CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation entitled

“Study of mushroom cultivation submitted
by Debasish Sahu in partial fulfilment of
requirement for 2-months project, is a bonafide
research work based on the result of the
experiment and investigations carried out
independently by her under my guidance and
supervision from May 2022 to June 2022.

Vicky Suna Lect.

In Botany
Department of
Botany
Anchalika Bastarani Drgee Mahavidyalaya ,
Sanchergaon
 DECLARATION

I hereby state this project reports entitled “Study of

mushroom has been submitted for the partial fulfilment
of Bachelor of Science in Botany for academic year
2020-2021. The project was carried out under the
guidance of Vicky Suna Lect. In Botany Department of
Botany Anchalika Bastarani Drgee Mahavidyalaya ,
Sanchergaon

I have collected the literature and data for completion of

my project work. I have not submitted this project
report to any other universities or institutes for award of
any other degree or diploma.
I further affirm that contents of this project shall not be
released to any media nor shall be published in any firm
without the prior approval of my guide and the original
organization where the work was performed.

Name: Debasish Sahu

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I feel immense pleasure in expressing my deep gratitude

towards my guide Vicky Suna Lect. In Botany
Department of Botany Anchalika Bastarani Drgee
Mahavidyalaya , Sanchergaon for valuable guidance,
encouragement and critical evaluation of my research
work, observations and results led me to carry out this
work.
My sincere thanks to of Mr. Dolamani harijan
principal of Anchalika Bastarani Drgee
Mahavidyalaya , Sanchergaon for providing me an
opportunity to get exposure of research work in such
esteemed research organization.
My sincere thanks to of Mr. Vicky Suna,Head of The
Dep. of Botany Department of Botany Anchalika
Bastarani Drgee Mahavidyalaya , Sanchergaon for
providing me an opportunity to get exposure of research
work in such esteemed research organization.

Name: Debasish Sahu

 ABBREVIATION

SYMB NAME
OL
gm Gram
m Meter
% Percentage
˚C Degree Celsius
ft Feet
ppm Part per Milion
cm Centimeter
mm Milimeter
µg Microgram
ml Milliliter
mg Milligram
kg Killogram
β Beta
µm Micrometer
L Liter
min Minute
Et . at . And othere
PH Potential of Hydrogen
 WELCOME
To the world of Mushroom

Presented
BY
Debasish Sahu
Final Year Botany (Hons)

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
Anchalika Bastarani Drgee Mahavidyalaya ,
Sanchergaon

Cultivation
of
oyste
mushroom
 CONTENT PAGE NO

INTRODUCTION 7-15

METHED OF CULTIVATION 16-25

REFERENCES 25-30
INTRODUCTION
Pleurotus spp. or oyster mushroom is a type of mushroom that is widely cultivated and
popular as food and widely traded in the market. Oyster mushrooms are wooden
mushrooms that come from the basidiomycetes group. This mushroom is called oyster
mushroom because the cap is circular like an oyster shell (Meinanda, 2013). Oyster
mushrooms are one of the most easily cultivated high-value consumption mushrooms
because they can be grown in various types of substrates and have high adaptability to
the environment (Kurt and Buyukalaca, 2010).

The native habitat of oyster mushrooms is in highland areas, but these mushrooms can
be cultivated in lowland areas by conditioning their maintenance according to their
natural habitat (Chazali and Pratiwi, 2009). According to Alex (2011), oyster
mushroom growth is more easily achieved in highland areas about 700-800 meters
above sea level. Limau Manis village is located at a land altitude of 1,300 meters above
sea level with sufficient rainfall and moderate average air temperature. Therefore, the
Area of Limau Manis was chosen as a place to cultivate oyster mushrooms by looking
at productivity and growth in this area.

Pleurotus spp. consists of several varieties namely white oyster mushrooms, brown
oyster mushrooms, yellow oyster mushrooms, pink oyster mushrooms, and gray oyster
mushrooms (Pleurotus sajor-caju). Nutritional content of oyster mushrooms include
protein (10.5-30.4%), fat (1.7-2.2%), carbohydrates (56.6%), thiamin (0.20 mg),
riboflavin (4, 7-4.9 mg), niacin (77.2 mg), and calcium (314 mg) (Jakiyah, Hasni, and
Dwi, 2017). The content of oyster mushrooms can be used as an alternative protein
source because it contains 20 essential amino acids. Protein content in oyster
mushrooms contains 19-35% higher protein compared to rice (7.38%) or wheat
(13.2%) (Maulana, 2012)

Gray oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus sajor-caju) is one type of mushroom that began to
be favored by the public because it has a gray cap colour with a cap diameter between
4-12 cm. Gray oyster mushrooms have a rather sweet taste compared to white oyster
mushrooms, have long durability, form a large clump, and have a wide body shape
(Saputra, 2014). Gray oyster mushrooms have almost the same content as oyster
mushrooms in general, namely in 100 grams of oyster mushrooms contain 27% protein,
1.6% fat, 58% carbohydrates, 7.5%-8.7% fiber and has a durability of 5 days outside
the cooling machine (Yuliawati, 2016).

