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Table of Contents vii
Index 311
P R E FAC E
W
e begin this book with a problem: we set out to write a
straightforward, linear guide to something that is neither
straightforward nor linear—academic writing. Some years
ago, this problem came alive for us when we began talking about the gaps
between how we taught our students to write and how we approached
our own writing. While we taught our students rather formulaic strat-
egies that would approximate academic writing—find a controversy
you’re passionate about; take a strong stand; place a thesis statement in
your introduction; begin paragraphs with topic s entences—we seldom
use those strategies in our own projects. We instead start our research
with questions sparked by reading others’ research; we think about
crafting responses to those questions that move the larger scholarly
conversation forward; we look for gaps and complications. We won-
dered if our students experienced academic writing as we do: creative,
exploratory, and often exciting. Since those early conversations, we have
worked on teaching writing and research in ways that are less mystified
and more real.
So we set out to write a guide that introduces academic writers—
undergraduates, graduate students, and other researchers—to the of-
ten surprising realities of how seasoned scholars research and write.
Though the book contains a fair amount of practical advice, this is not
an advice book. Merely describing what works for us would capture only
our personal preferences or idiosyncrasies. Instead, our project here is
to present a transparent, principled, research-based description of how
ix
x Preface
scholars actually get things written. We offer here not unbreakable rules
but a mindset, not formulas but tools and techniques.
To fulfill this project, we looked to research in writing studies, cog-
nitive psychology, educational psychology, and applied linguistics to
answer questions such as “How do scholars come up with ideas?” and
“How do researchers read their sources?” We also invited a host of pub-
lished researchers to describe how they approach their writing. You’ll
find narratives from scholars in neurobiology, writing studies, law, lit-
erary studies, media studies, library science, music, engineering, and
creative nonfiction. Together, these voices suggest the ways that people
can read and write themselves into belonging in a scholarly community.
We’ve divided each chapter into two sections:
Mindset: The first section of each chapter explains how researchers
think through various challenges. We offer here the principles,
attitudes, and approaches that scholars bring to their research.
Tools & Techniques: The second part of each chapter presents practical
strategies that researchers use at various stages of academic writ-
ing. We describe scholars’ reading methods, research techniques,
and writing practices that you can apply to your own projects.
Each chapter also includes the following features that take you in-
side scholars’ writing practices:
Scholar’s Story: These short narratives highlight expert researchers’
own experiences when tackling common challenges in the
research process. You’ll see that research can be humbling,
maddening, and revelatory even for the experts. These stories
illustrate the ways that professional scholars use the same strate-
gies we describe.
Key Terms: We define the words that describe the sometimes dif-
ficult to identify but crucial concepts and components that drive
academic writing.
Practice: Throughout the book, we offer quick exercises for readers
to practice honing the skills we describe.
Research on Writing: We highlight research in the fields of writing
studies, rhetoric, psychology, and linguistics to explain the ideas
that inform scholars’ approaches to writing, research, and think-
ing. Each includes a takeaway, showing how you might apply the
research to your own writing.
Preface xi
D
on’t let the cover of this book fool you. While it lists just two au-
thors, many people contributed their wisdom and effort. These
acknowledgments reflect the advice we give in the book, which
is to seek out many perspectives that challenge us to complicate think-
ing and clarify writing. We’re fortunate to have a generous community
in which to do that.
Our closest collaborator was Shyanne Figueroa Bennett. As our re-
search assistant, Shyanne read every word of this manuscript multiple
times and helped us not only catch mistakes but sharpen our explana-
tions. We relied on her keen-eyed notes in the margins to better envi-
sion how readers would experience each chapter. In future years, we
look forward to reading books with her name on the cover.
Our thinking about writing and teaching has been shaped in pro-
found ways by our colleagues in the Columbia University Undergradu-
ate Writing Program—Nicole Wallack, Glenn Michael Gordon, and
Jason Ueda—whose thoughts have helped shape this book, likely in
more ways than they realize. We hope that the pages that follow capture
some of the wisdom and compassion they bring to their work every day.
Throughout this process, we have also relied on Undergraduate
Writing Program colleagues to read chapter drafts and talk through the
challenges of putting slippery concepts into accessible language. Thank
you to Allen Durgin, Vanessa Guida, Valerie Seiling Jacobs, Xander
Landfair, Simon Porzak, Abby Rabinowitz, Hal Sundt, Avia Tadmor,
xiii
xiv Acknowledgments
SCHOLAR’S STORY
Neurobiologist Stuart Firestein on Discovering Better
Ignorance
One evening in graduate school more than thirty years ago, I was alone in
the laboratory, finishing up some experiments that hadn’t been going so
well. I was trying to record the electrical responses of a single cell in the
olfactory system exposed to a tiny amount of an odor. Suddenly, or so it
seemed after fourteen straight hours of recording unsuccessfully from one
cell after another, I pushed the button that delivered a little puff of odor,
and the single brain cell produced this simple and beautiful response.
