GENERAL BIOLOGY II

MIDTERMS

Good luck, guys!!!

FUNGI
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts,
molds, and mushrooms.

THREE TYPES OF FUNGI

 Mold
 Mushroom
 Yeast (used in baking)

If yeast is used in baking, is it the one causing mold in bread eventually?

 Microscope observations of yeast-to-mold conversion revealed that

only thick-walled yeasts having prominent lipid bodies in their
cytoplasm converted to hyphal forms. Typically, the thick-walled yeast
formed two to a number of moniliform hyphal cells which in turn often
produced true hyphae.

 Mold and fungi are both living things that belong to a group called the kingdom
Fungi.

 They're a bit different from plants and animals because they don't have leaves
or flowers and can't move around independently. Instead, they grow using
long, thread-like things called hyphae.
 These hyphae spread out a lot, helping the fungus get nutrients from its
surroundings.

 Mold is a specific kind of fungus that likes to grow in warm, damp places. You
might see mold on old food, wet walls, or even in your shower. Mold can come in
different colors, like green, black, or white. It can also feel fuzzy or slimy.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF BREAD MOLD

\\\\\\\\\\\\

HYPHAE

– Can grow up to several centimeters long, and they can branch out to
form a network that covers the surface of the bread.

SPORANGIA

– The sporangia are the reproductive structures of bread mold.

– They are saclike structures that contain spores.
– The spores are released from the sporangia and can be carried by air or
water to new locations.
– When the spores land in a suitable environment, they germinate and
produce a new bread mold colony.

RHIZOIDS

– are root-like structures that anchor bread mold to the surface of the bread.
They help to absorb nutrients from the bread.
– It is commonly known as black bread mold, pin mold, or white bread mold.
– Rhizopus can grow on a variety of organic materials, including bread, fruits,
vegetables, and decaying plant matter.
– It can also cause diseases in humans and animals.

CILIA

– Are hair-like structures that help bread mold to move.

– They are also used to sense the environment.

2
 REPRODUCTION

– Rhizopus fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction occurs when two
hyphae of different mating types come into contact with each other. This results in the
formation of a zygosporangium, which contains a zygospore.

– The zygospore can survive for long periods of time in unfavorable conditions. When
conditions become favorable, the zygospore germinates and produces a new Rhizopus
fungus.

– Asexual reproduction in Rhizopus fungi occurs by the formation of sporangia. Sporangia are
sac-like structures that contain spores. The spores are released from the sporangium and
can be carried by air or water to new locations. When the spores land in a suitable
environment, they germinate and produce a new Rhizopus fungus.

ZYGOSPORE NUTRITION

– Bread mold is a heterotroph, which

means that it obtains its nutrients
from other organisms. It breaks
down the carbohydrates in bread
using enzymes. The enzymes release
simple sugars that the bread mold
GROWTH can absorb.

– Bread mold can grow rapidly in moist, warm environments.

– The ideal temperature for growth is 77°F (25°C).

– Bread mold can also grow in cooler temperatures, but it will grow more slowly.

– Sensitivity to light: Bread mold is sensitive to light. It grows best in dark or dimly lit
environments. If bread mold is exposed to bright light, it will stop growing and may even die.

What/where does the colors of mold depends on?

– Mold color is affected by age and conditions like food source, humidity level, and the
amount of light. In other words, the same patch of mold can change colors as it matures or as
the environmental conditions change.

3
DIFFERENT MOLD COLORS

Toxic black – the most dangerous type of mold, usually greenish-black, has a
slimy texture and produces toxins that can cause serious health problems.

Purple mold – is usually found in food, also on clothing, furniture, or other

surfaces. Can cause allergies and respiratory problems.

Orange mold – often found in outdoor environments, can be considered a

cause for alarm, often mistaken for rust.

Toxic pink mold – often found in bathrooms and kitchens, has a slimy
texture, and can cause serious health problems if inhaled.

White mold – the most common type of mold, can grow on almost any
surface, often mistaken for mildew.

Green mold – found in homes, office buildings, and other structures. Caused
by moisture and humidity. Can cause allergic reactions and respiratory
problems.

Gray mold – usually found in basements, crawl spaces, and attics. It can also
be found in air conditioning systems. This type of mold is usually caused by
high humidity or water leaks. Gray mold exposure can cause headaches, sore
throats, and respiratory problems.

Yellow mold – generally not considered to be toxic, but it can cause allergies
in some people. Yellow mold is commonly found in food, such as bread or
cheese.

Red mold – often found in areas with high humidity, such as bathrooms and
laundry rooms. It can also be found on damp clothing or towels. Red mold is
usually harmless, and can often be removed with regular cleaning.

Brown mold – often found in damp, humid environments, and is commonly

seen in food. This type of mold can cause allergic reactions and respiratory
problems.

4
GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

GAS EXCHANGE

– Is the swap over of gases (oxygen and carbon

dioxide) across surface (like a cell membrane).

