometers, a wide range of pro- The arrangement is widely used in thermostats and
tection sheaths are available for thermocouples. These similar temperature sensing devices. Careful control
are often of steel or ceramic depending on whether of the material properties is essential for reproducible
results. In some types, electrical heating elements
imperviousness to hot gases or chemicals, protection are also utilised to minimise mechanical hysteresis
from oxidising or reducing agents and mechanical effects in the switching action.
strength are required. Sheaths tend to slow the
response due to increased thermal inertia. Next Month: Inductance Transducers
408
Practical Electronics May 1975

1;03
iquitsincimitietwornivikerse Heat Lighl
physffiar FreiWfWALASekam
cuiL.e i,oad Sound Frequency Distance Heal
transducers make use of the properties
of magnetic
INDUCTIVE systems involving magnetic materials,
coils and air gaps, and they may be either passive
or self generating. The self generating type relies on
the principle of relative motion between a conductor
and a magnetic field inducing a voltage in a con-
ductor. In self generating transducers this relative
motion is provided by changes in the measurand and
consequently only dynamic measurements are pos-
sible with this device.
Self generating transducers can be conveniently
grouped into four categories based on the way in
which the output signal is generated by the magnetic
system in response to the input measurand.
MOVING COIL SYSTEMS
All transducers that employ the principle of a coil
moving in a magnetic field can be called moving coil
transducers, the motion employed to cause coil
movement depending on the details of the applica-
tion. Thus the motion might be linear as in a moving
eed Fc
coil microphone, or angular as in the simple
generator or a.c. tachometer.
These two cases are illustrated in Fig. 3.1 and
Fig. 3.2 respectively. In Fig. 3.1 the measurand is
sound pressure on the diaphragm and changes in
this pressure cause linear displacements of the mov-
ing coil along the axis indicated. The concentric pole
pieces of the permanent magnet system ensure a
reasonably uniform radial flux in the air gap and
only when the coil moves will there be a voltage
induced in it.
Fig. 3.2 illustrates the principles of a coil that
rotates in a fixed magnetic field and in this case
two slip rings are required to make connection to
the moving coil. The common moving -coil meter has
a similar construction but is used to transform an
electrical input into the angular displacement of a
needle. Similarly, the moving coil loudspeaker uses
North Staffordshire Polytechnic

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
X
X MAGNETISED FORCE

X CORE

XDIAPHRAGM

X
MAGNET

X SYSTEM

X AIR
GAP
MAGNETOSTRICTIVE

X
CORE MATERIAL

LINEAR MOTION
Fig. 3.3. The variable Fig. 3.4. The magneto -
reluctance transducer strictive transducer
aaa
saa
sa
Fig. 3.1. The moving coil microphone MAGNETOSTRICTIVE
WELDED
TAPES
EDGE

P RING
,NhE CT,ON

MOUNACOUSTICTING ANO

TORSIONAL DAMPING
VIBRATION
1
IRE DE'_. GAS
LINE hr

MOTION
Fig. 3.5. The Scarrot-Naylor tortional trans -
ra Fig. 3.2. The simplest form of a.c. tachometer ducer which makes use of magnetostrictive
using a moving coil effects
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Practical Electronics June 1975 483
the principle of Fig. 3.1 but the input is again the
electrical signal and the audio output results from
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
the displacement of air by the cone.
In all the moving coil transducer systems, the ampli-
tude of the output signal will depend on the rate of
change of the flux -linkage and so will be propor- OUTPUT

tional to the linear or angular velocity. The linear

moving coil system can indicate the sense or direc-
tion of movement as well as the velocity since the MOVEMENT

output polarity depends on the direction of move-

ment of the coil. MOVING FERROUS OR
The angular transducer on the other hand pro- NON-FERROUS PLATE
(ELECTRICALLY coNoucrivE)
duces an alternating output which ever way the coil
revolves. In some devices the coil is stationary and
a moving magnet is used to give a velocity dependent
voltage output, thus simplifying the problem of coil Fig. 3.6. Principle of operation of the eddy
connections. current transducer
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE TRANSDUCERS
Transducers in this group utilise variation in the FERROMAGNETIC
reluctance of the magnetic flux path and the prin- CORE MATERIAL

ciple is illustrated in Fig. 3.3. The armature moves 0

through changes in the measurand, thus varying the
lengths of the air gaps which form a significant part ptea
ai
VARIABLE SELF
4-- INDUCTANCE
of the magnetic circuit. As the air gap increases the
flux in the coil changes and a voltage is induced in
the coil. 0
The output voltage can be calibrated in terms of
changes in the measurand but since the flux variation
with armature position is approximately an inverse x
:II:
I
BATOR ROD

law the output is only roughly proportional to arma-

ture velocity for small armature displacements. The :IIC
armature is attracted to the magnet and must there- ael Fig. 3.7. Self -inductive version of the passive
fore be restrained by some flexible support system inductive transducer
so that an air gap exists even with zero input. xii aw
w

