Weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces.

It is the effect of rainfall and temperature on

rocks. Weathering occurs in-situ. This means the rocks stay in the same place and are not
moved. This is different from erosion. Erosion is when rocks are moved around or hit by
something moving so that they break into smaller pieces.

Types of weathering
1.Physical weathering
• rocks disintegrate or break up into smaller pieces.

• two types of physical weathering are freeze-thaw weathering and exfoliation

• happens when there are changes in temperature over a short period of time.

2. Chemical weathering
• rocks decompose due to changes in its chemical composition.

• two types are carbonation and oxidation

• happens when chemical reactions occurred due to water from rainfall, and warm temperatures

• dead plants can also cause chemical weathering by producing acids when they rot

3. Biological weathering
• rocks break up due to the roots of the plants that grow on the cracks which made it wider and eventually cause the
rock to disintegrate

• happens when the roots of plants grow down through soil and rocks to find water and minerals

• roots can grow through cracks in rocks to find groundwater.

-The hot liquid magma comes from deep within the earth’s crust. After the magma is being formed,
it breaks through cracks in the earth's surface.
-Then the molten rock spreads over wide areas of the land. A small cone or large mountain of rock
may form at the opening and it is termed as a volcano.
-The magma as it goes outside will eventually cool down and form minerals following the Bowen’s
Reaction Series (it is a means of ranking common igneous silicate minerals by the temperature at
which they crystallize; minerals at the top were first to crystallize from a magma that is cooling).
-This magma that goes out into the surface forms the so called extrusive igneous rocks.
- This type of rock is characterized by its capacity to cool quickly to form small crystals.
-Also, some cool so quickly that they form an amorphous glass.
-As such, this type of rocks possessed usually a glassy or finely crystalline texture. Common
examples of this are basalt, obsidian, and pumice. T
-here are times that the rock that overlies the mass of magma prevents it from reaching the surface.
This eventually cause the magma to cool slowly, hence forming another type of rock.
-This is called the intrusive igneous rocks also known as plutonic rocks. They have a coarser texture,
composed of masses of larger crystalline grains of varying size. Intrusive igneous rocks are often
exposed by erosion of the overlying rocks. Common examples of intrusive igneous rocks are gabbro,
granite, and peridotite. Therefore, igneous rock is formed from the solidification of molten rock
material from the earth surface.

Earth as a terrestrial planet is made up of four subsystems: atmosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and
hydrosphere. The surface part of the lithosphere is made up of different geological materials such as
rocks and minerals. Rocks exist naturally in our environment since it is the product of chemical
processes that occurs between the interaction of the Earth’s four subsystems. Rocks are part of the
Earth’s internal structure specifically on the crust part, deformation in rocks happened because of
stress. There are different types of stresses that affect rocks. These are compression, tension or
pulling apart, and shearing
Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading Scientists believe that continents are drifting apart, one of
them is Alfred Wegener, a German geophysicist and meteorologist who proposed the Continental
Drift Theory. According to Wegener, millions of years ago Earth’s surface was covered with only one
huge land mass called Pangea. The huge land mass drifted over time and is now considered as the
Earth’s continents. Continental Drift Theory was supported by evidences gathered by Wegener. Just
like a jigsaw puzzle edges of continents fit together using the map illustrated by Wegener. It
strengthens his assumption that the Earth's continents were once connected as one supercontinent
Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading Scientists believe that continents are drifting apart, one of
them is Alfred Wegener, a German geophysicist and meteorologist who proposed the Continental
Drift Theory. According to Wegener, millions of years ago Earth’s surface was covered with only one
huge land mass called Pangea. The huge land mass drifted over time and is now considered as the
Earth’s continents. Continental Drift Theory was supported by evidences gathered by Wegener. Just
like a jigsaw puzzle edges of continents fit together using the map illustrated by Wegener. It
strengthens his assumption that the Earth's continents were once connected as one supercontinent
Exploration of Wegener to other continents like Africa and South America gave him evidence like
rock samples that also matches from one continent to the other including rocks found across ocean
basins. The remains of the same species of organisms from one continent to another also matches
just like the distribution of fossils such as Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile found only in South
America and Africa and Glossopteris, a plant found in all southern continents. Wegener also found
evidence pertaining to climates change in the different continents like the past glaciation and
tropical climates present in some continents but is not evident nowadays. More evidence comes
from glacial striations – scratches on the bedrock made by blocks of rock embedded in the ice as the
glacier moves. These show the direction of the glacier, and suggest the ice flowed from a single
central point.
Evidences that supports the continental drift theory:

⮚ Edges of the continents fit together

⮚ Similarity of rock types found in another continents

⮚ Matching of fossils

⮚ Glacial striations in sedimentary rocks found in tropical continents

Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory was not easily accepted because he was not able to
substantially explain the process on how continents are drifting. Years later another scientist
proposed a theory that can prove the drifting of the continents. This was Harry Hess in his
work ‘The History of Ocean Basins' in 1962 which tells how the continents are drifting. This
theory is now known as the Theory of Seafloor Spreading.
In 1960, Harry Hess proposed that seafloor separates at mid-ocean ridges where new
crust forms by upwelling magma. Newly formed oceanic crust moves laterally away from the
ridge with the motion like that of a conveyor belt. Old oceanic crusts are dragged down at the
trenches and re-incorporated back into the mantle. The process is driven by mantle convection
currents rising at the ridges and descending at the trenches. This idea is basically the same
as that proposed by Arthur Holmes in 1920 (Earth Science TG for SHS, CHE,2016, pp. 296-
297).

Proof for seafloor spreading

1. Magnetic stripes on the seafloor: show detailed mapping of magnetism recorded in
rocks of the seafloor. In these rocks, recorded reversals in direction and strength of
the Earth’s magnetic field can be seen. Alternating high and low magnetic anomalies
run parallel to mid ocean ridges. Pattern of magnetic anomalies also matches the
pattern of magnetic reversal already known from studies of continental lava flows.

2. Deep sea drilling results: Age of seafloor forms a symmetric pattern across the mid-oceanic
ridges, age increases with distance from the oceanic ridge; no seafloor older
than 200 million years could be found, indicating that seafloor is constantly being
created and destroyed (Earth Science TG for SHS, CHE,2016, pp. 296-297).

Different observations/evidences that led to the proposal of seafloor spreading by

Harry Hess
A. Distribution of seafloor topographic features – distribution of mid-ocean ridges and

depth of the seafloor.

B. Sediment thickness – fine layer of sediment covering much of the seafloor becomes

progressively thicker away from mid-ocean ridge axis; seafloor sediment not as thick
as previously thought.

C. Composition of oceanic crust – consists primarily of basalt.

D. High heat flow along mid-ocean ridge axes – led scientists to speculate that magma

is rising into the crust just below the mid-ocean ridge axis.

E. Distribution of submarine earthquakes – earthquakes do not occur randomly but

define distinct belts (earthquake belts follow trenches, mid-oceanic ridges,

transform faults).