Stylistics (Лектор доц. Грабовецька О.С.).............................................................

3
1. The object and subject-matter of stylistics. Types of stylistics (stylistics of
language vs stylistics of speech; literary stylistics vs lingua-stylistics;
stylistics of decoding vs stylistics encoding; practical stylistics; discourse
stylistics)............................................................................................................... 3
2.Functional styles; forms of styles;....................................................................4
3.Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary.........................................6
4.Key notions of stylistics: imagery (Verbal Image)..........................................8
5.Key notions of stylistics: contextual meaning, transference, transferred
meaning. Stylistic Devices, groups of SD............................................................9
6.Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the primary and
contextual meanings; Quantitative tropes ([hyperbole]; [ meiosis, litotes]).. 10
7.Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the primary and
contextual meanings; Qualitative tropes ([metonymy, synecdoche,
periphrasis, euphemism])..................................................................................11
8.Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the primary and
contextual meanings; Qualitative tropes ([metaphor, antonomasia,
personification, allegory]; [irony])....................................................................13
9.Figures of identity (Simile, Quasi-identity, Replacers); Figures of contrast
(Oxymoron, Antithesis).....................................................................................14
10. Figures of inequality (Specifiers, Climax, Anti-climax, Pun, Zeugma,
Tautology);.........................................................................................................15
11.Phonetic level of stylistics: Sound symbolism. Alliteration and its
functions. Assonance, consonance, paronomasia. Onomatopoeia..................16
12.Syntactic EM (the reduction of the initial model)......................................16
13.Syntactic EM (the extension of the initial model).......................................17
14.Syntactic EM (the change of the order of components within the frame of
initial model)......................................................................................................18
15.Syntactic SD (types of combination of various syntactic models
(sentences) within the frame of passage, text)..................................................19
Stylistics (Лектор доц. Грабовецька О.С.)
1. The object and subject-matter of stylistics. Types of stylistics (stylistics of language vs
stylistics of speech; literary stylistics vs lingua-stylistics; stylistics of decoding vs stylistics
encoding; practical stylistics; discourse stylistics).

Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which investigates the entire system of expressive

resources available in a particular language.

As a separate linguistic discipline Stylistics began to form only in the 20-30s of the XXth
century. In modern linguistics the term Stylistics is employed in a variety of senses. But in general
Stylistics is defined as a branch of linguistics which studies the principles and effect of choice and
usage of different language elements for rendering thought and emotion under different conditions
of communication [Арнольд, 1990:7].

As a linguistic discipline Stylistics investigates a natural language (object.) There are 2

basic subjects of Stylistics: (1) special linguistic means (stylistic devices and expressive means)
which secure the desirable effect of the utterance; (2) certain types of texts “discourse” which due to
the choice and arrangement of the language are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of
communication (functional styles).

The definition of the subject-matter of stylistics causes certain difficulties which are
primarily connected with the complex nature of its object (i.e. language). Language is a hierarchy
of levels. Each level is studied correspondingly by phonetics, morphology, lexicology, syntax and
text linguistics. In the course of time several types of stylistics came into existence. According to
the principle of language activities manifestation stylistics is subdivided into stylistics of language
and stylistics of speech.

Stylistics of language deals with inherent (permanent) stylistic properties of language means while
stylistics of speech analyses acquired stylistic properties, i. e. Which appear only in the context.

According to the type of stylistic research we can distinguish literary Stylistics and lingua-
Stylistics.

Both study the common ground of:

a) the literary language from the point of view of its variability;

b) the idiolect (individual speech) of a writer;

c) poetic speech that has its own specific laws.

 Lingua-stylistics studies the language units from the point of view of their effectiveness indefinite
types of speech.Lingua-Stylistics examines the correlation between a speech situation and
linguistic means used by speakers and hence(хенс) – different functional styles of speech and
language. Lingua-Stylistics is also called Functional Stylistics.

Literary Stylistics is focused on

a) the composition of a work of art,

b) various literary genres,

c) the writer's outlook.

Literary Stylistics falls into three types:

Stylistics of Encoding (Author’s Stylistics) is interested in individual styles of writers focusing on

their biography, beliefs, interests and other factors which could influence their literary creative
work.

Stylistics of Decoding (Reader’s Stylistics) focuses on the reader's perception of a literary text, his
reaction to it.

Literary stylistics deals with artistic expressiveness characteristic of a literary work, literary trend
or epoch, and factors which influence it.

Practical stylistics is a discipline which deals with general knowledge about language and speech
styles, stylistic norms, stylistic means, and ways of employment of language means for correct
organization of speech.

Discourse stylistics considers language as discourse that is a text's status as discourse, a writer's
employment of discourse strategies and the way a text 'means' as a function of language in context
(how it functions as discourse).

2.Functional styles; forms of styles;

Functional style: a system of interrelated language means serving a definite aim in
communication. Functional styles employ the units of all language levels.. Theoreticians single
out from 2 to 5 and more functional styles (also employing the terms “speech types”, “speech
varieties”, “sublanguages”).

1. Belles-lettres(белс, художня літ) style, embracing various genres of creative writing. It is usually
subdivided into three main subtypes:

1) The style of emotive prose (fiction)

 2) The style of poetry

3) The style of drama.

The function of the belles-lettres style is twofold:

1) informative - persuasive, i.e. literature informs and communicates facts and ideas to
the reader; and

2) aesthetic-emotive, i.e. it affects the reader emotionally.

The main linguistic features common to all three subtypes are:

1) the use of imagery, produced, as we know, by the interaction of different meanings

of a word in the context;

2) the use of emotional language to enhance the expressiveness of the utterance;

3) the use of elements of other registers /styles of language (for example, the elements
of the newspaper style, those of official documents, etc.) and types of speech (e.g. the
use of colloquial - both literary and non-literary - expressions in dialogues in novels
and stories).