WA VW Ele FS jeil Amil

The reluctance of the magnetic path is normally
dominated by the reluctance of the two air gaps
and under this condition the reluctance is approxi-
mately proportional to air -gap length.
MAGNETOSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Some ferromagnetic materials exhibit changes in
their permeability when subject to mechanical stress.
Consequently a coil wound on a core of such
material will experience changes in its flux pattern
when under stress. The voltage induced will depend
on both the magnitude and the rate of change of the
applied stress and the principle is shown in Fig. 3.4.
Typical magnetostrictive materials include perm -
alloys, nickel, cobalt and certain ferrites. The main
areas of use are those in which high power levels
are encountered, ultrasonic applications such as
thickness gauging and underwater sonar detection
systems.
The magnetostrictive behaviour of these materials
is reversible in that suitable magnetic excitation will
produce dimensional changes in the material. These
effects have been used in some computer delay lines
and one such application is illustrated in Fig. 3.5.
The delay is produced by the propagation time of
torsional waves transmitted down the nickel wire.
The waves are initiated by causing the wire to twist
as the two magnetostrictive tapes expand and con-
tract due to the applied magnetisation. The magnet
provides a permanent flux to which is added the flux
due to the signal in the coils. The magnetisation is
so arranged that one tape expands whilst the other
shrinks giving a kind of push-pull drive to the delay
wire. The receiving transducer is basically similar tp
the transmitter.
484
INC.4:2170#Na815:::r :aerww:INNI:?::w'm a a agg IN MR Ms a
EDDY CURRENT TRANSDUCERS
Referring to Fig. 3.6, if the plate is moved in the
directiol shown, eddy currents are set up within the
plate in proportion to the plate velocity. These cur-
rents create their own magnetic field which tend to
oppose the main field of the magnet system but as
long as the velocity is constant there is no output
signal. However, a changing velocity will cause
changes in the magnetic flux which gives rise to an
output which is roughly proportional to the accelera-
tion of the plate.
PASSIVE INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Passive inductive transdlucers require power from
some external source and the transducer is normally
used to modulate, say, the current flow in the excita-
tion circuit. Both static and time varying measurands
can be handled and converted to quantitative output
signals, the normal unmodulated excitation level
acting as the zero reference. As with the self generat-
ing types, four main categories can be identified.
VARIABLE INDUCTANCE
The self or mutual inductance of a coil system
can be made dependent on the position of a core of
ferromagnetic material as illustrated' in Fig. 3.7 and
Fig. 3.8. In Fig. 3.7 the self inductance of the coil
increases as the core enters the coil, reaching a
maximum value when the core is in the central
position.
Practical Electronics June 1975
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXIMX:ICXXXXXXXXXX
AC
SOURCE
Fig. 3.8. Mutual inductance version of the pas-
sive inductive transducer
MOVABLE
CORE
Fig. 3.9. A two -coil variable inductance trans -
ducer
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX:ICXXXXXXXXXXX:6CXXXX
In Fig. 3.8 the mutual inductance coupling between
the two coils Ll and L2 depends on the core posi-
tion and hence the output voltage across L2 can be
calibrated, in terms of position, providing the excita-
tion E is held constant. An alternative arrangement,
Fig. 3.9, uses a coil system similar to Fig. 3.8 but
with LI and L2 connected as two ratio arms of an
a.c. bridge.
As the core moves from the central position the
effective inductance of, say, Ll increases whilst that
of L2 decreases, thus causing an unbalance of the
bridge and consequently the output detector can be
calibrated as before. Since the changes in LI and
L2 act together to unbalance the bridge the sensi-
tivity is effectively doubled.
Directional information can be determined from
all of these arrangements although the method shown
in Fig. 3.8 would require a phase -sensitive detector
system since a simple a.c. detector would respond
only to the degree of unbalance between LI and L2
and would not indicate the sense of core displace-
ment from the central position.
DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
The so-called linear variable differential trans-
former or LVDT is shown in Fig. 3.10. The device
consists of three coils wound on a common former.
The centre coil is connected to an alternating voltage
source whilst the two outer coils are connected so
that their induced voltages are in phase opposition.
When. the core is central the induced voltages are
equal and the output is zero. Any displacement of
the core from the central position gives rise to a
difference between the two voltages and an output
Practical Electronics June 1975
A.C. SOURCE
NCAI MAGNETIC
CORE
L-Oi FORMER
11111111 1
Fig. 3.10. The linear variable differential trans-
former (LVDT) in which displacement of the
core to one or other side of a centre position :IC
gives a negative or a positive output
0
(mOvEMENT
C)
ARmATURE--.
OR GAP /
Fig. 3.11. A passive variable reluctance trans-
ducer in which armature movement will be
caused by small angular or linear displacement
signal is then produced. The relative phase of the
output voltage depends on the direction of
displacement.
A core displacement to the right of, centre is con-
sidered positive and the magnitude of the output is
zero when the core is central. The change in phase
either side of the zero position can be detected and
used to indicate the sense of core movement.
The LVDT can be used with d.c. excitation in
which case it becomes a dynamic transducer since
no output occurs except when the core is in motion.
The output amplitude is now proportional to the rate
of change of the core displacement with time and
thus gives a velocity -proportional signal. Rotary
differential transformers are also available but the
variation of output signal usually follows a sinusoidal
variation. The output amplitude is approximately a
linear function of angular displacement over a range
of +30°.
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE (PASSIVE)
This class of devices relies on the change of
inductance by virtue of a change of reluctance.
Unlike the self generating system the core is not
normally magnetised by the inclusion of a permanent
magnit but relies on the external excitation. A
double coil system for use in an a.c. bridge would
be similar to Fig. 3.9 except that the changes in Ll
and L2 would be the result of changes in reluctance
due to, say, a changing air gap as shown in Fig..3.11.
Movement in the direction (1) increases LI and
decreases L2.
Next Month: Synchro Transformers
487

tsiiikeatunchilduanireyniiiitieirse Heat Light
in* ykteaf pignititcteids Fr e %-vitquatit ka nc E
Force Load Sound Frequency Distance Heat
T11E second section on inductive devices is concerned
mainly with synchronous and stepping transducers.
SYNCHRO TRANSFORMERS
This group includes a wide variety of devices such
as torque -producing synchros, control synchros,
resolvers and related devices. These devices are
widely used in systems involving angular displace-
ment and angular position control and are similar
in construction to small three phase alternators of
fractional horse power rating.
They are often classified according to their
intended application, construction or manufacturers'
trade names.
The form of the rotor and the arrangement of the
rotor winding identify the type of synchro and its
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
STATOR
.14
X determined.
STATOR
COL S
ROTOR
COILS
X 02
RESOLVER
0 operate at 50, 60 or 400Hz, often at specified voltage
Fig. 4.1. The principle of the synchro resolver
system for transmitting rotary position infor-
mation
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
562
eed For
trabirE
function. Generally the syncro stator is a cylindrical
slotted structure made up of laminations and having
three separate windings arranged in slots which are
displaced, spatially, by 120° from each other.
The slots are often skewed one slot pitch to avoid
any tendency for slot locking and the resulting
angular displacement error. Sometimes the stator
slots are parallel to the rotor axis in which case the
rotor laminations are normally skewed for the above
reasons. Unlike the usual three phase system the
voltages associated with the three stator windings are
all in step or phase with each other as far as their
voltage -time variation is concerned.
The rotor of a control or torque synchro usually
carries a single winding and often has a salient -pole
form, the coil connections being made available via
slip rings. Resolvers on the other hand usually have
two rotor and stator coils.
PRINCIPLE
The synchro principle is illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
The magnitude of the voltages induced into the three
stator coils depends on the rotor position and varies
sinusoidally with shaft displacement from some
reference position. The system is essentially a trans-
former with three output coils in which the degree
of coupling to the primary rotor coil varies with
rotor position.
There is always an output from the system whether
the rotor is in motion or not-consequently slowly
varying or static angular displacement can be
The resolver usually operates as a two phase
system as illustrated at Fig. 4.1b. The rotor coils
provide output voltages which vary as the cosine and
sine of the angular displacement, by virtue of the
variation of coupling and the relative coil displace-
ments. When output from coil 01 is maximum, that
from coil 02 will be zero. A rotation of 90° will cause
the output of coil 01 to be zero whilst that of coil 02
reaches its maximum.
In some applications only one coil may be used
in which case the unused coil is normally short
circuited. With two primary and two secondary coils
four vector combinations are possible for both coil
sets according to the sense of the coils.
Synchros and resolvers are usually designed to
levels and in all cases it is essential to follow the
manufacturers' advice and ratings if the best accuracy
is to be achieved. For further details the reader
should consult the references listed, together with
manufacturers' data/application, sheets.
North Staffordshire Polytochnie
Practical Electronics July 1975
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
STATOR WITH
12 COIL SL0 15