Based on data from Badan Pusat Statistik in 2020, oyster mushroom production in
West Sumatra continues to increase from 2018-2020 from 40.11 tons to 189.554 tons.
Based on the calculation of oyster mushroom production in Indonesia from 2018-2020
increased from 31.051 tons to 33.687 tons. It also proves that mushroom production
has increased about 8,48% in 3 years in a row, yet is still lacking so it is necessary to
increase production per year assuming a market increase of about 5% per year. The
need for oyster mushrooms for the Indonesian region will rise to 21,900 tons/year.
While the ability of farmers to provide it is only about 10,000- 12,500 tons/year. From
the above information, it is clear that the prospect of cultivation of oyster mushrooms is
very well developed with simple techniques (Piryadi, 2013).
Maryanti research (2017) obtained the result that the productivity of white oyster
mushrooms in Alahan Panjang from the first harvest to the last harvest 3 obtained a
percentage of productivity of 55.45% with 6 times the harvest in one bag log. This is in
accordance with the opinion of Suriawiria (2002), during the growing season,
harvesting can be done between 4-8 times depending on the content of planting
substrates, mushroom seedlings, as well as the environment during maintenance. The
success of mushroom cultivation is determined by the value of Biological Efficiency
(BE), it is biologically efficient in determining the productivity of oyster mushrooms.
The higher the value of BE, the better the cultivation of the mushroom.

From the description above, it is need to be conducted research on "The Growth and
Productivity of Gray Oyster Mushrooms (Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fries) Singer) in The
Limau Manis Area Padang City" to know the growth and productivity of gray oyster
mushrooms (Pleurotus sajor-caju (Fries) Singer in this area and provide information to
the public about the benefits and potential of cultivation of gray oyster mushrooms in
the area because there is no previously reported data on it

Objectives

To observe the growth of gray oyster mushroom mycelium on corn and bag log media.

To determine the productivity value of gray oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus sajor-caju)

on bag log media in the Limau Manis Area of Padang City.

To analyze the levels of polyphenol and antioxidant activity contained in gray oyster
mushrooms (Pleurotus sajor-caju).

Benefits

The benefits of this research are to increase the treasures of science and provide
information to the public about the potential growth and productivity of gray oyster
mushrooms (Pleurotus sajor-caju) in the Limau Manis Area of Padang City

Different types of Mushroom

There are mainly three different types of mushrooms grown in India namely oyster
mushrooms, paddy straw mushrooms, and button mushrooms. All these mushrooms are
of commercial importance they are grown over different techniques, and methods.

Button mushrooms

The most popular kind of mushrooms are button mushrooms, often referred to as white
mushrooms, baby mushrooms, and cultivated mushrooms. These mushrooms can be
consumed raw or cooked, and are frequently added to salads, soups, and as toppings for
pizza. In the sixteenth century, button mushrooms were first grown. Button mushrooms
make up 85% of the annual production of mushrooms. Following is a process to grow
mushrooms
Compost

The first stage in cultivating button mushrooms is composting. This procedure is

carried out in public. On neat concrete platforms, button mushrooms are raised.
Compost is prepared in the two types listed below.

a. Natural compost

Natural compost is produced by nature. When producing compost for button

mushrooms, some natural ingredients are wheat straw, horse manure, gypsum, and
chicken manure. The compost yard should be evenly covered with a mixture of all the
components. After that, moisten the prepared compost with a water sprayer.

b. Synthetic Compost

For synthetic compost, we needed urea, gypsum, wheat straw, bran, and ammonium
nitrate/ammonium sulphate. To begin, trim the staw to a length of 8 to 20 cm. Now
cover the compost with a fine layer of cut straws and mist it with water. You must now
thoroughly combine the bran, calcium nitrate, urea, gypsum, and other ingredients.

Filling the compost trays

The compost that has been processed is a deep brown tint. The compost shouldn't be
too damp or too dry when you put it in trays. Spray some water on the compost if it's
dry. Allow some water to evaporate if it is excessively wet. You can choose the size of
the compost-spreading trays to suit your needs. The depth must be between 15 and 18
cm. Make sure the trays are constructed of softwood as well. Compost must be poured
into the trays to the rim and spread out evenly.

Spawning
Spawning is the following stage in the cultivation of button mushrooms. It entails
planting mycelium in the beds. There are two methods for spawning: the first is to
distribute compost on the tray bed, and the second is to mix mycelium with compost
before spreading it on the tray. After sprinkling the tray with water and spawning, you
must cover it with newspaper to keep the moisture there.

Casing
The tray must now be covered with a heavy layer of dirt. This soil can be created by
mixing garden soil and decomposing cow manure. Casing soil is the term for this soil.
This casing soil may hold a lot of water.
HarvestingThe cap should be gently torn off during harvest. To do this, hold it gently
between your forefingers, press it into the ground, and then twist it off. Cut off the base
of the stalk where mycelial threads and dirt granules adhere.
 Pleurotus sajor-caju
Mycelial growth, colonization period, primordial initiation, harvesting time, yield,
mushroom size and biological efficiency (BE) of Pleurotus sajor-caju were assessed on
three different substrates namely maize stalk, pea residue (tendrils) and banana leaves
with and without supplementation of rice bran and
chicken manure. The faster mycelial growth and
highest yield (348.13 g per 25 cm × 15 cm bag) with
87.03% BE was obtained from maize stalk with rice
bran and second best yield (299.53 g) with 74.88%
BE was recorded from pea residue with rice br an.
Among the substrates used, maize stalk appeared
best followed by pea residue and banana leaves. Rice
bran showed best supplementation for mycelial
growth and yield with all substrates. The study
revealed that faster mycelial growth is consistent
with better yield and highest biological efficiency.