2. Publicist style, covering such genres as essays, feature articles, public speeches, etc. It falls
into 3 varieties:

1) A spoken variety or oratorical substyle; TV and radio commentary (emotional

appearance; arguments (brainwashing power persuasion); human voice)

2) The essay: moral, philosophical, literary

3) Journalistic articles: political, social, economic. Main functional characteristic is

persuasion. The general aim of the publicist style is “to exert a constant and deep
influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the
interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause
him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essay or article not merely
through logical argumentation but emotional appeal as well.

3. Newspaper style, represented in brief news items, editorials, advertisements, and other
materials printed in newspapers. Its main function – to impart information. Features:

1) the use of special graphical means, such as the changing of types, space ordering,
etc.;

2) a lot of dates and names (geographic, personal, names of institutions);

3) specific vocabulary:
 a) special political and economic terms,

b) non-term political vocabulary,

c) newspaper idioms and cliches,

d) abbreviations and clippings;

e) neologisms;

f) vocabulary typical of this style only (e.g. go-ahead = approval; poll

=election/public opinion survey; plea = request; key =essential; drive =
campaign, effort; clash = dispute);

4) specific grammar and syntax:

a) complex sentences with a developed system of clauses;

b) verbal (infinitive, gerund, participle) and noun constructions;

c) attributive noun groups, used for the sake of brevity (i.e. a noun is
employed in the function of an attribute)

d) unusual word-order.

4. Official style, observed in various kinds of official papers, such as business, legal,
diplomatic, military documents. It is represented by the 4 main substyles of

1) business documents

2) legal documents

3) military documents

4) documents of diplomacy.

The communicative aim of official documents is to reach agreement between two

contracting parties (e.g. the state and the citizen). Predetermined by this function, each
variety of official language has its lexical and syntactic peculiarities, i.e. a special system
of cliches, terms, set expressions, abbreviations, conventional symbols and contractions

5. Scientific (prose) style, found in articles, brochures, monographs and other academic
publications. The aim is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the
internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena. Features:

1) The logical sequence of utterances

2) The use of specific terms

3) the use of some typical sentence-patterns, discourse markers and cliches

 4) The use of quotations, references and footnotes of a digressive character,

5) The language tends to be objective, precise, unemotional, devoid of any

individuality. There is a striving for the most generalized form of expression.

6) Impersonality which is revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions.

All of them can be found in two forms – written and oral (e.g. an essay and a public speech - of
the publicist style). Besides, some types of texts may combine the features of two or more
functional styles, like, for example, numerous scientific-popular materials we can come across in
various magazines.

3.Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary.

The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. It can be employed in all styles and in all
spheres of human activity. Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used
in both literary and colloquial language.NEUTRAL words, possessing no stylistic connotations
and suitable for any communicative situation.. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and
polysemy.
Special literary vocabulary.
In accordance with the division of lang into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole of
the word stock of the English as being divided into 3 main layers: the literary, the neutral and the
colloquial.LITERARY words serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific,
poetic messages. The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of
the Eng.voc; they have no local or dialect character: 1. common literary;
2. terms and learned words;
3. poetic words;
4. archaic words;
5. barbarisms and foreign words;
6. literary coinages including nonce-words.
COLLOQUIAL words are involved in nonofficial everyday communication The colloquial layer
of words - not infrequently limited to a definite lang community or confined to a special locality
where it circulates:
1. common colloquial words;
2. slang;
3. jargonisms;
4. professional words;
5. dialect words;
6. vulgar words;
7. colloquial coinages.

Literal and Colloquial words are subdivided into GENERAL (known and used by most native
speakers) and SPECIAL.The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped
under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as
special literary vocabulary and in the colloquial layer - special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.

Specif
ic literary vocabulary
a) TERMS – words denoting objects, processes phenomena of science, humanities,
technique.Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and with a series of
other terms(of the same branch of sc); may appear in scientific, newspaper, publicistic, the belles-
lettres style, etc. Their function is to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with.
b) Poetic and highly literary words belong to a definite style of lang. Poetic lang has special
means of communication, i.e. rhythmical arrangement, syntactical peculiarities and number of
special words. Poetic words and set expressions make the utterance understandable only to a
limited number of readers: is sometimes called poetical jargon.
c) ARCHAISMS – words
-denoting historical phenomena which are no more in use.
-used in poetry in XVII – XIX cc.
-in the course of language substituted by newer synonymic wordsArchaic words are used in
historical novels, in official and diplomatic documents, in business letters, legal language, etc; are
also used to create an elevated effect.
d) Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the Eng.
They bear the appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien to the native tongue.
Foreign words do not belong to the Eng vocabulary. Both foreign words and barbarisms are widely
used in various styles of lang with various aims, e.g. to supply local color; are used in various styles
of writing, but mostly in belles-lettres and the publicistic style.
e) literary coinages are coined for use at the moment of speech, that of temporariness. The given
new word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to “serve the occasion”. 2
types of newly coined words: 1) those which designate new-born concepts, may be named
terminological coinages/neologisms; 2) words coined because their creators seek expressive
utterance may be named stylistic coinages/neologism.

Neologisms are mainly coined acc to the models for word-building in the given lang; most of the
literary coinages - by means of affixation and word compounding.
(1. Transcription/Transliteration: blog – блог, to google – погуглити
2. Calque(калк): workaholic - трудоголік, antihero - антигерой
3. Descriptive translation: scratcher – татуювальник-непрофесіонал
4. The method of using the ST item in the translation: Bluetooth – технологія Bluetooth
5. Translating by analogue: to bay=to seduce – спокушати)

Special colloquial vocabulary.

a) Slang words (the biggest group) used in a very informal situations. They are highly emotive and
expressive.In England, USA slang is regarded as of colloquial speech and therefore stands above all
the laws of grammar.

b) Jargonisms stand close to slang, also being substandard, expressive and emotive, but, used by
limited group of people, united either professionally (professionalisms), or socially (jargonisms
proper). Jargones aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group In England and
USA almost any social group has its own jargon.

c) Professionalisms the words used in a definite trade, profession by people connected by common
interests both at work or at home; are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a
character.
 d) Dialectal words are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used
outside of them, carry a strong flavor of the locality where they belong. (Dialectical words may be
divided according to the differences on the phonemic and lexical level). in the process of integration
of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally
confined to a definite locality; are only to be found in the style of emotive prose, very rarely in other
styles; function of characterizing personalities through their speech.

e) Vulgar words are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally
avoided in polite conversation. History of vulgarisms reflects the history of social ethics. There are
different degrees of vulgar word: the obscene ones, are called “four-letter” words. The function is
to express strong emotions. They are not to be found in any style, except emotive prose, and only in
the direct speech of the characters.

f) Colloquial coinages Colloquial coinages (nonce-words) are spontaneous and elusive. Most of
them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it. Some nonce-words and meanings may
become facts of the language, or may be classified as literary or colloquial acc to which of the
meanings is being dealt with.