MAGNETIC FLUX 41
STATOR POLE

PERMANENT
MAGNET ROTOR

ROTOR SHAFT ---

,COIL SLOT -COILS 0/P VOLTAGE CURRENT 81.08(

NOT swim FOR
PHASES B.0
V IS PROPORTIONAL TO () ANC /
ONE OF

Fig. 4.2. The stepper motor concept in dia- Fig. 4.5. Principle of operation of a Hall Effect
grammatic form probe

CONFUTE STATOR 112 POLESI

0 0 0 AL A3
0 AI

2 4 5 T I

DETE T ROTOR POLES fl

ANIS LHALAJI r.

n
COIL Al COIL 41
0000 COIL A3
CI 0000 COIL 44 POLE CE NO 11

VIEW OF POLE FACES TO SHOW COILS

(ARROWS INDICATE CURRENT DIRECTION)
0 SIGNIFIES CURRENT 'OJT OF PAPER -
0 "WEAK" NORTH POLE

0 SIGNIFIES CURRENT -INTO PAPER' "STRONG"NORTH POLE

t
COILS, AS DISPLACED 120. FOR 3 -PHASE STATOR

I I I
11
0.31

12
BA:

1 2
.0414

3
Al
1

4
C3
5
CU
1

6
81 1"
7 8
02
9
Aet,

10
ClE.

11

T COIL SLOT BETWEEN POLES 12 AND 1

Fig. 4.3. The motor of Fig. 4.2 opened out to show the coil and pole orientation

EIRL3514 COIL

1///
D.C. GENERATOR
TACHO
N
0
1r VARIABLE RELUCTANCE
-TOOTHED ROTOR
TACHO
CCWMUTATOR MAGNET

TOOTHED WHEEL
I MAGNETIC ---
MATERIAL)

A C GENFRATOR
WHO
Fig. 4.4. Three versions of the electromagnetic
tachometer principle, the d.c. generator, a.c.
generator and toothed rotor
AL. OUTPUT

X:XXXXXXX:6:XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Practical Electronics July 1975 563
STEPPER MOTORS
Several devices have been invented for imparting
a given amount of angular movement to a shaft, in
response to an electrical input. Two common
examples are the stepping uniselector mechanism
and the Ledex solenoid system, both of which
involve a form of ratchet action. The stepper motor,
however, does not use a mechanical ratchet but
achieves its position latching feature by virtue of
its special magnetic system.
Two main types exist, those using permanent
magnet rotors and those using variable reluctance
techniques. The variable reluctance group can be
further subdivided into vernier and non vernier types.
(vernier motors achieve more steps per revolution
than might be indicated by the number of teeth on
the rotor or stator.)
Stepper motors do not have brushes or slip rings
and are consequently robust and reliable with a low
maintenance requirement. The electrical excitation
is provided by a two, three or four phase coil system
on the stator portion of the motor.
Fig. 4.2 illustrates the operation of a permanent
magnet rotor, three phase stator, type of construc-
tion. The rotor only has two poles and with the stator
un-energised, the motor has 12 magnetic "detent"
positions as illustrated where the rotor is aligned on
an axis midway between adjacent pairs of stator poles.
If the shaft of such a motor is rotated by hand
these detent positions can easily be felt since the
rotor tends to pull into the nearest available detent
position as the shaft turns.
To illustrate the stepping action under drive con-
ditions the motor stator is shown opened out into a
straight line in Fig. 4.3. Each of the three separate
stator coil sets is made up of four coils in series
such as Al, A2, A3, A4 for the "A" phase. The sense
of the currents that flow in these four coils is shown
by arrows and it can be seen that coils A 1, A2 pro-
duce four south poles whilst coils A3, A4 produce
four north poles.
The flux of the innermost two poles in each group
of four is greater than that of the outermost poles
since two aiding coils encircle the inner poles but
only one coil encircles each of the outermost poles.
The rotor thus aligns itself as illustrated in Fig. 4.3 if
only the A phase is energised.
The B and C phases also employ four coils each,
in exactly the same pattern as for phase A. However,
the slots used are displaced by 120° in each case.
Thus coil Al is displaced 120° from B1 which in
turn is displaced 120° from Cl. Likewise coils A2,
B2, C2 are displaced 120° apart and so on. The
effect of this is that each of the 12 coil slots in
the stator carries two coils from different phase coil -
groups.
STEPPING ACTION
The stepping action is determined, for a given
construction and coil system, by the manner in which
the various phases are energised. If the phases are
energised singly in the sequence A, B, C the rotor
will take three steps to complete one complete revolu-
tion of 360°. Energising the A phase brings the rotor
north pole to midway between poles 1 and 2. Sub-
sequent energisation of the B phase pulls the rotor
north pole to an equivalent position with regard to
coils Bl, B2 which gives an axis midway between
poles 5 and 6, a rotation of four poles or 120°.
564
Subsequent energisation of the C phase gives a rotor
axis midway between poles 9 and 10.
Smaller angular steps can be achieved by con-
trolling the phases in the sequence A only; A and 'B,
B only, B and C, C only, C and A, etc. This gives
six steps of 60° each.
ELECTROMAGNETIC TACHOMETERS
The most common tachometer arrangements are
illustrated in Fig. 4.4. The d.c. tachometer uses a
permanent magnet stator in conjunction with a rotor
coil and commutator. The connections to the coil are
made via the commutator and associated brushes and
the output voltage is proportional to the angular
velocity. Reversing the direction of rotation reverses
the output voltage polarity and this is a useful
characteristic in some applications. The brush/com-
mutator arragement requires periodic maintenance
if reliable operation. is to be obtained.
The a.c. tachometer uses a rotating magnet and
fixed stator coil' thus avoiding the need for brushes
and commutator. Both the amplitude and frequency
of the output depend on angular velocity and in
modern systems an electronic frequency meter is
usually employed to give the shaft speed directly,
in, say, rev/min., as this avoids the inaccuracies
associated with measurement of voltage.
Variable -reluctance pulse generating systems are
also widely used due to their simplicity and
reliability, the number of output pulses per revolu-
tion in this case depends on the number of teeth on
the rotor wheel or disc.
INTERFERENCE
All magnetic devices can be influenced to some
extent by external magnetic fields due to solenoids
operating, mains wiring and stray fields of trans-
formers and motors. In some instances the interfer-
ing field cannot be removed and the only course
of action is to employ magnetic screening and select
the best orientation of the transducer to minimise
the unwanted coupling. In some situations hum -
cancellation coils can be fitted to introduce an oppos-
ing interfering voltage into the output circuit. Con-
necting leads from low -output devices should be
tightly twisted and screened to minimise the effective
loop area available for flux linkage with the stray
field.
HALL EFFECT DEVICES
When a conductor carries a current at right angles
to a magnetic field a charge difference is set up on
the surface of the conductor in a direction which is
mutually perpendicular to both the magnetic field
and the current. Modern high mobility semiconduct-
ing materials such as Indium Arsenide and Indium
Antimonide have made the Hall Effect a useful
practical phenomenon due to, the magnitude of the
voltage available with reasonable levels of magnetic
flux density and current. Fig. 4.5 illustrates the
basic principles which can be incorporated into a
transducer in various ways.
Either the current or magnetic field can be varied
to give a change in the output voltage and Hall
Effect plates, together with varying magnetic fields,
have been used in flowmeters, tachometers, watt-
meters, accelerometers and displacement transducers.
Next month: Piezoelectric devices.
Practical Electronics July 1975
 eed Fo
UgE
IFWART 5 Piezoelectric Devices
By P. R. ALLCOCK*
Force Load Sound Frequency L
PIEZOELECTRICITY is the name given to the pheno-
menon whereby electric charge dipoles are Table 5.1: Some Applications of
generated in certain crystals when they are subjected Piezo-electric Materials
to mechanical stress. The effect was discovered in 1. High voltage (impulse) Gas ignition, cigarette
1880 by Jacques and Pierre Curie and is reversible generation lighters.
.