A long, slow, curved line appeared on the oscilloscope, representing
the electrical response of this living cell to the odor. At that moment I was
the only person on the planet who knew this response existed. It was curi-
ously sobering—like I should be careful tonight because I won’t be able
to show this to anyone until tomorrow, and what a pity if I should get run
down by a bus. So I walked home, carefully, with this silly thought in my
head and began going over what had just happened.
I realized that the crucial thing was not what I had seen in the lab
but what this simple discovery would allow me to do for the next few
continued
1
2 How Scholars Write
photo 1.1
Ballerina Misty Copeland performs difficult moves seemingly effortlessly. Copeland writes
in her 2014 memoir that she still takes class every day: “It never becomes boring, even
though I’ve done all these movements in this very studio a million times over thirteen
years. It’s my safe place, where I can experiment . . . It’s the time to push myself beyond my
limits so that my performances can feel effortless, fresh” (3).
Many thinkers have noted the ways that a display of easy mastery
is in fact a crafted performance. During the Renaissance, Baldesar
Castiglione coined a word for this kind of practiced ease: sprezza-
tura. Castiglione portrayed the ideal courtier as someone who pos-
sessed sprezzatura in all things and appeared to perform duties “nat-
urally and without any effort” (34). With this book, we hope to help
you practice sprezzatura in your own research and writing. We treat
writing not as an innate talent but rather a learned skill that offers the
appearance of ease only through informed practice.
“Knowledgeable Ignorance”
In Ignorance, a book about the real work that scientists do, Stuart
Firestein offers examples of scholars who contributed to the world’s
knowledge precisely because they were able to recognize their own
ignorance. Firestein makes the distinction between “willful stupidity”
and “knowledgeable ignorance” (6, 7). People display willful stupidity
4 How Scholars Write
when they cling to beliefs and practices even in the face of opposing
evidence (11). Individuals display knowledgeable ignorance, on the
other hand, when they seek out what they don’t know (11). Knowledge-
able ignorance is researched and informed—mindful not only of what
the researcher doesn’t yet know but also of what the larger community
of scholars doesn’t yet know. Firestein’s description of ignorance asks us
to redefine our notion of expertise: being an expert is not to have all the
answers but to articulate compelling questions.
Indeed, many academic articles conclude not with definitive an-
swers but with the promise of new avenues of inquiry. For instance, in
their article “Modeling the Past: Digital Technologies and Excavations
in Polis, Cyprus,” archaeologist Joanna S. Smith and computer scien-
tist Szymon M. Rusinkiewicz detail the methods behind their three-
dimensional drawings of ancient buildings and artifacts. Their final
paragraph raises new questions that their research prompts:
The project led us to ask new questions in archaeology and computer
graphics that point to new directions for the study and exhibition of
cultural heritage through digital technologies. Importantly, it has be-
gun to suggest approaches for representing uncertainty and change.
In computer graphics, the fragmentary nature of archaeological re-
mains continues to inspire new ideas about how best to represent
and reconstruct them. Archaeologically, the modeling has led to new
ideas about these buildings, their urban contexts, and contemporary
structures. (421)
Smith and Rusinkiewicz use the word “new” four times in their con-
cluding paragraph. Instead of emphasizing definitive findings, they fo-
cus on the questions that became possible to ask only as a result of their
findings. Their ignorance has become more knowledgeable, and they
can now ask new questions that are important for the fields of computer
graphics and archaeology.
Many writers recognize how difficult it is to push toward ignorance.
Nobel Prize-winning psychologist Daniel Kahneman writes, “sustain-
ing doubt is harder work than sliding into certainty” (114). It is no easy
task to remain unsettled and open-minded, especially when your even-
tual goal may be to make a confident, convincing claim. Nineteenth-
century poet John Keats referred to the hard work of sustaining doubt
as “negative capability,” which he described as “when man is capable of
The Pursuit of Ignorance 5
Problems
Throughout this book, we’ll use the word “problem” in a specialized way.