Pleurotus florida
White oyster mushroom (Pleurotus florida) is an edible mushroom that gained
popularity due to its nutritional values, low production cost and ease of cultivation.
There are several research reported on the mushroom fruiting bodies which were
actively developed when applying electrical shock treatment. This study was aimed to
investigate the effects of different electrical voltages on the growth and yield of white
oyster mushroom (Pleurotus florida). Five different electrical voltages had been
applied during spawning period which were 6V, 9V, 12V, 15V and mushroom bags
without any treatment served as control. Treatment at 6V showed the highest rate for
mycelium growth while 15V took the shortest time for fruiting body formation.
However, no significant different (P>0.05) among all the treatments was observed for
the time taken for the mycelium to fill-up the bag and pinhead emergence. The total
fresh weight and percentage of biological
efficiency for treatment at 9V showed higher
values compared to control. Treatment at 9V
also showed the largest pileus diameter and the
most firm in the pileus texture. Meanwhile,
treatment at 6V showed the highest a* value
(redness). In addition, different electrical
voltage treatments applied did not show any
significant effect on substrate utilization
efficiency, colour L* and b* values. In
conclusion, among all the electrical treatments
applied, 9V could be considered as the best
treatment to enhance the yield of white oyster mushroom.
 Pleurotus sapidus
Due to their unique capability to attack lignified biopolymers, extracellular enzymes of
white-rot fungi enjoy an increasing interest in various fields of white biotechnology.
The edible fungus Pleurotus sapidus was
selected as a model organism for the
analysis of the secretome by means of 2-DE.
For enzyme production, the fungus was
grown in submerged cultures either on
peanut shells or on glass wool as a carrier
material. Identification of the secreted
enzymes was performed by tryptic digestion,
ESI-MS/MS ab initio sequencing, and
homology searches against public databases.
The spectrum of secreted enzymes
comprised various types of hydrolases and
lignolytic enzymes of the manganese peroxidase/versatile peroxidase family. While
peptidases were secreted mainly by the cultures grown on peanut shells, versatile
peroxidase type enzymes dominated in the cultures grown on glass wool.

Pleurotus ostreatus

The mushroom has a broad, fan or oyster-shaped cap spanning 2–30 centimetres (3Ú4–
11+3Ú4 inches);[3] natural specimens range from white to gray or tan to dark-brown;
the margin is inrolled when young, and is smooth and often somewhat lobed or wavy.
The flesh is white, firm, and varies in thickness due to stipe arrangement. The gills of
the mushroom are white to cream, and descend on
the stalk if present. If so, the stipe is off-center with a
lateral attachment to wood. The spore print of the
mushroom is white to lilac-gray, and best viewed on
dark background. The mushroom's stipe is often
absent. When present, it is short and thick. It has the
bittersweet aroma of benzaldehyde (which is also
characteristic of bitter almonds). P. ostreatus is
a carnivorous fungus, preying on nematodes by using
a calcium-dependent toxin that paralyzes the prey
within minutes of contact, causing necrosis and
formation of a slurry to facilitate ingestion as
a protein-rich food source.

Pleurotus eous

The antioxidant potential of two commonly used edible mushrooms Pleurotus

florida and Pleurotus eous was estimated in this study. The total phenolic and flavonoid
contents were determined as these compounds have profound antioxidant properties
and antioxidant capacity was tested by phosphomolybdenum assay and metal chelating
activity. The total phenolic content and total flavonoid content of the two mushroom
extracts revealed that Pleurotus florida showed higher activity in both solvents. The
total antioxidant activity was determined by using phosphomolybdenum assay where
Pleurotus eous have higher activity. Among the
two mushrooms, Pleurotus florida has
higher chelating activity against ferrous ion when
compared to Pleurotus eous. Thus the study
revealed that the consumption of oyster
mushrooms may enhance the immune power of
our body against diseases due to free
radicals. So it can be used as a dietary
supplement along with other foods or as a drug
itself.

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Journal is the property of Universiti Putra Malaysia and its content may not be copied
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express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy
of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the
full abstract.

Pleurotus citrinopileatus

Pleurotus citrinopileatus is apparently an example of a species that has "escaped" from

cultivation and has begun to naturalize itself in eastern North America. It represents a
cultivated, yellow "oyster mushroom" whose natural origins are unclear (although it
was first described in eastern Asia and may originate
there). Distinguishing features for Pleurotus
citrinopileatus include its clustered growth on the
deadwood of hardwoods, the bright yellow caps with
a shallow central depression, and the deeply
decurrent gills, which run almost entirely down the
length of the stem. Yellow versions of Armillaria
tabescens are not uncommon, but the gills are not as
deeply decurrent—while Gerronema strombodes,
also similar, has brown fibrils in its cap.Pleurotus
cornucopioides var. citrinopileatus is a
synonym.Thanks to Susan Kritzberg for documenting, collecting, and
preserving Pleurotus citrinopileatus for study; her collection is deposited in The
Herbarium of Michael KuoEcology: Saprobic; growing in clusters on the deadwood of
hardwoods—especially elms; summer and fall; originally described from southeastern
Russia; also found in China; in North America distributed from Iowa to New York,
through the Great Lakes states. The illustrated and described collection is from Illinois.
 Pleurotus flabellatus

Acid swelling or alkali delignification of the straw did not increase mushroom yields.
The addition of extra carbon as glucose or cellulose to the
straw substrate during fructification did not increase
yields. Nitrogen supplementation of the substrate in
organic forms increased yields and the protein contents of
the fruit bodies significantly only after spawn run.
Supplementation of the spent straw substrate with cotton
seed powder, wheat bran and casein resulted in higher
yields and raised the protein content of the fruit bodies.
Prolongation of the spawn run by continued disturbance
of the mushroom beds over 16 days did not increase
yields. Of several mineral salts used as supplements, only ferrous sulphate augmented
yield significantly when added to the straw after spawn run

Mushroom Structure: Parts of a Mushroom

Learning to identify mushrooms gets a lot easier once you know what all the parts of
the mushroom are called and how they are described—some of these terms are easy to
figure out from context, but others require a bit of an introduction. We’re here to
provide that introduction.There are various definitions, but ours is broad and simple; a
mushroom is any fungal fruiting body that can be Fungi are their own kingdom,
alongside plants and animals (and several other, less-familiar groups). Aside from
being unable to move, they’re more like animals than plants, but really they are their
own thing. There are many types, they’re a very diverse group, but those that form
mushrooms belong to just two phyla—and most belong to just one class in one of those
phyla.