in that these materials suffer dimensional changes 2. High power Sonar, ultrasonic
when under the influence of an electric field. ultrasonics cleaning, soldering and
Natural crystals such as quartz, tormaline and drilling, fish location.
3. Sound and ultrasound Microphones, intruder
Roche!l salt are traditional piezoelectric materials in air alarms, tweeters,
and have been used as transducers, for converting earphones.
electrical energy into mechanical energy and vice 4. Sensors and Pick-ups Accelerometers, record
versa, for many years. More recently ceramic piezo- players, vibration
electric materials have been produced and these have pick-ups.
the advantage that they can be given almost any 5. Filters Remote control, I.F.
shape or size with direction of electric polarization circuits in radio and
during manufacture. Physically, TV.
freely chosen 6. Delay lines Computers and colour
ceramic piezoelectric materials are hard and brittle TV, acoustic wave
with general mechanical properties resembling those devices.
of insulator -type ceramics and they are manufactured 7. Keyboards Telephones, calculators.
by much the same process.
By changing the chemical composition of the
it is possible to emphasise one or more
materials
specific properties so that the requirements of a par-
ticular application can be met. Several grades of XXXXX XX X:CXXXX XX XXX X
piezo ceramic are now available and some of the
possible applications are listed in Table 5.1. Some
grades are produced udder the code name PXE and
the charge dipoles in these materials are produced
is LATERAL

during manufacture by the application of a high

electric field during a high temperature phase of the
SILVERED FACES
IB
EXPANSION
OF UPPER PLATE

process.
The dipoles are aligned by this technique in one
specific direction known as the poling direction. If rrr
the material is subjected to an external electrical POUND DIRECTIONS CONTRACTION OF
LOWER PLATE

field which acts in the same direction as the poling rrr

direction, the material will expand, or contract, de- Fig. 5.1. The PXE bimorph plate principle
arr
pending on the sense of applied field. If an alter- rrr
nating field is applied the ceramic will vibrate and 'X
the amplitude of vibration will be greatest at the
resonant frequency.
To ensure adequate coupling between the material
and its environment (air, gas or liquid) a compliant
structure is needed. A plate or diaphragm is one
such structure that operates by "flexing" and can be
realised as a bimorph plate or composite transducer.
THIN DIAPHRAGM MOUNTING TUBE OR
RING (METAL /

THE BIMORPH
The bimorph plate principle is illustrated in Fig. Fig. 5.2Composite PXE metal transducer.
5.1. The bimorph is made up as a sandwich of two Connection to the lower face is via frame,
diaphragm and bonding
thin plates of PXE piezoelectric ceramic, cemented
back-to-back so that their respective poling directions
are in opposition. Electrical connections are made to
the top and 'bottom silvered faces and the application Jen eis ea ea grain emirs res ir's gra eu.N.e'..e..
* North Staffordshire Polytechnic 647
Practical Electronics August 1975
of a voltage between these faces causes the bimorph
to flex. The bending action arises due to the con-
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
traction- of the upper plate (along the poling axis)
producing a lateral expansion of this plate whereas 1SMO

the opposite effect, a lateral contraction, appear in 65enN

the lower plate. Because the plates are cemented to-

gether this differential expansion causes the .bimorph 1.7nF
IMPEDANCE
X
to flex as shown. X T ST X
To minimise damping of the plate, careful mount- X
300C1 3000
X
ing of the bimorph necessary and techniques
is 36.012 39MHz

sometimes used include knife edges and taut suspen-

sion wires. To maximise the acoustic output from a
it may be necessary to screen part of the
plate
N. Fig. 5.3. Typical
equivalent circuit. The values are typical for X
impedance variation and
bimorph so that portions of the plate moving in Mullard MB4015 transducer
antiphase cannot cause cancellation of sound.
Flexure transducers may also be produced by TM -TRANSMITTER R%- RECEIVER

bonding a single disc of piezoelectric ceramic material

to a metal plate or diaphragm as shown in Fig. 5.2.
TX

1
Tx
111
Flexing of the plate is similar to that of the 'bimorph OBJECT
1 4-
except that the differential expansion is now the 1

relative lateral expansion between the ceramic and

4.-1111
1

the metal. sheet. The bond to the metal plate must R MOTION

allow an electrical connection to the lower face of 'REFLECTIVE

OBJECT
the PXE materials and this can be achieved due to
the surface "roughness", providing the adhesive layer DIRECT SYSTEM REFLECTED SYSTEM

is thin and bonding is done under pressure. Alter- Fig. 5.4. Ultrasonic detection using the direct
natively a conducting adhesive can be used. and reflecting systems
The frequency at which a composite transducer
will resonate can be controlled by changing the
dimensions of the metal plate or diaphragm. The PAWL

resonant frequency is inverseley proportional to the

square of the plate diameter and proportional to PXE 8+140RPM, FIXED

the plate thickness. AT ONE END.