Before we move on to how plants exchange

gases, why do plants need to exchange gases in

the first place?

And did you know that plants also release

carbon dioxide? How?

– (Through RESPIRATION)

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

– Plant cells respire 24 hours a day, photosynthesis only occurs in

daylight.

LEAF STRUCTURE

PALISADE TISSUE

– specialized to collect sunlight, complete

photosynthesis, and produce glucose.

SPONGY TISSUE

– specialized to allow gases to move between the outside of the leaf and
the photosynthesizing palisade tissue.

STOMATA

– holes in the bottom of the leaf allowing gas

exchange.

GUARD CELLS

5
 – on either side of the holes (or stomata).
– responsible for opening and closing the stomata.

TURGOR MOVEMENT

– often reversible and are caused by changes in

the “turgor pressure” in specific cells. For
example, some plants exhibit different flower
positions during the day than at night, some
beans, often display different leaf positions
from day to night.
– Ex. Makahiya

TROPISM

– reaction to stimuli

CIRCADIAN RHYTHM

– body clock of plants

6
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

TWO FUNCTIONS OF PLANT’S STEM:

TWO BASIC FORMS OF STEMS:

SOFT STEMS WOODY STEMS

– Are not as strong as woody stems.
– They are soft, green, and can bend
(flexible).
– Their green color shows that their
cells have chlorophyll and produce
food.
– Are often covered with bark, a tough outer
covering that serves as a protective layer.
– Woody stems DO NOT CONTAIN
chlorophyll.

TWO KINDS OF TISSUE MAKE UP THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM:

1. XYLEM

– Is a series of tubes that moves water and minerals up the stem.

– Xylem tissue conducts, or transports, in only one direction—up from
the plant roots to the leaves.

2. PHLOEM

– Moves sugars that are made in the plant’s leaves to other parts of the
plant.
– Phloem tissue is a two way transport route.
– It flows both up and down in a plant.

CAMBIUM

– The xylem and phloem layers in a plant

stem are separated by a layer.
– Responsible for making or dividing xylem
and phloem until differentiated.
– As the tree/plant grows, the xylem and
phloem divide also.

7
Cambium contributes in terms of measuring the age of trees.

– Separate layers
– As the plant/tree grows, the xylem and phloem divide.
– Widening of the tree (GIRTH)
– Produces new bark and new wood.
– Cambium determines the age of the tree based on its rings (annual
growth rings).

CIRCULATION IN ANIMALS

3 TYPES OF ANIMAL CIRCULATION

1. None

– applicable to small size animals with small surface area allowing

diffusion of gases and solutes (ex. flatworms, nematodes, cnidarians).
2. Open
– applicable to arthropods and mollusks, such animals do not have
blood pressure.
3. Closed
– applicable to all mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and some
invertebrates, like earthworms, octopuses, and squids.

1. NO CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

– Small animals that live in aqueous solutions rely on

diffusion.

SMALL ANIMALS WITHOUT CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

– Have relatively simple body structures and rely on the direct exchange
of gases, nutrients, and waste products through their body surface.

– These animals are typically small and thin to ensure that the cells
throughout their bodies are close enough to the external environment
for efficient exchange of substances.

2. OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

– Arthropods and mollusks have fluid connective tissue

(called hemolymph) analogous to blood that remains in
direct contact with the animal’s body tissues.

8
 – Hemolymph is also mixed with interstitial fluid.
– Muscular movement is also adequate enough to help move the
hemolymph around.

HOW OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM WORKS?

Overview:

• Hemolymph – circulatory fluid, a mixture of blood and interstitial fluid that

contains various cells, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

• Heart or Pump – simple pumping organ, often called the heart, although it
may not be as structurally complex as a vertebrate heart; pumps hemolymph
into the body cavity or hemocoel.

• Hemocoel – large cavity that surrounds the internal organs; hemolymph is

pumped directly into the hemocoel, where it bathes the organs and
tissues.

• Diffusion – the exchange of gases (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide),

nutrients, and waste products occurs through diffusion; substances move
between cells and the circulating fluid.

• Open-ended vessels – Or sinuses in the body that allow the hemolymph to

flow back to the heart after exchanging substances with the cells; the
circulation is more open and less controlled than in closed circulatory
systems found in vertebrates.

• Respiratory Exchange – Occurs directly through the body surface or

specialized respiratory structures, as there may not be a dedicated
respiratory system.

3. Closed Circulatory System

– Found in vertebrates (mammals, fish, birds, amphibians,

and reptiles), annelid worms (or segmented worms), and
cephalopod mollusks (most complex mollusks and most
complex invertebrates).

– In a closed circulatory system, blood is enclosed within

vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries), and the blood
circulates through these vessels to transport oxygen,
nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

The closed circulatory system in humans allows blood to flow through

the body through two types of circulatory paths: pulmonary and
systemic circulation.

9
• Why do we have circulation paths in our body?