4.Key notions of stylistics: imagery (Verbal Image).

Words in context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what we have
called contextual meaning. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a
degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. This is especially
the case when we deal with the transferred meaning This act of name-exchange is traditionally
referred to as transference, for, indeed, the name of one object is transferred onto another,
proceeding from their similarity (of shape, colour, functions, etc.), or closeness (of material
existence, cause/effect, instrument/result, part/whole relations, etc.).

When considering the structure of an image we may distinguish:

1. Tenor – the actual meaning of the image, what is being talked about, existing denotative
meaning;

2. Vehicle – the object with which the tenor is compared, connotations;

3. Ground – common feature of the compared concepts;

4. Relationship between the two;

5. Comparison technique (type of trope);

6. Grammatical and lexical peculiarities of comparison.

From the functional-communicative point of view, the verbal image has two aspects. On one
hand, it has cognitive value, being a sign rendering a certain idea, playing a certain role in
comprehending extralinguistic reality through reflecting ethno-cultural bonds. On the other
hand, it is a means of emotional influence, expression of the author’s subjective evaluation of
the reality.

Methods of rendering the meaning of a verbal image are based on studying its complex semantic
structure. Verbal images can be studied on different levels. Each verbal image consists of a
number of lexemes, which constitute its first sense layer. Imagery is created not by arbitrary
combination of words. It takes two or more lexemes to occur together and simultaneously to violate
the conventional combinability in order to make the reader/listener change the conceptual fields.
The reader/listener has to think differently, unusually. As a result, semantic fields are broken,
separate semantic elements are detached from these lexemes. These detached elements form up an
emotional-conceptual image with a certain denotative imagery, on the basis of which a new
semantic imagery, new meaning is created. This meaning is usually imposed on by various
connotations. This constitutes the 2 sense layer.
nd

Some verbal images have become idiomatic. The difference between idiomatic and non-
idiomatic verbal images has been established by Ch.Ballie, who classified them from the point
of view of their expressive colouring at a certain stage of the language development. He singled
out 3 groups:

1. perceptible, concrete images arousing imagination and drawing pictures. These are original
creations of the authors or occasional transformations of the set expressions in order to more clearly
render the idea: Your locks are like snow (R.Burns) – Чуб іній притрусив (пер. М.Лукаша); Her
cheeks like lilies dipt in wine (R.Burns) – В неї личко із лілей і лала (пер. М.Лукаша);

2. weakened or emotional images in which emotions prevail the concrete content. Idiomatic
expressions most of which are based on still perceptible image, however, they have been used so
often that they lose their expressiveness: очі, як зорі; струнка, як тополя;

3. dead images, in which imagery and perception have become obliterated. The expressions in which
the image is no longer perceived: лампочка горить, дощ іде, час біжить, рушниця стріляє.

5.Key notions of stylistics: contextual meaning, transference, transferred meaning.

Stylistic Devices, groups of SD.
Dictionaries, as a rule, give a list of primary and secondary (derivative) meanings of a word.
Additional lexical meanings that words may acquire in the context are not registered in dictionaries.
Born in the context, they are called contextual.

Transferred meaning – the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning:dictionary and
contextual. The substitution of the existing names fixed in dictionaries by new, occasional,
individual ones, prompted by the speakers subjective original view and evaluation of things. The act
of name-exchange is traditionally referred to a transference.It is the act of substitution of the
existing name.

The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and frequent use
of the word other than in its primary meaning. In this case we register a derivative meaning of the
word. When we perceive two meanings of the word simultaneously, we deal with a stylistic device
in which the two meanings interact.

Words in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in the dictionaries, what we
call contextual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a
degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. It is the
interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual.

Stylistic devices– conscious and intentional intensification of some typical structure and semantic
property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) prompted to a generalized status and thus
becoming a generative model. Binary opposition is the most important feature. (Galperin)

Groups of SD:

1. Lexical SD–suggest the opposition of lexical meanings regardless of the syntactical

organization of an utterance

2. Syntactual SD–based on the opposition of syntactual meanings regardless of their semantics

3. Lexico-syntactual SD

4. Graphical and phonetical SD based on the opposition of meanings of phonological and

graphical elements of the language.

5. Fresh, original or genuine SD–appear when the opposition is clearly perceived and both
indicated meanings are simultaneously realized within the same short context we speak of.

6. Trite SD–appear when one of the meanings is supported by the others.

6.Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the primary and contextual
meanings; Quantitative tropes ([hyperbole]; [ meiosis, litotes]).
 Trope- a type of diversion from the literal to the figurative.Thus,tropes are rhetorical devices that
create imagery.
Trope – SD, based on the play of fixed and contextual meaning.

I. Arnold defines it as a lexical descriptively expressive means in which a word or word

combination is used in transferred meaning;
the nature of the trope consists in contrasting the notion, presented by the traditional use of the
lexical unit and the notion presented by the same unit in the artistic speech where it performs a
special stylistic function.Tropes are sometimes called ‘figures of replacement’
Figure-syntagmatically arranged EMs. Fs are characterized by various level of formalization.

F of substitution (заміщення) -includes all means of secondary nomination (-trope).