RATCHET

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The electrical equivalent of a piezoelectric air
transducer is shown in Fig. 5.3 and will be seen
to be the familiar series-parallel arrangement that ti
is commonly used to model the behaviour of a
quartz crystal. The impedance of the transducer will 5.5. An electric clock motor using the
Abe relatively low when the series arm resonates, but xFig.
PXE bimorph principle
at a slightly higher frequency a maximum impedance
condition arises due to the parallel resonance be- 39i.Hr PARALLEL

tween the short capacitance and the effective induct- RESONANT

FREOUENCY

ance of the series arm above its own resonant point. Tm

A typical impedance variation is shown in the SERIES

curve in Fig. 5.3. Transducers of this type can be 361.Nx

RESONANT
FREQUENCY

operated at any frequency in the region of resonance )

oon
and since manufacturing tolerances, temperature and TAO 10k0 100141

circuit loading cause variation of operating fre- 3kIir

TRANSDUCER iMFEDANCES :-
quency, the associated circuits must be designed to ORB
2 SERIES% 3000
Z PARALLEL % ISIgra
abcommodate variations of, say, 5 per cent. For this BANDWIDTH

reason, a narrow band amplifier may be desirable 600Mx

and circuits that allow the transducer to "dictate" 1000 Mn

1.
the operating frequency are sometimes used. .FREOLJENCY OF MAXIMUM RESPONSE I FREQUENCY OF MAXIMUM
SOUND PRESSURE OUTPUT AS A TRANSMITTER. OR SENSITIVITY AS
A RECEIVER I

DIRECT AND REFLECTING SYSTEMS

Ultrasonic transducers can be arranged as trans-
mitter and receiver elements, in either direct or SOUND SOINA
reflecting systems. In the direct system the trans-
mitter and receiver are separated and the beam of Iv
ultrasound is interrupted in some way by, say, objects
(to be counted) on a conveyor belt. This system is RECEIVER WITH LOAD R TRANSMITTER WITH SOURCE
'LOAD' R
illustrated in Fig. 5.4 and gives reliable operation
since most objects strongly attenuate the ultrasound :4 Fig. 5.6. Variation of characteristics with load- F.
when they block the beam. ing resistance
In the reflected sound system the transmitter and
receiver can be positioned side by side but difficul-
ties sometimes arise due to reflections from other :4::1=XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
648 Practical Electronics August 1975
 ATTENUATION
XXX XXX XX X X XX X X XX XXliall: Since air attenuates the ultrasound emitted by a
X 1
LOAD ID
11-,t piezoelectric transducer and this loss increases as the
frequency is raised, most simple low cost air trans-
0.1
<2.214
\ ducers operate well below 100kHz. Specialised de-
vices, operating at frequencies of several megahertz,
X OUTPUT V
ACROSS R INV)
iN.Z.' t
?NH + 390i1
LOAD DO
are however used in applications involving liquids
such as water and oil as the medium.
0.01
Applications are many and varied, ranging from
X high power Sonar and echo sounding to specialised
X 25 35 40
FREOUENCY I kHz I
5'0
devices for blood flow measurements and other
medical investigations. The interested reader is re-
ferred to the literature for further information on
these areas.
14-1 V

2.2I ELECTRET MICROPHONE

a
Capacitance variation has already been mentioned
C in this series as a well-known example of this prin-
Fig. 5.7. Response with inductive loading ciple is the capacitor (or electrostatic) microphone.
added a. One disadvantage of these microphones is the need
.-1.XXXXXXXXXXXXXX for a polarising source to energise the capacitor
circuit so that current fluctuations will occur when
than the wanted objects. Further, some objects do the capacitance is varied. Since the wanted output
not give a strong sound reflection and acoustic signal from such a microphone is small the hum and
screening is sometimes necessary between transmitter noise introduced by the power supply must be kept
and receiver to improve the reflected signal/back- very low if reasonable signal -noise ratios are to 'be
ground "noise" ratio. achieved.
A fairly recent development in this area is the so-
called electret microphone due to Sesslen and West
PIEZOELECTRIC MOTOR of the Bell Telephone Laboratories, in which the
An interesting example of one application of a need for a power supply is removed. The diaphragm
PXE bimorph is as an electric clock motor. In this is made from a foil electret which is simply a
system the bimorph is made to flex and the move- special dielectric film which has been permanently
ment is converted to rotary motion by a ratchet and polarised during manufacture. The film thus provides
pawl arrangement as shown in Fig 5.5. In a practical its own voltage source and can be used to make very
realisation using this principle a virtually silent clock small microphone capsules which are to be found in
mechanism was constructed using a 500 -tooth ratchet some makes of cassette recorders as well as being
wheel and fine wire loop as a pawl. The power con- used as the basis for wide frequency response indivi-
sumption was about 1mW. dual units.
As with the normal capacitor microphone, the out-
put is very small and a high -impedance input pre-
LOADING RESISTANCE amplifier is often incorporated in the same housing
It has already been mentioned that the charac- as the microphone capsule to increase the available
teristics of an air transducer are very dependent on signal level to about 1 mV in normal use. It should,
the electrical loading. When used as a receiver perhaps be mentioned that the electrostatic principle
transducer the input resistance of the amplifier loads has also been applied, very successfully, to the pro-
the element, whereas for transmitter applications the duction of wide frequency response loudspeakers
output resistance of the generator circuit represents and high frequency tweeter units where advantage
the loading resistance. The frequency of maximum is taken of the low mass of the moving parts of the
response and the 3dB 'bandwidth 'both vary with the transducer.
loading resistance and typical variations are shown Next Month: Opto-eleCtronic devices
in Fig. 5.6.
When the loading is less than the impedance at
the series resonant frequency, or greater than the
impedance at the parallel resonant frequency, the DISPLAYS CLOCK CHIPS
bandwidth tends to a maximum value of about DL707 C1 70 3015F CI 25 5LTOI I5 80 CT7001 I7 30'
600Hz. At an intermediate loading value the band- DL704 E1.70 3017F 02.00 MM5311 E5.18 CT7002 CI 30
C7 30
width reaches a maximum of about 3kHz. Notice DL701
DL747
E1.10
E2.45
RDS1
RDM2
C11.00
E24.80
MM5314
MM5316
£4 U'
E9.25
CT7003
CT6002 C15 00
that the maximum response frequency rises from the DL750 £2.45 DG12 .20 MK50250 E5.60' TMS3952 £10 50

value of the series resonant frequency to the value DL746 £2.45 HEEC2
'Available in a MHI kit
E11.50

of the parallel resonant frequency as the load resist-

ance is raised. Other chips and displays usually available, ring for details or S.A.E
for catalogue and prices.
Over the range of values for R from 100i2 to 50k1i VAT on clocks. clock chips and displays still 8%.
the efficiency of the typical air transducer remains We advise the use of sockets for all I.C.s. 24.28.40 -pin E1.