By “problem,” we don’t mean mistake or fault. We mean an intellectual
tension that merits resolving. When scholars analyze a text—a novel, a
building, a journal article, a film, a performance, an event—they’re min-
ing for problems. They search for tensions or dissonances: things that
don’t quite fit together in expected ways. Scholars then work to make
sense of the tensions or dissonances. If the scholar can show how mak-
ing sense of the problem matters to others, it can become the founda-
tion of a research project. Stuart Firestein, for instance, used a problem
that he noticed in the laboratory—why does a brain cell respond in this
particular way to this particular smell?—to launch an array of research
projects that help other researchers understand how the brain processes
odors. As we move through this book, we’ll return to the idea of a prob-
lem. In Chapter 2, we’ll look at some examples of scholarly problems.
We’ll ask, “How can we come up with problems? How can we best artic-
ulate these problems? How can we show why readers should care about
these problems?”
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justice and honour grant, for he already felt that it would be
impossible to refuse them.
Although struck with awe on coming into the presence of their
sovereign, the easy condescension and affability of James soon
restored them to comparative tranquillity; and the widow told her
“plain, unvarnished tale” with such artless simplicity, and moving
pathos, as would have made an impression on a less partial auditor
than his Majesty. When she came to state the result of Mary’s
application to Sir John, she paused, blushed, and still remained
silent. James instantly conjectured the cause, which was confirmed
when he saw Mary’s face crimsoned all over.
Suppressing his indignation, “Well, I shall be soon in Annandale,”
said he, “and will endeavour to do you justice. Look at this
nobleman,” pointing to one in the chamber; “when I send him for
you, come to me where he shall guide. In the meantime, he will find
you safe lodgings for the night, and give you sufficient to bear your
expenses home, whither I wish you to return as soon as possible, and
be assured that your case shall not be forgotten.”
It is generally known that James, with a love of justice, had a
considerable share of eccentricity in his character, and that he
frequently went over the country in various disguises—such as that of
a pedlar, an itinerant musician, or even a wandering beggar. These
disguises were sometimes assumed for the purpose of discovering
the abuses practised by his servants, and not unfrequently from the
love of frolic, and, like the Caliph in the “Arabian Nights,” in quest of
amusement. On these occasions, when he chose to discover himself,
it was always by the designation of the “Gudeman of Ballengeich”. He
had a private passage by which he could leave the palace, unseen by
any one, and he could make his retreat alone, or accompanied by a
disguised attendant, according to his inclination.
On the present occasion, he determined to visit the warden of the
March incog.; and, making the necessary arrangements, he soon
arrived in Annandale. His inquiries concerning the widow and Mary
corroborated the opinion he had previously formed, and learning
where Mary resided, he resolved to repair thither in person,
disguised as a mendicant. On approaching the farmer’s, he had to
pass a rivulet, at which there was a girl washing linen, and a little
observation convinced him it was Mary Morrison. When near, he
pretended to be taken suddenly ill, and sat down on a knoll, groaning
piteously. Mary came instantly to him, tenderly enquiring what ailed
him, and whether she could render him any assistance. James
replied, it was a painful distemper, by which he was frequently
attacked; but if she could procure him a draught of warm milk, that,
and an hour’s rest, would relieve him. Mary answered, that if he
could, with her assistance, walk to the farm, which she pointed out
near by, he would be kindly cared for. She assisted him to rise, and,
taking his arm, permitted him to lean upon her shoulder, as they
crept slowly along. He met much sympathy in the family, and there
he heard the history of Mary and Wallace Maxwell (not without
execrations on the warden for his indolence), and their affirmations
that they were sure, if the king knew how he neglected his duty, he
would either be dismissed or severely punished; although the former
had spoken plainer than others whom James had conversed with, he
found that Sir John was generally disliked, and he became impatient
for the hour of retribution.
Marching back towards Dumfries, James rendezvoused for the
night in a small village called Duncow, in the parish of Kirkmahoe,
and next morning he set out for Amisfield, which lay in the
neighbourhood, disguised as a beggar. Part of his retinue he left in
Duncow, and part he ordered to lie in wait in a ravine near Amisfield
till he should require their attendance. Having cast away his beggar’s
cloak, he appeared at the gate of the warden’s castle in the dress of a
plain countryman, and requested the porter to procure him an
immediate audience of Sir John. But he was answered that the
warden had just sat down to dinner, during which it was a standing
order that he should never be disturbed on any pretence whatever.
“And how long will he sit?” said James.
“Two hours, perhaps three; he must not be intruded on till his bell
ring,” replied the porter.
“I am a stranger, and cannot wait so long; take this silver groat,
and go to your master, and say that I wish to see him on business of
importance, and will detain him only a few minutes.”
The porter delivered the message, and soon returned, saying—“Sir
John says, that however important your business may be, you must
wait his time, or go the way you came.”
“That is very hard. Here are two groats; go again, and say that I
have come from the Border, where I saw the English preparing for an
incursion, and have posted thither with the information; and that I
think he will be neglecting his duty if he do not immediately fire the
beacons and alarm the country.”