These fungi live as networks of fungal threads, mostly inside their food where they are
hard to see. The threads are called hyphae (singular: hypha). The networks are called
mycelia (singular: mycelium).
Fungal reproduction happens
in two phases. First, a fungus
has sex by merging the tip of
one of its hyphae with a hypha
from a different individual of
a compatible mating type.
Their baby grows out from
that point of merger. Then,
much later, when the baby is
ready, it produces one or more
fruiting bodies—organs
capable of producing and
dispersing spores.In some
species, this fruiting body is what we call a mushroom.

Parts of the Basic Mushroom

 “Your basic mushroom” in this case means the ones that are shaped like an
umbrella and have gills. Ask someone to describe a mushroom to you, and this is
almost certainly what you’ll hear about. These are the mushrooms traditionally called
agarics. At one time, they were
ere thought to be closely related, but microscopic
examination showed otherwise and split up the group (there is still an Agaricus genus,
but it’s much smaller than it used to be). There are many other ways to be a mushroom,
though, and we’ll address them next.

Cap

The cap is the top part, the part that isn’t the stem. The technical name for the structure
is “pileus,” but even experts often say “cap.” The shape of the cap is an important
identification characteristic, yet the shape changes as the mushroom ddevelops
evelops and
ages—in in many species, the cap is initially ball
ball- or bell-shaped,
shaped, and then it gets wider
and flatter, very like an umbrella opening. An otherwise flat mushroom cap may have a
raised area in the middle, called an umbo, or the center can be depres
depressed.Besides
sed.Besides shape
and color, other details to watch for include surface texture (shaggy, scaly, warty,
slimy, or smooth) and the thickness, color, and texture of the interior flesh.

Gills

The gills are

vertical plates
that hang in a
radial pattern
on the
underside of
the cap. They
look a bit like
radiator fins.
The spores
(dust-like
particles from
which new
individuals
can
germinate) are
produced on
the gills—as
the spores
mature, the gills may appear to change color, since you’re seeing the color of the sp
spores
on the gill surface.

Depending on a mushroom’s species, the gills may be closely-spaced

closely spaced or farther apart.
There may or may not be short gills, those that don’t reach all the way from the rim to
the stem, in among the others. The gills may or may not bbee attached to the stem. If
attached, they may or may not run partly down the stem.
Stipe or Stem

“Stem” is fairly self-explanatory, though the technical term for the structure is actually
“stipe.” In these agaric-like species, the stem and the cap are quite distinct from each
other and may even pull apart from each other fairly easily. The stem and the cap often
differ from each other in color and surface texture. Their interior flesh may also
differ—in some edible species, the stem is tough or stringy while the cap is much more
tender. In some species, the stem is hollow.

Veils and RemnantsThe structures known as veils complicate identification in a

number of species, since they change radically as the mushroom grows. Not all
mushrooms have these structures, but many have one or both veils.The universal
veil completely encases the mushroom when it first appears, rather like the shell of an
egg. In fact, a young mushroom encased in its veil is called an egg. As the stem
lengthens, the veil is torn. By maturity, there could be no remnant of the veil at all, or it
could persist as a cup of tissue around base of the stem (the volva) or as pieces of tissue
stuck to the top of the cap or both. In some cases, the volva might be just pieces of
tissue, or even powder, clinging to the base of the stem. Whether there is a volva and
what it looks like is important for identification, but these structures can be broken off
by rain drops or by small animals, so their absence is not a reliable field mark.
 METHOD OF CULTIVATION

Six Steps to Mushroom Farming

1. Phase I: Making Mushroom Compost

Phase I composting is initiated by mixing and wetting the ingredients as they are
stacked in a rectangular pile with
tight sides and a loose center.
Normally, the bulk ingredients
are put through a compost turner.
Water is sprayed onto the horse
manure or synthetic compost as
these materials move through the
turner. Nitrogen supplements and
gypsum are spread over the top
of the bulk ingredients and are
thoroughlyly mixed by the turner.
Once the pile is wetted and
formed, aerobic fermentation
(composting) commences as a
result of the growth and reproduction of microorganisms, which occur naturally in the
bulk ingredients. Heat, ammonia, and carbon dioxide are released
relea as by-products
products
during this process. The use of forced aeration, where the compost is placed on a
concrete floor or in tunnels or bunkers and aerated by the forced passage of air via a
plenum, nozzles or spigots located in the floor has become nearly un
universal
iversal in the
mushroom industry (Fig. 1).. Loose straw ready for incorporation into compost
windrow (top left); compost windrow (top right); aerated Phase I compost wharf under
roof (note groves in concrete, bottom left); grove showing aeration nozzle (bo
(bottom
right, arrow).

Mushroom compost develops as the chemical nature of the raw ingredients is converted
by the activity of microorganisms, heat, and some heat
heat-releasing
releasing chemical reactions.
These events result in a food source most suited for the growth ooff the mushroom to the
exclusion of other fungi and bacteria. There must be adequate moisture, oxygen,
nitrogen, and carbohydrates present throughout the process, or else the process will
stop. This is why water and supplements are added periodically, and tthe he compost pile is
aerated as it moves through the turner.