fairly constant. When used as a receiver (micro- BYWOOD ELECTRONICS

phone) the frequency response can be made uniform 1131 Ebberns Read, Hemel Hempstead, Herts., HP3 9RD
over a band of 10 to 15kHz by employing inductance Terms: C.W.O., Access, Barclaycard (quote card No.).
in series on parallel with load resistance R. This All prices on this advert exclude VAT. Tel. 0442 62757
effect is illustrated in Fig. 5.7.
Practical Electronics 649
August 1975
 eed Fox
Is Cabal
Nun 6 nciopmekatiaireseinidegt Light
Speed torce Load Sound FremAmmApiemict
Force Load Sound Frequency Distance Heat
THIS final article of the series looks at some opto
electronic devices and digital encoding transducers Table 6.1. Optical energy gaps of photodetec-
for monitoring shaft rotation or position. for materials
Energy
SOME BASICS OF LIGHT Chemical Gap
Technically, the term "light" means electromagnetic Material Symbol at 300 K
radiation having a frequency or wavelength which can (eV)
be perceived by the human eye. The percentage of the Cadmium Sulphide CdS 24
available electromagnetic spectrum occupied by visible Cadmium Selenide CdSe 1.7
radiation is in fact very small and covers the wavelength Gallium Arsenide GaAs 14
range from 4,000 to 7,000 A (Angstrom units). The Silicon Si 1.1

wavelength and frequency of the electromagnetic Germanium Ge 0.7

waves are related to the velocity of light by the well-
known relationship:
Velocity = Frequency Wavelength
The velocity of light is approximately 3 x 108
metres/second and is a constant. Consequently short
wavelengths correspond to the high frequencies and
vice versa. The wavelength range above, quoted in A
can be related to more common units of length by
noting that
I A = 10 -"cm and 10,000 A = 10-3mm =
Thus the wavelength range of visible light is from
0.4 to 0.7 thousandths of a mm which is very short
when compared to the radio wavelengths in everyday
use.
There are two related aspects of light that are used,
together or separately, to explain many phenomena
associated with light. Optical phenomena such as
interference and diffraction patterns are explained by
a wave theory such as that involved with radio waves.
However, other phenomena are better explained by
the quantum theory in which particle -like aspects of
light are considered. According to this theory, light
can be considered as discrete quanta or packets called
photons.
These photons are uncharged particles each having
an energy which depends only on their frequency or
wavelength as given by
Energy (in electron volts) =c
where h is a constant (known as Planck's constant),
c is the velocity of light and A is the wavelength of
the light.
Notice that this relationship shows the energy as
increasing as the wavelength decreases. The energy
associated with any particular wavelength of light can
be obtained from the above equation, which can be
-amplified by putting in the values of c and h thus,
12,400
Energy E (in eV) -
A (Angstrom)
North Staffordshire Polytechnic
748
Indium Arsenide InAs 0.43
Lead Sulphide PbS 037
Lead Selenide PbSe 026
Indium Antimonide InSb 023
For the visible spectrum limits this will give us
Violet light (it z, 4,000 A), E = 31 eV
Red light (A z 7,000 A), E = 1.77 eV
Incidentally, the electron -volt unit of energy is the
energy acquired by an electron when raised through a
potential difference of one volt. Compared to the more
familiar units of energy, the Joule, the eV unit is very
small and the two units are related by
1 Joule = 624 x 1018 eV
Photons can be emitted from the atoms of certain
materials when electrons within change their energy
from a high level to a lower level. The energy of the
emitted photon will be equal to the energy lost in
falling from the high to the low level. This energy
difference is known as the energy gap and is also
usually expressed in eV. Photons can also be absorbed
by a variety of materials. If the energy of the entering
photon is greater than the inherent energy gap of. the
material the valence electrons in the material can be
excited and lifted up to the conduction band level
with the resultant creation of free electron (and hole)
current carriers. This particular process is in fact the
basis of operation of all photodetectors, regardless of
the particular media. Typical energy gaps for several
materials used in the manufacture of photodetectors
are shown in Table 6.1.
BASIC PHOTO -DETECTOR PARAMETERS
The photodetector transducer is the heart of most
opto-electronic systems and the selection of the best
detector for the particular application is often very
important. Obviously the photodetector must be con-
sidered in relation to the light source, which might be
Practical Electronics September 1975
 the sun, a filament lamp, a light emitting diode or a
laser. Photodetectors can be divided into two classes.
1. Thermal Detectors in which the radiation is ab-
sorbed, converted into heat, and the detector responds
to the change of temperature.
2. Quantum Detectors which respond directly to the
incident photons. This class can be subdivided into
(a) Photo -emissive, where the incident photons
release electrons from the surface of the detector
material. This phenomena occurs' in vacuum, as in
vacuum photo -diodes or phototube multipliers.
(b) Photo -voltaic, where a voltage is self -generated
when light strikes the detector without any external
bias. The solar cell is a well known example of this
type but photo -diode operation is also based on this
effect.
(c) Photo -conductive, where the conductivity of the
photo sensor changes as a function of the incident
light. These can be undoped devices such as photo -
resistors, or doped photoconductors such as photo -
diodes and similar devices.
In the selection of a photodetector transducer it is
usually necessary to consider the following four
parameters in relation to the application.
SPECTRAL RESPONSE
This is really a measure of the wavelength range over
which the detector can respond. If the lightsource
spectrum ranges from, say, 4,000 to 8,000 A with a peak
at 6,000, then a detector with a similar response, or at
least an appreciable spectral overlap, should be used.
FIRST DYNODE
vt
to a
ELECTRON BEAM G
ACED BY
SECONDARY EMISSION
Fig. 6.1. Operating principle of the photo -
multiplier tube in diagrammatic form
CASE
OUTPUT
SIGNAL VOLTAGE
Fig. 6.2. Simplified construction and circuitry
associated with a CdS cell
Practical Electronics September 1975
1
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
This relates to the speed with which the detector can
respond to changes in the level of the incident light and
is important when modulated radiation is to be used.
NOISE
Any random fluctuation of output current or voltage
constitutes an unwanted noise signal. The term dark
current is often used to denote the d.c. photodetector
output current that exists under dark conditions
whereas the noise current is the random a.c. output.
Noise is directly proportional to the square root of the
detector area.
RESPONSIVITY
This refers to a detector's sensitivity or output per
unit light input. The responsivity can be expressed in
various ways such as .output current in milliamperes
per input radiant light flux in watts.
SIGNAL/NOISE PERFORMANCE
The minimum detectable signal level will depend on
the amount of noise produced within the photodetector.
The performance is sometimes specified in terms of a
Noise Equivalent Power (NEP) which is defined as the
input (signal) power required to produce a signal/
noise ratio of unity when using a bandwidth of 1Hz.
Since the noise depends on the area of the photodetec-
tor and the bandwidth being considered, care must be
taken when comparing different devices.
A variety of common photodetectors will now be
dealt with in some greater depth.
PHOTOMULTIPLIERS
One of the traditional devices for detecting light is the
photomultiplier tube. These devices provide high
sensitivity and speed and the operating principle is
illustrated in Fig. 6.1. Incident light releases electrons
from a photocathode which has peak spectral response
in the 4,000 to 5,000 A range. The electrons are focused
and accelerated towards the first dynode by appropriate
electric fields and here additional electrons are released
by the process of secondary emission. The number of
secondary electrons emitted per incident primary
electron, ranges between 1 and 5 typically and by using
a series of dynodes, current gains (overall) of 103 or
more can be obtained.
Photomultipliers and their newer counterparts,
continuous channel multipliers, are usually the best
choice for applications requiring extremely low-level
light detection with frequency responses greater than a
few megahertz. However, a wide range of solid state
photo sensor/amplifier configurations are possible
which can give comparable speed or sensitivity, and
superior performance can often be achieved in low
speed applications.
BULK PHOTOCONDUCTORS
In these devices a thin film of photo -conductive
material is exposed to the incident light. Provided the
energy is sufficient the photons can release electron -hole
pairs in the material and the resistance of the cell
therefore falls as the intensity of the light increases. An
external battery and circuit is required for these devices
and Fig. 6.2 illustrates the principles outlined for one
particular device; the CdS cell.
749
XXX :4:4:.:,:XXXXXXXXXXXX
X X
X X
X X
X X
X METALLISATIONX
X X
X X
X o+ X
X PHOTO
CURRENT
X
1RA1
X 200pW
X 150, AV
X VOLTACE I MODEIS.2N1ANT
X
.,...
This also decreases the transit time of the holes and
ziectrons. Sometimes an intrinsic layer is interposed
between the p and n regions and this gives the device a
LIGHT
p.i.n. structure which also produces a wider depletion
region. The p.i.n. photodiode has a lower junction
SO2 LAYER
capacitance by virtue of the increase in the "plate"
separation and this makes the device much faster than
CPHOTO DIODE the conventional p -n type.
CURRENT fp
The p.i.n. structure also exhibits low noise and dark
current plus greater efficiency at the longer wavelengths.
A typical structure is shown in Fig. 6.3 together with
typical current -voltage characteristics. Operation with
CURRENT MODE
[CONSTANT X fixed reverse bias gives a current mode (high internal
BIAS VOLTAGE I
resistance) characteristic in which the output current is
41 X a linear function of incident radiation over about ten
X decades. Operation at constant bias current is also
1 RADIANT POWER
AT SPECIFIg0 A X possible but gives more distortion in "linear" applica-
IBIAS CURRENT
I99 9000 A I
X tions and a greater dependance on environment and
bias current stability.
100pW