This message was also carried, and the porter returned with a
sorrowful look, and shaking head.
“Well, does the warden consent to see me?” said the anxious
stranger, who had gained the porter’s goodwill by his liberality.
“I beg your pardon, friend,” replied the menial; “but I must give Sir
John’s answer in his own words. He says if you choose to wait two
hours he will then see whether you are a knave or a fool; but if you
send another such impertinent message to him, both you and I shall
have cause to repent it. However, for your civility, come with me, and
I will find you something to eat and a horn of good ale, to put off the
time till Sir John can be seen.”
“I give you hearty thanks, my good fellow, but, as I said, I cannot
wait. Here, take these three groats; go again to the warden, and say
that the Gudeman of Ballengeich insists upon seeing him
immediately.”
No sooner was the porter’s back turned, than James winded his
buglehorn so loudly that its echoes seemed to shake the castle walls;
and the porter found his master in consternation, which his message
changed into fear and trembling.
By the time the warden had reached the gate, James had thrown
off his coat, and stood arrayed in the garb and insignia of royalty,
while his train of nobles were galloping up in great haste. When they
were collected around him, the king, for the first time, condescended
to address the terrified warden, who had prostrated himself at the
feet of his sovereign.
“Rise, Sir John,” said he, with a stern and commanding air. “You
bade your porter tell me that I was either knave or fool, and you were
right, for I have erred in delegating my power to a knave like you.”
In tremulous accents the warden attempted to excuse himself by
stammering out that he did not know he was wanted by his Majesty.
“But I sent you a message that I wished to speak with you on
business of importance, and you refused to be disturbed. The
meanest of my subjects has access to me at all times. I hear before I
condemn, and shall do so with you, against whom I have many and
heavy charges.”
“Will it please your Majesty to honour my humble dwelling with
your presence, and afford me an opportunity of speaking in my own
defence?” said the justly alarmed warden.
“No, Sir John, I will not enter beneath that roof as a judge, where I
was refused admission as a petitioner. I hold my court at Hoddam
Castle, where I command your immediate attendance; where I will
hear your answer to the charges I have against you. In the meantime,
before our departure, you will give orders for the entertainment of
my retinue, men and horses, at your castle, during my stay in
Annandale.”
The king then appointed several of the lords in attendance to
accompany him to Hoddam Castle, whither he commanded the
warden to follow him with all possible despatch.
Sir John was conscious of negligence, and even something worse,
in the discharge of his duty, although ignorant of the particular
charges to be brought against him; but when ushered into the
presence of his sovereign, he endeavoured to assume the easy
confidence of innocence.
James proceeded to business, by inquiring if there was not a recent
incursion of a small marauding party, in which a poor widow’s cow
was carried off, her house plundered, and her son taken prisoner;
and if she did not early next morning state this to him, requesting
him to recover her property.
“Did you, Sir John, do your utmost in the case?”
“I acknowledge I did not; but the widow shall have the best cow in
my possession, and her house furnished anew. I hope that will satisfy
your Majesty.”
“And her son, how is he to be restored?”
“When we have the good fortune to make an English prisoner, he
can be exchanged.”
“Mark me! Sir John. If Wallace Maxwell is not brought before me
in good health within a week from this date, you shall hang by the
neck from that tree waving before the window. I have no more to say
at present. Be ready to wait on me in one hour when your presence is
required.”
The warden knew the determined resolution of the king, and
instantly despatched a confidential servant, vested with full powers
to procure the liberation of Wallace Maxwell, at whatever price, and
to bring him safely back without a moment’s delay. In the meantime,
the retinue of men and horses, amounting to several hundreds, were
living at free quarters, in Sir John’s castle, and the visits of the king
diffusing gladness and joy over the whole country.
Next morning James sent the young nobleman, whom he had
pointed out to the widow at Stirling, to bring her and Mary Morrison
to Hoddam Castle. He received both with easy condescension; when
the widow, with much grateful humility, endeavoured to express her
thanks, saying that Sir John had last evening sent her a cow worth
double that she had lost; also blankets, and other articles of higher
value than all that had been carried away; but, with tears in her eyes,
she said, all these were as nothing without her dear son. Assuring
them that their request had not been neglected, James dismissed
them, with the joyful hope of soon seeing Wallace, as he would send
for them immediately on his arrival.