– it allows oxygenated (pure) blood to be separated from deoxygenated

(impure) blood, which improves the body's ability to produce energy and
transfer oxygen more efficiently.
– A blood cell with a high percentage of oxygen and a low percentage of carbon
dioxide is oxygenated blood. Deoxygenated blood: Deoxygenated blood is the blood
that has a low oxygen saturation in comparison to blood leaving the lungs.

• What’s the difference between arteries and veins?

– Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry blood towards the
heart.

• Is it true that arteries only carry deoxygenated blood, and veins only

carry oxygenated blood?

– With the exception of pulmonary blood vessels, arteries carry oxygenated

blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood.

PULMONARY CIRCULATION

– Pulmonary circulation transports oxygen-depleted blood from the

heart to the lungs.
– Its main function is to oxygenate the blood.

1. Right ventricle
2. Pulmonary arteries
3. Capillaries in lungs
4. Pulmonary veins
5. Left atrium
6. Left ventricle

SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION

10
 – Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from
the heart to the organs and tissues and back to the
heart again.
– This is the continuation of pulmonary circulation.

1. Aorta
2. Head, chest, arms, abdominal region, and legs
3. Superior and inferior venae cava
4. Right atrium

DISORDERS OF THE BLOOD VESSELS

1. Atherosclerosis

– Is associated with cholesterol build-up called plaque inside the walls of

the arteries.
– Arteries harden and lose their elasticity and
degenerate.
– Arteries narrow and impede blood flow.
– Organs are deprived of oxygen that may lead to
irreversible damage: bacterial infection, and death of
leg tissues that may require amputation.
– Diet should be low in cholesterol, avoid smoking,
weight control, and exercise.

2. Stroke

– When there is a disruption of blood flow to the brain,

leading to damage or death of brain cells.
– Can be blocked by a thrombus (blood clot fixed within a
blood vessel), embolus (wandering clot), or hemorrhage
(sudden artery bursts).

11
 – Cerebral hemorrhage when the patient has atherosclerosis and high
blood pressure.

DISORDERS OF THE HEART

1. Coronary Heart Disease

– Inability of the blood to reach the coronary arteries of the heart

because of aging or atherosclerosis.
– Reduced blood flow causes a painful sensation in the chest and
shoulder, called angina pectoris.
– Inadequate blood can lead to an infarct (area of damaged cells).
– Myocardial infarction is a heart attack associated with damage to a
large part of the heart.

2. Hypertensive Heart Disease

– Hypertension, or elevated blood pressure from

narrowing arterioles (smallest arteries).

3. Rheumatic Heart Disease

– Usually occurs in children.

– Begins with untreated bacterial infection caused
by Streptococcus pyogenes.
– Causes body immune reactions and patient
experiences rheumatic fever.
– Causes inflammation of the innermost layer of the
heart known as endocarditis.

DISORDERS OF THE BLOOD

1. Hemophilia

– Blood does not clot properly leads to uncontrollable

bleeding.

12
 – Transmitted by the mother through the X chromosome and the male
offspring are mostly affected.
– Can result in anemia because of excessive and continuous blood loss.

1-minute read on hemophilia...

Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y
chromosome (XY).

If a mother carries the hemophilia gene on one of her X chromosomes, she is

considered a carrier and typically does not show symptoms of hemophilia
because she has a second X chromosome with a healthy copy of the clotting
factor gene.

Males, although inherits the hemophilia, do not have the ability to pass it.

2. Anemia

– Red blood cell count stays persistently low.

– Affects red blood cell’s ability to carry its full share of
oxygen to the body’s tissues.
– It may caused by nutritional deficiencies, diseases or
injuries associated with organs for blood cell
formation (bone marrow), and destruction (spleen
and liver), or excessive blood loss.

3. Leukemia

– Abnormal increase in the number of white blood

cells.
– Said to be one of the most dangerous blood disorders.
– Acute leukemia (common in children), the marrow
produces abnormally large, cancer-looking white
blood cells.

Pause, Think, and Recall

1. Differentiate the mechanism no, open, and closed circulatory system.

2. What classifications of organisms have no, open, and closed circulatory

systems?

13
3. How is diffusion used by organisms without a circulatory system?

4. What is hemolymph? – a tissue that is fluid and present in organisms with

open circulatory systems.

5. What is interstitial fluid? – fluid that is present in the gaps between cells.

6. If arthropods and mollusks do not have blood pressure, what helps their
hemolymph to somehow move? – Muscular movement

7. Explain how the open circulatory system works.

8. What are the two circulation paths in vertebrate organisms? – Pulmonary

and Systematic Circulation

9. Explain the mechanism of pulmonary circulation. – transports oxygen-

depleted blood from the heart to the lungs. / refers to blood flow from the
heart to the lungs and back to the heart again?

10. Explain the mechanism of systemic circulation. – refers to the blood

flowing through the entire body? / carries oxygenated blood

from the heart to the organs and tissues and

back to the heart again.

11. Differentiate arteries and veins. – Arteries carry blood away from the
heart, and veins carry blood towards the heart.

14