Figures of substitution include all means of secondary nomination. Yu. Screbnev called all tropes
the figures of replacement because every trope is really a replacement (usual meaning of an object
is replaced with another)
F of convergence (суміщення) - studies types of syntagmatic (linear) arrangement of meanings.

Interaction of Primary Dictionary and Contextual (Logical) Meaning:

Metaphor. Metonymy(метоонимі). Irony. Interaction between the dictionary and contextual
meaning can be based either on principles of similarity (cхожесть) or contiguity(контигюиті)
(близость).

1) When the author identifies two objects, which may have nothing in common,
but in which he subjectively sees a function, a property, a feature that can make
the reader see these objects as identical, we deal with a metaphor. (‘fireball –
sun’)

His words cut deeper than a knife. Words don't materialize into sharp objects. In this metaphor, someone has said
something hurtful to another.

 2) When the author finds it possible to substitute one object for another on grounds of
some actual interdependence or interrelation between them, we deal with a metonymy. (‘яка шуба
пішла’)
 3) When the word describing a certain property or quality of an object is used in the opposite or
contradictory sense, we deal with irony. Telling a rude customer to “have a nice day” Stating during a
thunderstorm, “beautiful weather we're having”

Quantitative tropes - identification of 2 diff.object on the base of common quantitative features.
Hyperbole(хайпеболі) is a deliberate exaggeration of a certain quality of an object or
phenomenon.
- can be expressed by all parts of speech:
- pronouns (all, every, everybody, everything);
- numerical nouns (a million, a thousand);
- adverbs of time (ever, never);
- adv. (жахливо, страшенно, колосально; завжди, ніколи, всюди).
(e.g. scared to death. I beg a thousand pardons. / Pete knows everybody in the town.)

Examples: I could sleep for a year. (for a long time); I'm so hungry, I could eat a horse. (eat a lot)

Hyperbole: colloquial & original. Coll: I haven’t seen u for ages.

Hyperbole is connected with metaphoric, irony and simile.

Antonyms to hyperbole include meiosis, litotes, and understatement.

Meiosis.(майосис) - opposite to hyperbole.- is a figure of speech which intentionally understates

something or implies that it is less in significance, size, than it really is/deliberate
diminution(дименюшн( of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon.
- underlines insignificance of such qualities of objects and phenomena as their size, volume,
distance, time, shape, etc. - colloquial speech;
- makes speech expressive (e.g. a cat-size pony./ a drop of water/ Зачекайте хвилинку.)

Ex: She was a sparrow of a woman.

Litotes (лайтотіс) (specific variant of meiosis) - is a specific form of understatement consisting in

expressing the lessened degree of quantity of a thing by means of negation of the antonym. The
negation of the antonym express the positive idea but in somewhat lessened degree. Combination
of the negative particle "not" and a word with negative meaning or a neg. prefix.
Such a combination makes positive sense: "not bad" means "good", "not unkind" means "kind",
etc.;
-makes statements and judgments sound delicate and diplomatic;
-also expresses irony. (e.g. Martin is not without sense of humour. / not unreasonable./ not
impossible)
Ex: "The food was not bad."- "The food was acceptable/good (depending in emphasis)."

Litotes always consists of 2 words:

 1. Not + word (not a coward = a brave person)

2. Not without (not without interest = with interest)

3. Not + negative prefix (not unknown = known)

7.Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the primary and contextual
meanings; Qualitative tropes ([metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism]).

Figure is a syntactically arranged EM. Figures are characterized by various level of formalization.

Another term for this phenomenon of transference is a trope. I. Arnold defines it as a lexical
descriptively expressive means in which a word or word combination is used in transferred
meaning; the nature of the trope consists in contrasting the notion, presented by the traditional use
of the lexical unit and the notion presented by the same unit in the artistic speech where it performs
a special stylistic function.

The interrelation of semantic units is unique in any individual text. But stylistics aims at
generalization and discriminates the most general types of semantic relationships that can be
reduced to three:

1. meanings can be identical (linguistic units co-occuring in the text either have the same meaning or
are used as names of the same object;

2. meanings can be different;

3. meanings can be opposite(the meaning of one of correlating units is incompatible with the meaning
of another).

The three types of semantic interrelations are matched by three groups of figures:

1. figures of identity (simile, quasi-identity, replacers);

2. figures of inequality (climax or gradation), anti-climax (it’s a bloody lie and not quite true), pun,
zeugma, tautology);

3. figures of contrast (oxymoron, antithesis).

Tropes are generally subdivided into:

1. qualitative tropes (outlining the difference between the usual meaning of a linguistic unit and its
actual reference);
2. quantitative tropes (overestimation the dimensions of the object or undervaluing its size,
importance etc.

Metonymy is a trope consisting in the transfer of the name of one object to another based on the
base of contiguity(контигюіті,суміжність).M is applying the name of an object in some way
connected with the first.

Lexical metonymy is a source of creating new words or new meanings: table's leg, teapots nose,
grave (instead of death).
Contextual metonymy is the result of unexpected substitution of one word for another in speech.
(e.g. The fish swallowed her death and the float went down. Linda gave her heart to the grocer's
young man. Язик до Києва доведе. Нам треба більше робочих рук.)

Synecdoche(синекдокі) is a figure of speech in which a term denoting a part of something is used

to refer to the whole thing, or a term denoting a thing (a "whole") is used to refer to part of it.

1)naming the whole object by mentioning part of it(under the same roof - in the same house)

2)using the name of the whole object to denote a constituent part of it: The hall applauded (= the
people inside).(e.g. The school went to the zoo.)

Periphrasis(перифресиз) is a figure of speech where the meaning of a word or phrase is indirectly

expressed through several or many words.

Periphrasis - replacement of a direct name of smth by the description of some quality of this
thing or phenomenon.
- intensifies a certain feature of the object described.
Periphrasis: logical and figurative (weapons = instruments of destruction, Київ = місто каштанів)
Periphrasis – SD, which basically consists of using a roundabout form of expression instead of a
simpler one, i.e. of using a more or less complicated syntactical structure instead of a word.
It is the renaming of an object by a phrase that brings out some particular feature of the object; it is
decipherable only in the context (king – the leader of hosts, the giver of rings, the victory lord).