X Fig. 6.4 illustrates the current mode where the reverse

. -.. -10 -20 X bias voltage across the diode is provided by the amplifier
action and supply V. The virtual earth principle
:4 REVERSE BIAS VOLTAGE
X resulting from A )> I means that e is almost zero. The
X X diode bias is thus fixed at VB volts and the photodiode
111.111

M-11 X current, 1p, is used to drive the amplifier as a current

to voltage converter, to give an output voltage pro-
V -R 1p
X portional to diode current.

AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE
The avalanche photodiode is a special photodiode
II designed for operation in the avalanche breakdown
HIGH GAIN AMPLIFIER
X region in order to achieve internal photo -current
X X multiplication. The electrons, produced by pair
generation, drift into the avalanche region of the device
+; VB
1111:

X
where they are rapidly accelerated by an intense electric
field. The high velocities give a high probability of
X
IV Fig. 6.4. A constant bias voltage circuit for a
generation of additional electrons by impact ionisation.
The ionisation rate is a strong function of applied
photodiode :6I1: voltage because the electric field strength determines the
X energy of the generated current carriers and hence the
overall current multiplication. The avalanche photo-
:111:XliNXXXXXXXXXXXXXX:4:41 diode is a sort of solid state equivalent to the photo
multiplier tube.

Such cells exhibit an approximately exponential SOLAR CELLS

variation of resistance with ratios of dark to light The advent of the space age resulted in extensive
resistance of about 1,000:1. The response is relatively research into the area of direct conversion of solar
slow, especially when the light source decreases or energy into electrical energy. More recently, a growing
goes off, since it takes longer for the electrons to "drain" need for energy conservation has come about and it
back to the valence band due to trapping in imper- seems likely that solar cell development will continue
fections within the material. Resistive photo conduc- for certain applications. To be a good energy converter
tors also exhibit temperature effects which vary with the solar cell spectral response should match the sun's
light level and generally speaking the faster response spectrum which peaks at about 5,000 A and yields an
materials are less temperature stable than the slow irradience level of about 100mW/cm2 at the earth
response types. surface. For energy conversion applications it is also
desirable to have a high power conversion efficiency.
PHOTODIODES 'Typical solar cells for such applications must have
low internal resistances and the basic structure, opera-
In this case the detector uses a doped semiconductor tion and fabrication are similar to the silicon photo -
p -n junction and the incident radiation generates hole/ diode. The doping levels and areas are much higher
electron pairs providing the photon energy exceeds the however and the top layer of the junction is very thin
energy gap requirements. The pair generation will to extend the U.V. response to match the solar spec-
occur at various depths depending on the energy of the trum. In some cells the contact resistance is decreased
photons and the nature and thickness of the materials. by using a fine mesh contact and normally the cells
If the pairs are produced outside the junction depletion are operated without bias in the photo voltaic mode.
region there is a greater probability of them recombining Solar cells are often used in photographic exposure
so the depletion region is often widened by increasing meters. In this application the solar cell is superior to a
the reverse bias across the diode. photodiode due to the larger area and therefore high
750
Practical Electronics September 1975
current capability leading to a more robust meter XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
movement. The use of the photovoltaic mode means X
that a battery is not required and the output current X
is a linear function of the incident radiation for several X ROTATION
-*
3 LAMPS
,---H.--,
3 DETECTORS
,--H--, X
decades. X .-------
X
X
PH OTOTRANSISTOR
X AO\%, '2 0 CV
,
LI 0 DI