The quality of raw materials used to make mushroom compost are highly variable and
are known to influence compost performance in terms of spawn run and mushroom
yield. The geographical source of wheat
wheat straw, the variety (winter or spring) and the
use of nitrogen fertilizer, plant growth regulators and fungicides may affect compost
productivity. Wheat straw should be stored under cover to minimize growth of
unwanted and potentially detrimental fungi and bacteria prior to its use to produce
compost.
Gypsum is added to minimize the greasiness compost normally tends to have. Gypsum
increases the flocculation of certain chemicals in the compost, and they adhere to straw
or hay rather than filling the pores (holes) between the straws. A side benefit of this
phenomenon is that air can permeate the pile more readily, and air is essential to the
composting process. The exclusion of air results in an airless (anaerobic) environment
in which deleterious chemical compounds are formed which detract from the selectivity
of mushroom compost for growing mushrooms. Gypsum is added at the outset of
composting at 40 lb per ton of dry ingredients.

Nitrogen supplements in general use today includes corn distiller's grain, seed meals of
soybeans, peanuts, or cotton, and chicken manure, among others. The purpose of these
supplements is to increase the nitrogen content to 1.5 percent for horse manure or 1.7
percent for synthetic, both computed on a dry weight basis. Synthetic compost requires
the addition of ammonium nitrate or urea at the outset of composting to provide the
compost microflora with a readily available form of nitrogen for their growth and
reproduction.

The initial compost pile should be 5 to 6 feet wide, 5 to 6 feet high, and as long as
necessary. A two-sided box can be used to form the pile (rick), although some turners
are equipped with a "ricker" so a box isn't needed. The sides of the pile should be firm
and dense, yet the center must remain loose throughout Phase I composting. As the
straw or hay softens during composting, the materials become less rigid and
compactions can easily occur. If the materials become too compact in the traditional
Phase I process, air cannot move through the pile and an anaerobic environment will
develop. The problem of an anaerobic center core in the compost has largely been
overcome by using forced aeration.

Turning and watering are done at approximately 2-3 day intervals, but not unless the
pile is hot (145° to 170°F). Turning provides the opportunity to water, aerate, and mix
the ingredients, as well as to relocate the straw or hay from a cooler to a warmer area in
the pile, outside versus inside. Supplements are also added when the compost is turned,
but they should be added early in the composting process. The number of turnings and
the time between turnings depends on the condition of the starting material and the
time necessary for the compost to heat to temperatures above 145°F.

Water addition is critical since too much will exclude oxygen by occupying the pore
space, and too little can limit the growth of bacteria and fungi. As a general rule, water
is added up to the point of leaching when the pile is formed and at the time of first
turning, and thereafter either none or only a little is added for the duration of
composting. On the last turning before Phase II composting, water can be applied
generously so that when the compost is tightly squeezed, water drips from it. There is a
link between water, nutritive value, microbial activity, and temperature, and because it
is a chain, when one condition is limiting for one factor, the whole chain will cease to
function.

Phase I composting lasts from 6 to 14 days, depending on the nature of the material at
the start and its characteristics at each turn. There is a strong ammonia odor associated
with composting, which is usually complemented by a sweet, moldy smell. When
compost temperatures are 155°F and higher, and ammonia is present, chemical changes
occur which result in a food rather exclusively used by the mushrooms. As a by-
product of the chemical changes, heat is released and the compost temperatures
increase. Temperatures in the compost can reach 170° to 180°F during the second and
third turnings when a desirable level of biological and chemical activity is occurring.
At the end of Phase I the compost should: a) have a chocolate brown color; b) have
soft, pliable straws, c) have a moisture content of from 68 to 74 percent; and d) have a
strong smell of ammonia. When the moisture, temperature, color, and odor described
have been reached, Phase I composting is completed.

2. Phase II: Finishing the Compost

There are two major purposes to Phase II composting. Pasteurization is necessary to

kill any insects, nematodes,
pest fungi, or other pests
that may be present in the
compost. And second, it is
necessary to condition the
compost and remove the
ammonia that formed
during Phase I composting.
Ammonia at the end of
Phase II in a concentration
higher than 0.07 percent is
often inhibitory to
mushroom spawn growth,
thus it must be removed;
generally, a person can
smell ammonia when the
concentration is above 0.10
percent.

Phase II takes place in one of three places, depending on the type of production system
used. For the zoned system of growing, compost is packed into wooden trays, the trays
are stacked six to eight high, and are moved into an environmentally controlled Phase
II room. Thereafter, the trays are moved to special rooms, each designed to provide the
optimum environment for each step of the mushroom growing process. With a bed or
shelf system, the compost is placed directly in the beds, which are in the room used for
all steps of the crop culture. The most recently introduced system, the bulk system, is
one in which the compost is placed in an insulated tunnel with a perforated floor and
computer-controlled aeration; this is a room specifically designed for Phase II
composting (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Phase II tunnels used to pasteurize and condition compost for mushroom
production. Left: filling machine in front of closed tunnel, Right: open tunnel ready for
filling.
The compost, whether placed in beds, trays, or bulk, should be filled uniformly in
depth and density or compression. Compost density should allow for gas exchange,
since ammonia and carbon dioxide will be replaced by outside air.

Phase II composting can be viewed as a controlled, temperature-dependent, ecological

process using air to maintain the compost in a temperature range best suited for
microorganisms to grow and reproduce. The growth of these thermophilic (heat-loving)
organisms depends on the availability of usable carbohydrates and nitrogen, some of
the nitrogen in the form of ammonia. These microorganisms produce nutrients or serve
as nutrients in the compost on which the mushroom mycelium thrives and other
organisms do not.