Euphemism(юфомизм) refers to polite, indirect expressions that replace words and phrases
considered harsh and impolite, or which suggest something unpleasant.

-word or word-combination which is used to replace an unpleasantly sounding word or word-

combination.
- to make speech more polite, cultured, delicate, acceptable in a certain situation.
1. Religious euphemisms: God = Lord, Almighty, Heaven, goodness. Чорт = лукавий, нечистий,
нечиста сила, нечистий дух, злий дух, лихий дух.
2. Moral euph: to die = to be gone, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to decease
3. Political: poor people = less fortunate elements

8.Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the primary and contextual
meanings; Qualitative tropes ([metaphor, antonomasia, personification, allegory];
[irony]).

Figure is a syntactically arranged EM. Figures are characterized by various level of formalization.

Another term for this phenomenon of transference is a trope. I. Arnold defines it as a lexical
descriptively expressive means in which a word or word combination is used in transferred
meaning; the nature of the trope consists in contrasting the notion, presented by the traditional use
of the lexical unit and the notion presented by the same unit in the artistic speech where it performs
a special stylistic function.

Metaphor - result of transference of the name of one object to another.

-the transference of some quality from one object to another. However, metaphoric transference
is based upon similarity/likeness of the objects (not contiguity). (e. g. гребінь хвилі, глава книги,
Patricia's eyes were pools of still water.)
The stylistic function of metaphor is not a mere nomination of the thing in question but rather its
expressive characterization. Ex: “The machine sitting at the desk was no longer a man; it was busy
New York broker…”
Metaphor has no formal limitations: it can be a word, a phrase, any part of a sentence, or a sentence
as a whole. Metaphors are either simple or complex.
Structurally metaphors are subdivided into sustained (prolonged, extended) and simple. Simple
ones may comprise either single word or complete word combination creating one image.
Prolonged metaphor comprises a set of interconnected simple metaphors complementing one
another.
The stylistic function of a metaphor is twofold: - it makes the author’s thought more concrete by
evoking images and suggesting analogies; - it reveals the author’s emotional attitude towards what
he describes.

 His words cut deeper than a knife. Words don't materialize into sharp objects.
In this metaphor, someone has said something hurtful to another.

 I'm feeling blue.

 She's going through a rollercoaster of emotions. Our emotions can't take a ride
on a rollercoaster. This metaphor simply means the person's going through a lot of
different moods.
Antonomasia(ентономесія) - identification of human beings with things which surround them.
People may be identified with other people, with animals, with inanimate objects and natural
phenomena.
Metaphorical Antonomasia is the use of the name of a historical, literary, mythological or biblical
personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those of the well-known
original.

3 main types:
1) the proper name is used in the function of common noun (He is courting each Mary);
2) common noun is used to individualize name; Three doctors you need are Dr. Diet, Dr. Rest and
Dr.Fresh Air.;
3) speaking names whose origin from common nouns is still clearly perceived. They have a double
role – to name and to qualify. (Mr. Sly)

Personification -When the speaker ascribes human behaviour, thoughts and actions to
inanimate objects (Lie is a strange creature, and a very mean one. The night was creeping towards
the travelers.) In most cases P is indicated by some formal signals(сигнелс). It is the use of
personal pronouns “he” or “she” with reference to lifeless things. P is often achieved by the direct
address. Another formal signal of P is capitalized writing of the word which expresses a personified
notion.
Allegory - is antonomasia,-the domain of allegory is not a sentence but the whole text (a logically
completed narration of facts or events). There are allegoric tales and fables, stories and novels.
( fables by I. Krylov as "Elephant and mongrel") He було порятунку ні від Бога, ні від чорта, ні
від людей. Суддею був Ведмідь, Вовки були підсудки.
Irony (fig.of quality)- when the speaker intentionally breaks the principle of sincerity of speech.
Ironically used words acquire meanings opposite to their primary lang.meanings: ironical good
means bad.
-generally used to convey a negative meaning or emotion: irritation, regret, dissatisfaction,
disappointment, displeasure, etc. ( Thank you very much for trumping my ace!Він такий
розумний, що й "два плюс два" не второпає.)

9.Figures of identity (Simile, Quasi-identity, Replacers); Figures of contrast (Oxymoron,