D2 X
This device combines the ability to detect light and
provide gain in a single device. The structure is similar X
to that of a conventional planar transistor except that
=
-:-.--=---
VM .--
I-2 0 4:
02
SHAFT

a window or lens is provided in the case. The incident X r/

light generates hole -electron pairs in the vicinity of the
relatively large reverse biased collector -base junction X
and these give rise to additional current by virtue of X
NBAumN8ERD

SEE TEXT \
..LA \,

DISC

transistor action. :4 SHADING SHOWS OPAQUE

X
The dark current is also magnified by this same XSECTIONS CE DISC

mechanism so that there is no basic improvement in xiFig. 6.5. Disc pattern and general arrangement x
signal/dark current ratio. The collector -base capacitance for generating a 3 -bit Gray -code for shaft
also affects the frequency response which is usually :11: rotation position detection
inferior to that obtained from a photodiode/amplifier
combination. Variation of transistor gain (II) with :14 X
current also affects the linearity and consequently :I: Table 6.2. 3 -Bit Gray -coded disc patterns
their best area of application is in "ON-OFF"situations
such as punched card and paper tape readers.
X Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 3 -Bit Code :II:
Linear arrays of devices have been produced for such Same :4
applications. More recently photo field effect and related
devices have been developed for specialised uses and ....
Pattern L L
L
111
1,0 x
light activated thyristors are yet another example of
the growth that is taking place. Infra red detectors have B
L
8i
010
011
X
also been developed, largely due to military applications B 001 :4
in the first instance and many of these require operation
:14
DC
II 000 :4
B
at low temperatures. X r
fgi W Ili
1
101 X
:011: Same
x Pattern L L 111
X
LIGHT SOURCES 1.,
The most common form of light source is the incan-
descent lamp which is available in a wide variety of X Notes Logical 1 L (Light passes) X
shapes and sizes. Gas discharge lamps are also well :4 Logical 0 == B (Light blocked) X
known and widely used in neon displays and fluorescent X 0 Shows the bit which is changing X
lighting systems, but there is a growing area of applica-
tions for low cost, solid state light sources such as the X X
light emitting diode (l.e.d.).
A multitude of crystals have been used to produce
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
I.e.d.s and today various coloured light sources and into segments and it is assumed that the shaded seg-
displays are available. Combined light source -detector ments cut off the light sources from their respective
combinations are also available and are usually known photo -detectors when they fall between the lamps and
as opto-couplers. These can be based on any of the detectors (such as LI, Dl). Starting with all bands
available opto devices but the l.e.d. photodiode (or "transparent", as in the region where the band numbers
phototransistor) is perhaps the most common. These are shown, and assuming clockwise rotation of the
devices can give a high degree of electrical isolation disc with the letter L corresponding to the passage of
and find application in such areas as patient monitoring "light" and B for "black" (or dark -current conditions
and diagnostic medical equipment interfaces. Com- in the detector) we get the sequence of events shown
binations of devices have also been developed as photo - in Table 6.2.
potentiometers and photo -choppers but the photon - The position of the disc is identifiable, to within any
coupling is a common feature of all these devices. one sector of 45 , by a unique 3 -bit code. As the disc
rotates only one bit change occurs at the sector boundar-
ies due to the relative position of the segments within
DIGITAL ENCODERS the three bands.
A fairly common requirement is to monitor the Shaft speed can be determined by using a series of
position of a rotating shaft and one way of doing this holes, equally spaced around the periphery of a disc, to
is to use a shaft encoding disc which carries a particular chop a light beam and so produce a pulse train whose
optical pattern. The pattern is arranged to interrupt a repetition rate is proportional to speed of rotation.
series of light signals in such a way that a digital code Obviously N holes in a disc rotating at n revs. per
is generated that represents the shaft position. The prin- second will produce an output having a frequency of
ciple is illustrated in Fig. 6.5 which shows a pattern for N x n pulses/sec.
generatinga 3 -bit Gray code. This code is so arranged that Light sensitive devices can obviously be used in a
only one bit of the code changes at any one time and wide variety of applications. For example it is possible
thus the alignment problems of binary-coded discs are by suitable diffraction gratings or discs, to produce
avoided. The three circular bands on the disc are broken interference patterns involving alternate light and dark
753
Practical Electronics September 1975
bands. These patterns of "lines" can be detected and/or
counted by opto-devices and using these techniques it
is possible to measure angles of inclination of the
gratings, or rotation angles of discs and shafts, to very
high accuracy.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In a short introductory series it is impossible to
cover all the transducers and related devices that are
in current use. However, the series should provide the
reader with some basic information which can be
extended by selected reading. The author has been
influenced by various people, papers and books over a
number of years and several manufacturers have been
very helpful in supplying details of their devices. The
author wishes to acknowledge all these sources and
suggests the following references for study by those
who wish to pursue the subject further:
Practical Instrumentation Transducers by F. J. Oliver
(PITMAN)
Transducer Measurements
(TEKTRONIX)
Piezo Electric Ceramics (Phillips, Application Book)
Piezo Electric Air Transducers (Mullard App. Notes
TP1343)
Industrial Linear and Non Linear Resistors (TP1174
Mullard)
Basic Electronic Instrument H/B by C. F. Coombs
(McGRAW HILL)
Strain Gauges, Theory and Handling by H. Kiihl
(PHILLIPS)
Servo Systems. Electronic Data Library Vol. 2
(Morgan -Grampian 1969)
The E -Cell Application No. 5, Electron, 1st June 1972
The Question of Thermistors, Electron, 13th July 1972
Thermistor Manual - Fenwal Electroncis
Instrument Technology by E. B. Jones (NEWNES-
BUTTERWORTH).
PE A VOLUME OF
PRACTICAL KNOW-HOW
... can be made using these new -look self binders
for PRACTICAL ELECTRONICS to become your
most valuable source of reference. With the Easi-
Binder current copies can be inserted as they are
received, without waiting for the completion of
twelve issues.
They are attractively made with the title blocked in
gold on the spine with the current (or last) volume
number and year. For any previous volume numbers,
please advise year and volume and a separate set
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At L190 (including VAT and postage), they are
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Address
Understanding Thermocouples: Instrument and Con-
trol Engineering (October, November 1968)
Date
I.E.E. Conference on Servocomponents 1969

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Practical Electronics September 1975