Completing Phase II in tunnels has become more popular in recent years. Tunnel
composting has the advantage of treating more compost per ft2 compared to more
expensive production rooms. When coupled with bulk spawn run, tunnel composting
offers the advantage of more uniformity and greater use of mechanization. However,
transfer of the finished compost from the pasteurization tunnel to the bulk spawn run
tunnel may increase the risk of infestation of unwanted pathogens and pests compared
to compost that remains in the same room. Thus, higher levels of sanitation may be
required with tunnel composting compared to in-room composting.

It is important to remember the purposes of Phase II when trying to determine the

proper procedure and sequence to follow. One purpose is to remove unwanted
ammonia. To this end the temperature range from 125° to 130°F is most efficient since
de-ammonifying organisms grow well in this temperature range. A second purpose of
Phase II is to remove any pests present in the compost by use of a pasteurization
sequence.

At the end of Phase II the compost temperature must be lowered to approximately 75°
to 80°F before spawning (planting) can begin. The nitrogen content of the compost
should be 2.0 to 2.4 percent, and the moisture content between 68 and 72 percent. Also,
at the end of Phase II it is desirable to have 6 to 8 lb of dry compost per square foot of
bed or tray surface to obtain profitable mushroom yields. It is important to have both
the compost and the compost temperatures uniform during the Phase II process since it
is desirable to have as homogenous a material as possible.

3. Spawning

As a mushroom matures, it produces millions of microscopic spores on mushroom gills

lining the underside of a mushroom cap. These spores function roughly similar to the
seeds of a higher plant. However, growers do not use mushroom spores to 'seed'
mushroom compost because they germinate unpredictably and therefore, are not
reliable. Fortunately, mycelium (thin, thread-like cells) can be propagated vegetatively
from germinated spores, allowing spawn makers to multiply the culture for spawn
production. Specialized facilities are required to propagate mycelium, so the mushroom
mycelium remains pure. Mycelium propagated vegetatively on various grains or agars
is known as spawn, and commercial mushroom farmers purchase spawn from
companies specializing in its manufacture.
Spawn makers start the spawn-making process by sterilizing a mixture of millet grain
plus water and chalk; rye, wheat, and other small grain may be substituted for millet.
Sterilized horse manure formed into blocks was used as the growth medium for spawn
up to about 1940, and this was called block or brick spawn, or manure spawn; such
spawn is not used today. Once sterilized grain has a bit of mycelium added to it, the
grain and mycelium is shaken 3 times at 4-day intervals over a 14-day period of active
mycelial growth. Once the grain is colonized by the mycelium, the product is called
spawn (Fig. 3). Spawn can be refrigerated for a few months, so spawn is made in
advance of a armer's order for spawn.

Figure 3. Mushroom spawn from open bag (left); close up of millet spawn (right).

Spawn is distributed on the compost and then thoroughly mixed into the compost. For
years this was done by hand, broadcasting the spawn over the surface of the compost
and ruffling it in with a small rake-like tool. In recent years, however, for the bed
system, spawn is mixed into the compost by a special spawning machine that mixes the
compost and spawn with tines or small finger-like devices. In a tray or batch system,
spawn is mixed into the compost as it
moves along a conveyer belt or while
falling from a conveyor into a tray.
The spawning rate is expressed as a
unit or quart per so many square feet
of bed surface; 1 unit per 5 ft2 is
desirable. The rate is sometimes
expressed on the basis of spawn
weight versus dry compost weight; a
2 percent spawning rate is desirable.

3.1 Supplementation at spawning

In the early 1960s, yield increases were observed when compost was supplemented
with protein and/or lipid rich materials at spawning, casing and later. Up to a 10%
increase in yield was obtained when small amounts of protein supplements were added
to the compost at spawning. Excessive heating and stimulation of competitor molds in
the compost substantially limited the amount of supplement and corresponding benefit
that could be achieved. It was these limitations that were overcome by the invention of
delayed release supplements for mushroom culture (Carroll and Schisler 1976). The
disadvantages associated with the supplementation of non-composted nutrients to
mushroom compost at spawning were largely overcome by encapsulating micro-
droplets of vegetable oil within a protein coat that was denatured with formaldehyde.
Increases of as much as 60% were obtained. Today, several commercial supplements
are available that can be used at spawning or at casing to stimulate mushroom yield.

Amendment of mushroom substrate with Micromax® is another potential opportunity

for growers to improve the yield capacity of their Phase II compost. Micromax®
contains a mixture of nine micronutrients including (percentage dry wt basis): Ca
(12%), Mg (3%), S (12%), B (0.1%), Cu (1%), Fe (17%), Mn (2.5%), Mo (0.05%), Zn
(1%), and inert ingredients (57.35%). Research has shown that approximately 70% of
the yield increase observed is due to Mn. Commercial supplement makers have begun
to add Mn to their delayed release nutrients for mushroom culture.

Once the spawn and supplement have been mixed throughout the compost and the
compost worked so the surface is level, the compost temperature is maintained at 75-
80°F and the relative humidity is kept high to minimize drying of the compost surface
or the spawn. Under these conditions the spawn will grow - producing a thread-like
network of mycelium throughout the compost. The mycelium grows in all directions
from a spawn grain, and eventually the mycelium from the different spawn grains fuses
together, making a spawned bed of compost one biological entity. The spawn appears
as a white to blue-white mass throughout the compost after fusion has occurred. As the
spawn grows it generates heat, and if the compost temperature increases to above 80°
to 85°F, depending on the cultivar, the heat may kill or damage the mycelium and
eliminate the possibility of maximum crop productivity and/or mushroom quality. At
temperatures below 74°F, spawn growth is slowed and the time interval between
spawning and harvesting is extended.