Antithesis)
Figures of Identity Human cognition саn bе defined аs recurring acts of lingual identification of
what we perceive. Ву naming objects (phenomena, processes, and properties оf reality), we identify
them, i.e. search for classes in which to place them, recalling the names of classes already known
to us.
Simile(симилі) (imaginative comparison) - an explicit statement of partial identity (affinity,
likeness, similarity) оf 2 objects.-objects cannot be identical,only similar.
-S always employs 2 names of 2 separate obj. and at least 1 more component(компОнент) -the
word/word-group signalizing the idea of comparison. (like,as(as if,as though),than,to resemble,to
remind one of,to bear a resemblance to,to have a look of)
The purpose of this confrontation of the names is to characterize one of the two. -is an imaginative
comparison of two unlike objects belonging to two different classes. The one is called the tenor,
the other with which the first is compared is called the vehicle and the ground of similarity is
foundation. They form the two semantic poles of the simile, which are connected by one of the
following link words- like, as, as though, as like, such as, as….as.
There are 2 main types of simile:
1. simile where the common feature of the 2 objects is mentioned.( His muscles are hard as
rock)
2. the common feature is not mentioned.( She is like a rose)- it is called epic or Homeric simile.
Trite simile- often repeated simile, it adds to the stock of language phraseology. (as brisk as bee)
Disguised simile- simile where the link between the tenor and vehicle is expressed by notional
verbs: to resemble, to seem, to recollect, to remember, to look like, to appear. ( The ball appeared
to the batter to be a slow spinning planet looming toward the earth)
PLEASE, don’t confuse simile and comparison, in comparison the objects belong to the same
classes, in a simile we deal with objects of two different classes.! E.g. She can sing like a
professional actress and She sings like a bird.
Quasi(квейсай)-identity - complete 2-member utterances in which the theme (‘topic’) is the
traditional, nonfigurative denomination of an object, and the rheme (‘comment’) is figurative,
situational, charactering denomination: metaphor, metonymy,or combination of tropes (e.g.
metaphor+ hyperbole+irony) (Jane is a real angel.)
Synonymous replacements (‘variations’)-used in actual texts
1)to avoid monotonous repetition of the same word in a sent.or a sequence of sent,
2) to make the description аs exhaustive as possible under the circumstances, to provide
additional shades of the meaning intended. (The little boy was crying.It was the child’s usual time
for going to bed,but no one paid attention to the kid.)
Figures of Contrast formed bу intentional combination, often bу direct juxtaposition оf ideas,
mutually excluding, and incompatible with one another.
Oxymoron combination of words which are semantically incompatible- the object under
description obtains characteristics contrary to its nature: hot snow, loving hate, horribly beautiful,
nice blackguard, faith unfaithful, sweet sorrow, full of nothing, deafening silence.
Antithesis(антифесиз) –(close to oxymoron). difference: oxymoron is realized through a single
wordcomb.,antithesis is a confrontation of at least two separate phrases semantically opposite.
- is an opposition or contrast of ideas usually presented in parallel constructions (in phrases within
one sentence, or in two or more clauses or sentences). It’s any identification of contrast, meant to be
perceived by the recipient. The purpose of using it is to demonstrate the contradictory nature of the
referent. E,g.
She was a great talker, upon little matters. It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.
Compare: "wise foolishness" is an oxymoron; "... the age of wisdom, the age of foolishness" is an
antithesis. - The main lexical means of antithesis formation is antonyms (Gilbert wears fine clothes
while I go in rags./ While I am weak from hunger. Denis suffers from overeating.)

10. Figures of inequality (Specifiers, Climax, Anti-climax, Pun, Zeugma, Tautology);

Semantic function - highlighting differences.

Specifying, оr clarifying synonyms contribute to precision in characterizing the object of speech. -
mау either arise in the speaker's mind аs аn afterthought and bе added to what has bееn said, or
they
оссuру the sаmе syntactical positions in two or more parallel sentences.( Oswald's life was
fading, fainting, gasping away, extinguishing slowly.)
Сlimax(клаймекс) (оr: Gradation) such an arrangement of correlative ideas (notions expressed
bу words, word combinations, or sentences) in which what precedes is less than what follows.
Thus the second element surpasses the first and is in its turn, surpassed bу the third, and so оn. (I
am sorry,I am so very sorry, I am so extremely sorry)
Anti-climax (оr: Bathos). а sudden deception of the recipient: it consists in adding оnе weaker
element to оnе or several strong ones, mentioned before.- employed with а humorous aim(It's а
bloody lie and not quite true)
Pun or wordplay(Italian “a fine point”), is the type of language use that aims at ambiguity
resulting from the intentional violation of referential connections of a word in the context. Pun is
one of major means of creating a humorous effect, which is actually its main stylier words; usually
as a fault of style. So the difference is slight, if any in some cases. However, in tautology, it seems,
the redundancy, superfluity of expression is more palpable(пелпибл) - it is obvious because it is
felt most tangibly(тенджиблі, відчутно):
• a small dwarf
  Santa Claus' helpers are known as subordinate Clauses.

• He was the only survivor; no one else was saved.

• With malice toward none, with charity for all.( Зі злобою ні до кого, з милосердям для всіх) .
The contradiction between the form and the meaning realized in the context underlies the stylistic
effect of a pun, which is often an effect of the so-called “breach of expectancy” (or defeated
expectancy) based оn polysemy or homonymy.-appears from the collision of 2 elements with the
identical or similar phonetic/graphic form ('А equals В and С')(There is only one brand of
tobacco allowed here-‘Three nuns’.None today,none tomorrow,and none the day
after.
Zeugma ['zju:gma] (Greek “to connect”) is a device that is based on grammatical analogy and
semantic incompatibility, i.e. a polysemantic word refers in the context to two or more adjacent
(суміжні)words in different semantic relations, thus belonging simultaneously to different word-
combinations and realizing different meanings: one meaning is usually literal and the other-
figurative. Z.consists in combining unequal,or even incompatible, words or phrases. (She dropped
a tear(тер) and her pocket handkerchief(чіф)).
Tautology is a literary device whereby writers say the same thing twice, sometimes using different
words, to emphasize or drive home a point. It can be seen as redundancy, a style fault that adds
needless words to your idea, statement, or content; or it can be defended as poetic license.

11.Phonetic level of stylistics: Sound symbolism. Alliteration and its functions. Assonance,
consonance, paronomasia. Onomatopoeia.

Sound symbolism refers to the apparent association between particular sound sequences and
particular meanings in speech. The theory of sound symbolism is based on the assumption
that separate sounds due to their articulatory and acoustic properties may awake certain
ideas, perceptions, feelings, images. In poetry we cannot help feeling that the arrangement of
sounds carries a definite aesthetic function.Such notions as harmony, euphony(юф), rhythm and
other sound phenomena undoubtedly are not indifferent to the general effect produced by a verbal
chain. Poetry, unlike prose, is meant to be read out loud and any oral performance of a message
inevitably involves definite musical (in the broad sense of the word) interpretation.

Alliteration and its functions.

Alliteration-stylistically motivated repetition of consonants. The repeated sound is often met at the
beginning of words: She sells sea shells on the sea shore. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled
pepper. Functions: of versification-the repetition of the initial sounds of the stressed words in the
line, as it were, integrates the utterance into a compositional unit. Unlike rhyme in modern English
verse, the semantic function of which is to chain one line to another, alliteration in Old English
verse was used to consolidate the sense within the line, leaving the relation between the lines rather
loose.of instrumentation. - a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to
the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular
consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words. Therefore
alliteration is generally regarded as a musical accompaniment of the author's idea, supporting it
with some vague emotional atmosphere which each reader interprets for himself.( Doubting,
dreading, dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before (Poe).Alliteration in the English
language is deeply rooted in the traditions of English folklore. The laws of phonetic arrangement in
Anglo-Saxon poetry differed greatly from those of present-day English poetry. In Old English
poetry alliteration was one, of the basic principles of verse and considered, along with rhythm, to be
its main characteristic. Each stressed meaningful word in a line had to begin with the same sound or
combination of sounds. alliteration in Old English verse was used to consolidate the sense within
the line, leaving the relation between the lines rather loose.