3.2 Phase III and Phase IV compost

Phase III compost is Phase II compost spawn run in bulk in a tunnel, and ready for
casing when removed from the tunnel and delivered to the grower. If the Phase III
compost then is cased and the spawn allowed to colonize the casing layer before
sending to the growing unit or delivering to growers, it is called Phase IV compost. The
successes of both Phase III and Phase IV compost depend, to a large extent, on the
quality of Phase I and Phase II composts. Use of Phase III compost may also improve
mushroom quality, as fragmentation of the colonized compost tends to improve initial
color and mushroom shelf life. In recent years, the use of bulk Phase III compost has
increased in popularity because it allows an increase in the number of crops a grower
can expect from his production rooms. Phase II production on shelves allows an
average of about 4.1 crops per year whereas growers using Phase III bulk spawn run
compost averages about 7.1 crops per year. An additional gain can be made in the
number of crops (10-12 crops per year) when Phase IV is used (Dewhurst 2002;
Lemmers 2003; Chang 2006).

3.3 Mushroom varieties

In the United States, mushroom growers use three major mushroom cultivars: a)
Smooth white hybrid - cap smooth, cap and stalk white; b) Off-white hybrid - cap scaly
with stalk and cap white; and c) Brown - cap smooth, cap chocolate brown with a white
stalk. Within each of the three major groups, there are various isolates, so a grower
may have a choice of up to eight strains within each variety. Generally, white and off-
white hybrid cultivars are used for processed foods like soups and sauces, but all
isolates are good eating as fresh mushrooms. In recent years, the brown varieties have
gained market share among consumers. The Crimini variety is similar in appearance to
the white mushroom except it is brown and has a richer and earthier flavor. The
Portobello variety is a large, open, brown-colored mushroom that can have caps up to 6
inches in diameter. The Portobello offers a rich flavor and meaty texture.
The time needed for spawn to colonize the compost depends on the spawning rate and
its distribution, the compost moisture and temperature, compost supplementation, and
the nature or quality of the compost. Complete spawn run usually requires 13 to 20
days. Once the compost is fully-grown with spawn, the next step in production is at
hand.

4. Casing

Casing is a top-dressing applied to the spawn-run compost on which the mushrooms

eventually form. A mixture of peat moss with ground limestone can be used as casing.
Casing does not need nutrients since casing acts as a water reservoir and a place where
rhizomorphs form. Rhizomorphs look like thick strings and form when the very fine
mycelium fuses together. Mushroom initials, primordia, or pins form on the
rhizomorphs, so without rhizomorphs there will be no mushrooms. Casing should be
able to hold moisture since moisture is essential for the development of a firm
mushroom. The most important functions of the casing layer are supplying water to the
mycelium for growth and development, protecting the compost from drying, providing
support for the developing mushrooms and resisting structural breakdown following
repeated watering. Supplying as much water as possible to the casing as early as
possible without leaching into the underlying compost provides the greatest yield
potential.

Sphagnum peat moss is the most commonly used material for casing. Sphagnum can
range from brown (young, less decomposed, loose textured, surface peat) to black
(compact, more decomposed, deep dug) and may be processed differently at the harvest
site. Milled peat is partially dried before packaging and transport while wet-dug peat is
transported in a saturated form. Some growers prefer wet-dug peat because of the
higher water holding capacity compared to milled peat.

Peat moss-based casing does not require pasteurization because the material is free
from pathogens, weed molds and nematodes that may reduce mushroom yield. One 6-
ft3 compressed bale when mixed with water and 40 lb of limestone will cover about
125 ft2 of compost surface at about 2 inches depth.

4.1 Casing inoculum (CI)

Casing inoculum is a sterilized mixture of peat, vermiculite and wheat bran that has
been colonized by mushroom mycelium. It is mixed with casing to decrease cropping
cycle time, improve uniformity of mushroom distribution over the bed and improve
mushroom cleanliness. Mycelium from the CI colonizes the casing layer while it fuses
with the underlying mycelium of the compost. This allows more breaks per crop or
more crops per year.

Figure 4. Casing inoculum used to inoculate casing for more rapid mycelial
colonization.

4.2 Supplementation at casing

The addition of nutrients at casing was first tried in the early 1960s. Results showed
that much greater amounts of nutrients could be added at casing than at spawning and
that yield increases were almost proportional to the amount added. Although yield
increases as high as 100% may be realized, certain potential problems and limitations
exist for supplementation at casing. Weed molds, nematodes and pathogens must not
be present in the compost when supplementing at casing. These organisms will be
dispersed throughout the compost when it is fragmented prior to supplementation and
can multiply very rapidly before the mushroom mycelium recovers its growth.

Managing the crop after casing requires that the compost temperature be kept at around
75°F for up to 5 days after casing, and the relative humidity should be high. Thereafter,
the compost temperature should be lowered about 2°F each day until small mushroom
initials (pins) have formed. Throughout the period following casing, water must be
applied intermittently to raise the moisture level to field capacity before the mushroom
pins form. Knowing when, how, and how much water to apply to casing is an "art
form" which readily separates experienced growers from beginners.

5. Pinning

Mushroom initials develop after rhizomorphs have formed in the casing. The initials
are extremely small but can be seen as outgrowths on a rhizomorph. Once an initial
quadruples in size, the structure is a pin. Pins continue to expand and grow larger
through the button stage, and ultimately a button enlarges to a mushroom (Fig. 5).
Harvestable mushrooms appear 18 to 21 days after casing. Pins develop when the
carbon dioxide content of room air is lowered to 0.08 percent or lower, depending on
the cultivar, by introducing fresh air into the growing room. Outside air has a carbon
dioxide content of about 0.04 percent.