Assonance - the repetition of similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables. (on a proud round
cloud in white high night)
Consonance refers to repetitive sounds produced by consonants within a sentence or phrase. This
repetition often takes place in quick succession, such as in “pitter, patter.”( She ate seven
sandwiches on a sunny Sunday last year.)
Paronomasia(перономейжа)- words with similar or the same spelling and/or sounding but
different meanings are used in one context to create a comic or satirical effect (Some folks are
wise, and some are otherwise.)
Onomatopoeia(ономатопіа) is the reflection of sounds of the extralinguistic world (natural
phenomena, machines, people, and animals) by linguistic means for expressive and pictorial
purposes. In short, the acoustic form of words imitates the sounds produced by the
object/action/living being they signify.

12.Syntactic EM (expressive means)(the reduction of the initial model).

Ellipsis – deliberate omission of at least one member of a sentence. The meaning of the omitted
member can be easily restored from the context.

E.g. Finished your work, John? - Almost. (Cf: Have you finished your work, John? - Yes, Martin,I
have finished my work)

Elliptical sentences acquire expressiveness when they are used in emotive prose (or sometimes in
poetry) as a means of imitating real colloquial speech, live talk or as a means of exposing
character’s emotions:
Aposiopesis(апосйопісис) or break-in-the-narrative – an intentional and sudden break in the
narration or dialogue. What is not finished is implied. It reflects the emotional/ psychological state
of the speaker:

E.g-You just come home or I’ll…(threat)

Nominative (one-member) sentences consist only of a nominal group, which is semantically and
communicatively self-sufficient; mostly used in descriptions (of nature, interior, appearance, etc.),
where they produce the effect of a detailed but laconic picture

E.g. A row of streets crossing another row of streets.

Asyndeton(ейсндетен) – a marked, deliberate avoidance of conjunctions (usually the conjunction

'and'). Used to speed up the rythm

E.g Mr Bob Sawyer pushed the postbox on one side, jerked his friend into the vehicle, slammed the
door.

Apokoiny constructions – the omission of the pronominal (sometimes adverbial) connective

creates a blend of the main and subordinate clauses so that the predicative or object of the first one
is simultaneously used as the subject of the second one. Used to produce the effect of a careless,
clumsy, colloquial speech.

E.g. I never met so many people didn't own a watch. (‘people’ = the object of the first clause = the
subject of the second clause

13.Syntactic EM (the extension of the initial model).

Repetition is a repetition of the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clear and more
memorable.

E.g I wake up and I’m alone and I walk round Warley and I am alone; and I talk with people and I
am alone …(J. Braine).

Put it back! put it back! Put it back!

Types

Anaphora is the repetition of elements at the beginning of each consecutive syntactic structure

E.g. And everywhere were people. People going into gates and coming out of gates. People
staggering and falling. People fighting and cursing (P. Abrahams).

Victory is what we need.Victory is what we expect.Шастя не вміщалося у серці,щастя

розривало груди!

Epiphora. Epiphora is the repetition of the final elements of each successive utterance.

E.g. It is natural to be scared in a case like that. You are sure to be petrified in a case like that.
Вона хотіла жити! Повинна була жити!

Framing. In framing the initial element of the utterance is repeated at the end of the utterance.

E.g. Poor Mary. How much Jack loved her! What will he do now? I wish it hadn't happened. Poor
Mary.
Chiasmus(чіазмис)-reversed parallel construction.

E.g. The jail might have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been the jail.

Catch repetition (anadiplosis) – (підхват).- the end of one clause or sentence is repeated at the
beginning of the following one(…a, a …)

The combination of several catch repetitions produces a chain repetition.

E.g. Failure meant poverty, poverty meant squalor(скволе,убогість), squalor led, in final stages,
to the smells and

Enumeration is a stylistic device by which separate things, objects, phenomena, properties, actions
are named one by one so that they produce a chain of syntactically
homogeneous(гомоджінієс,однорідні) but semantically remote elements.

E.g. Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his sole assign, his sole residuary
legatee, his sole friend and his sole mourner (Ch. Dickens) – heterogeneous

Tautology is the repetition of the same word or phrase or the same idea or statement in other words;

E.g. He was the only survivor; no one else was saved

Polysyndeton - stylistically motivated deliberate repetition of conjunctions or prepositions

E.g. The raisins and almonds and figs and apples and oranges and chocolates and sweets were now
passed about the table (J. Joyce).

Emphatic structures It is/it was, he/that who- used to emphasise the statement (the subject,
object)

It was I who received the promotion. It is the awful weather that drives him crazy.

Parenthesis is an explanatory or qualifying word, phrase, or sentence which is inserted in a longer

passage usually without being grammatically connected with it. It is marked off by brackets, dashes,
or commas.

E.g. Did you leave your bag (red, black handles) in the classroom?

14.Syntactic EM (the change of the order of components within the frame of initial
model)
INVERSIONжн-. Grammatical inversion is devoid of stylistic information. It is just a technical
means of forming different types of questions. Stylistic inversion is such a change of word-order
which gives logical stress or emo- tional colouring to the language units placed in an unusual
syntactic position(In came Jack, Little chances Benny had)

DETACHMENT (відокремлення) SD based on singling out structurally and semantically a

secondary member of the sentence with the help of punctuation: dashes, commas or even a full
stop. (I have to beg you for money. Dail. He had been nearly killed, ingloriously, in a jeep
accident)

Inversion is any violation of the traditional, fixed word-order in English (subject-predicate-object,

etc.) which does not change the grammatical type and the meaning of the sentence but adds a
logical stress and/or emotional colouring to the utterance. There are several patterns of stylistic
inversion:
1. Predicative + (link verb) + Subject e.g.: Clever, clear and concise was her answer.
2. Adverbial modifier + Subject + Predicate (partial inversion)e.g.: Slowly I went out. (Cf: I
went out slowly. The qualifier “slowly” sounds stronger in the first sentence.)
3. Adverbial modifier + Predicate + Subject (complete inversion) e.g.: Directly in front o f
them stood a great castle. Along the road came a strange procession. (The structure is most common
in literary and descriptive writing when a new indefinite object is being introduced)
4. Object - at the beginning of the sentence e.g.: Little change did he make.
5. Attributes - after the modified noun e.g.: I saw the clouds blue and white, (often found in
poetry)

15.Syntactic SD (types of combination of various syntactic models (sentences) within the

frame of passage, text).
Parallelism-SD of producing two or more synt.structures acc. to the same synt. pattern(Mary
cooked dinner, John watched TV, Pete played tennis) - a means of enumerating facts, comparing
them or confronting them.
Chiasmus (reversed parallel construction)-a cross order of repeated language units(The jail might
have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been the jail. Люди існують в часі, а час існує
в людях)

PARCELATION - deliberate split of one single sentence into two (or more) parts, separated by a
full stop or its equivalent. (They stood around him. Talking. Коло неї Гафійка. Наче молода
щепа з панського саду)

ATTACHMENT - SD based on a peculiar type of connection of sent. parts or sentences in a txt.

In the case of attachment this connection is not immediately apparent and it requires a certain
mental effort to grasp the interrelation between the parts of the utterance, in other words, to
bridge the semantic gap. ( Prison is where she belongs. And my husband agrees one thousand per
cent. She and that fellow ought to be the sufferers, and they were in Italy)

ELLIPSIS(ілипсис)

An elliptical sentence is such a syntactic structure in which there is no subject, or predicate, or both.
The main parts of elliptical sentences are omitted by the speaker intentionally in cases when they
are semantically redundant.

For example:

- Hullo! Who are you?

- The staff.

Communicative functions. Ellipsis saves the speaker from needless ef-fort, spares his time, reduces
redundancy of speech. Elliptical structures may also reveal such speakers' emotions as excitement,
impatience, delight, etc. As a stylistic device, ellipsis is an effective means of protagonists'
portrayal.

NOMINATIVE (NOMINAL) SENTENCES

A nominative sentence is a variant of one-member structures: it has neither subject nor predicate. It
is called nominative or nominal because its basic (head) component(компОнент) is a noun or a
noun-like element (gerund, numeral). For example:

Morning. April. Problems.

A sequence of nominative sentences makes for dynamic description of events. Sets of nominative
sentences are used to expressively depict the time of the action, the place of the action, the atten-
dant circumstances of the action, the participants of the action.
APOSIOPESIS (BREAK-IN-THE-NARRATIVE)

Like ellipsis, aposiopesis is also realized through incompleteness of sentence structure, though this
incompleteness is of different structural and semantic nature: it appears when the speaker is
unwilling to proceed and breaks off his narration abruptly:

If you go on like this...

ASYNDETON

It is deliberate omission of structurally significant conjunctions and connectives.

For example:

John couldn 't have done such a silly thing, he is enough clever for that. Fathers, mothers, uncles,
cousins. Cocking tails and pricking whiskers,...

Communicative functions. Asyndeton makes speech dynamic and expressive. Sometimes it implies
the speaker's haste, nervousness and impatience.

REPETITION

Stylistic repetition of language units in speech (separate words, word-combinations or sentences) is

one of the most frequent and potent stylistic devices.

For example:

Never take the rifle(райфл,гвинтівка) again. Put it back! put it back! Put it back!

There are several structural types of repetition:

ANAPHORA

The repeated word or word-combination is at the beginning of each consecutive syntactic structure.

For example:

Victory is what we need. Victory is what we expect.

EPIPHORA

The repeated unit is placed at the end of each consecutive syntactic structure.

For example:

It is natural to be scared in a case like that. You are sure to be petrified in a case like that.

FRAMING

The initial part of a language unit is repeated at the end of this unit. For example:

Poor Mary. How much Jack loved her! What will he do now? I wish it hadn't happened. Poor Mary.

CHIASMUS (reversed parallel construction)

In such syntactic structures there is a cross order of repeated language units. For example:

The jail might have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been the jail.
Communicative functions. The device of repetition aims at emphasizing a certain
component(компОнент) of the utterance. Being repeated, a language unit obtains additional
stylistic information. Consecutive contact repetition is capable of rendering scores of modal
meanings and human emotions.

POLYSYNDETON

It is stylistically motivated redundant repetition of conjunctions or prepositions:

The dog barked and pulled Jack, and growled, and raged.

Communicative functions. Polysyndeton is a means of rhythmical organization of the utterance.

Due to this quality it is widely used in poetry. It also makes for underlining the most important part
of information.

PARALLEL CONSTRUCTIONS

Parallelism is a stylistic device of producing two or more syntactic structures according to the same
syntactic pattern:

Mary cooked dinner, John watched TV, Pete played tennis.

Communicative functions. Syntactic parallelism is polyfunctional. It creates rhythm and is typical

of poetry. It makes speech persuasive and is a feature of the publicistic and oratory styles. It
underlines important informa-tion and is widely used in everyday speech.

INVERSION

Inversion is the syntactic phenomenon of intentional changing word-order of the initial sentence
model:

To her family Martha gives all her time.

RHETORIC QUESTIONS

These are not questions but affirmative or negative statements put into the interrogative shape. A
rhetoric question needs no answer, because the answer to it is quite obvious:

Me a liar?

Communicative functions. A rhetoric question enhances the expressiveness of speech. Used in

oratory style, rhetoric questions aim at catching the attention of the audience, making the sequential
sentences sound persuasive and significant.