Figure 5. Mushrooms forming and maturing on the casing - a 2-inch layer of

neutralized peat. Both "pins" and young mushrooms are visible.

The timing of fresh air introduction is very important and is something learned only
through experience. Generally, it is best to ventilate as little as possible until the
mycelium has begun to show at the surface of the casing, and to stop watering at the
time when pin initials are forming. If the carbon dioxide is lowered too early by airing
too soon, the mycelium will stop growing through the casing and mushroom initials
form below the surface of the casing. As such mushrooms continue to grow, they push
through the casing and are dirty at harvest time. Too little moisture can also result in
mushrooms forming below the surface of the casing. Pinning affects both the potential
yield and quality of a crop and is a significant step in the production cycle.

6. Cropping

The terms flush, break, or bloom are names given to the repeating 3- to 5-day harvest
periods during the cropping cycle; these are followed by a few days when no
mushrooms are available to harvest. This cycle repeats itself in a rhythmic fashion, and
harvesting can go on as long as mushrooms continue to mature. Most mushroom
farmers harvest for 35 to 42 days, although some harvest a crop for 60 days, and
harvest can go on for as long as 150 days.

Air temperature during cropping should be held between 57° to 62°F for good results.
This temperature range not only favors mushroom growth, but cooler temperatures can
lengthen the life cycles of both disease pathogens and insects pests. It may seem odd
that there are pests that can damage mushrooms, but no crop is grown that does not
have to compete with other
organisms. Mushroom pests
can cause total crop failures,
and often the deciding factor
on how long to harvest a
crop is based on the level of
pest infestation. These
pathogens and insects can be
controlled by cultural
practices coupled with the
use of pesticides, but it is
most desirable to exclude
these organisms from the
growing rooms.

The relative humidity in the

growing rooms should be high enough to minimize the drying of casing but not so high
as to cause the cap surfaces of developing mushrooms to be clammy or sticky. Water is
applied to the casing so water stress does not hinder the developing mushrooms; in
commercial practice this means watering 2 to 3 times each week. Each watering may
consist of more or fewer gallons, depending on the dryness of the casing, the cultivar
being grown, and the stage of development of the pins, buttons, or mushrooms. Most
first-time growers apply too much water and the surface of the casing seals; this is seen
as a loss of texture at the surface of the casing. Sealed casing prevents the exchange of
gases essential for mushroom pin formation. One can estimate how much water to add
after first break has been harvested by realizing that 90 percent of the mushroom is
water and a gallon of water weighs 8.3 lb. If 100 lb of mushrooms were harvested, 90
lb of water (11 gal.) were removed from the casing; and this is what must be replaced
before second break mushrooms develop.

Outside air is used to control both the air and compost temperatures during the harvest
period. Outside air also displaces the carbon dioxide given off by the growing
mycelium. The more mycelial growth, the more carbon dioxide produced, and since
more growth occurs early in the crop, more fresh air is needed during the first two
breaks. The amount of fresh air also depends on the growing mushrooms, the area of
the producing surface, the amount of compost in the growing room, and the condition
or composition of the fresh air being introduced. Experience seems to be the best guide
regarding the volume of air required, but there is a rule of thumb: 0.3ft3/ft2/min when
the compost is 8 inches deep, and of this volume 50 to 100 percent must be outside air.

Ventilation is essential for mushroom growing, and it is also necessary to control

humidity and temperature. Moisture can be added to the air by a cold mist or by live
steam, or simply by wetting the walls and floors. Moisture can be removed from the
growing room by: 1) admitting a greater volume of outside air; 2) introducing drier air;
3) moving the same amount of outside air and heating it to a higher temperature since
warmer air holds more moisture and thus lowers the relative humidity. Temperature
control in a mushroom growing room is no different from temperature control in your
home. Heat can originate from hot water circulated through pipes mounted on the
walls. Hot, forced air can be blown through a ventilation duct, which is rather common
at more recently built mushroom farms. There are a few mushroom farms located in
limestone caves where the rock acts as both a heating and cooling surface depending on
the time of year. Caves of any sort are not necessarily suited for mushroom growing,
and abandoned coalmines have too many intrinsic problems to be considered as viable
sites for a mushroom farm. Even limestone caves require extensive renovation and
improvement before they are suitable for mushroom growing, and only the growing
occurs in the cave with composting taking place above ground on a wharf.

Mushrooms are harvested in a 7- to 10-day cycle, but this may be longer or shorter
depending on the temperature, humidity, cultivar, and the stage when they are picked
(Fig. 6). When mature mushrooms are picked, an inhibitor to mushroom development
is removed and the next flush moves toward maturity. Mushrooms are normally picked
at a time when the veil is not too far extended. Consumers in North America want
closed, tight, and white or brown (Crimini) mushrooms while open browns (Portobello)
are preferred by some consumers. The maturity of a mushroom is assessed by how far
the veil is stretched, and not by how large the mushroom is. Consequently, mature
mushrooms are both large and small, although farmers and consumers alike prefer
medium- to large-size mushrooms.

Figure 6. Harvesting of mushrooms. Each mushroom is hand harvested, the base of the
mushroom is trimmed, and the clean, mature mushroom placed in a basket.

Picking and packaging methods often vary from farm to farm. Freshly harvested
mushrooms must be kept refrigerated at 35° to 45°F. To prolong the shelf life of
mushrooms, it is important that mushrooms "breathe" after harvest, so storage in a non-
waxed paper bag is preferred to a plastic bag.

A question frequently arises concerning the need for illumination while the mushrooms
grow. Mushrooms do not require light to grow; only green plants require light for
photosynthesis. However, growing rooms can be illuminated to facilitate harvesting or
cropping practices.

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