The distress of the warden increased every hour, for he was a
prisoner in his own castle; and his feelings may be conjectured, when
he received a message from the king, commanding him to come to
Hoddam Castle next day by noon, and either bring Wallace Maxwell
along with him, or prepare for a speedy exit into the next world. He
had just seen the sun rise, of which it seemed probable he should
never see the setting, when his servant arrived with Wallace, whose
liberty had been purchased at an exorbitant ransom. Without
allowing the young man to rest, Sir John hurried him off to Hoddam
Castle, and sent in a message that he waited an audience of his
Majesty.
To make sure of the youth’s identity, the king sent instantly for his
mother, and the meeting called forth all the best feelings of his heart,
for maternal affection triumphed over every other emotion, and it
was only after the first ebullition of it had subsided, that she bade
him kneel to his sovereign, to whom he owed his liberty, and most
probably his life. Wallace gracefully bent his knee, and took Heaven
to witness that both should be devoted to his Majesty’s service.
James was delighted with the manly appearance and gallant
behaviour of Wallace; and, after having satisfied himself of the
sincerity of his attachment to Mary, he ordered him to withdraw.
He next despatched a messenger for Mary, who, the moment she
came, was ushered into the presence of Sir John; James marking the
countenance of both,—that of Mary flushed with resentment, while
her eye flashed with indignant fire. The pale and deadly hue which
overspread the warden’s cheek was a tacit acknowledgment of his
guilt.
“Do you know that young woman, Sir John? Reply to my questions
truly; and be assured that your life depends upon the sincerity of
your answers,” said the king, in a determined and stern voice.
“Yes, my liege, I have seen her,” said Sir John, his lip quivering,
and his tongue faltering.
“Where?”
“At Amisfield.”
“On what occasion?”
“She came to me for the release of Wallace Maxwell.”
“And you refused her, except upon conditions which were an insult
to her, and a disgrace to yourself. Speak; is it not so?”
“To my shame, my sovereign, I confess my guilt; but I am willing
to make all the reparation in my power; and I leave it to be named by
your Majesty.”
“You deserve to be hanged, Sir John; but when I look on that face,
I acknowledge your temptation, and it pleads a mitigation of
punishment. You know that Mary loves and is beloved by Wallace
Maxwell, whom you have already ransomed; you shall give him a
farm of not less than fifty acres of good land, rent-free, during his
life, or that of the woman he marries; and, further, you shall stock it
with cattle, and every article necessary, with a comfortable dwelling;
—all this you shall perform within three months from this date. If
you think these conditions hard, I give you the alternative of
swinging from that tree before sunset. Take your choice.”
“My sovereign, I submit to the conditions, and promise that I shall
do my best to make the couple happy.”
Wallace was now called in, when Mary clasped him in her arms,
both falling on their knees before their sovereign. He raised them up
and said, “I have tried both your loves, and found them faithful. Your
Mary is all that you believed her, and brings you a dowry which she
will explain. I shall see your hands united before I leave Annandale,
and preside at the feast. Let your care of the widow be a
remuneration for what she has done for both, and I trust all of you
will long remember the Gudeman of Ballengeich’s visit to
Annandale.”—Edinburgh Literary Gazette.
THE ALEHOUSE PARTY:
A CHAPTER FROM AN UNPUBLISHED
NOVEL.
On the evening of that day which saw Mrs Wallace enter Park a
bride, Robin Kinniburgh and a number of his cronies met at the
village alehouse to celebrate the happy event. Every chair, stool, and
bench being occupied, Robin and his chum, Tammy Tacket, took
possession of the top of the meal girnel; and as they were elevated
somewhat above the company, they appeared like two rival provosts,
looking down on their surrounding bailies.
“It’s a gude thing,” said Tammy, “that the wives and weans are
keepit out the night; folk get enough o’ them at hame.”
“I wonder,” said Jamie Wilson, “what’s become o’ Andrew
Gilmour.”
“Hae ye no heard,” said Robin, “that his wife died yesterday?”
“Is she dead?” exclaimed Tammy Tacket. “Faith,” continued he,
giving Robin a jog with his elbow, “I think a man might hae waur
furniture in his house than a dead wife.”
“That’s a truth,” replied Jamie Wilson, “as mony an honest man
kens to his cost.—But send round the pint stoup, and let us hae a
health to the laird and the leddy, and mony happy years to them and
theirs.”
When the applause attending this toast had subsided, Robin was
universally called on for a song.
“I hae the hoast,” answered Robin; “that’s aye what the leddies say
when they are asked to sing.”
“Deil a hoast is about you,” cried Wattie Shuttle; “come awa wi’ a
sang without mair ado.”
“Weel,” replied Robin, “what maun be, maun be; so I’ll gie ye a
sang that was made by a laddie that lived east-awa; he was aye
daundering, poor chiel, amang the broomie knowes, and mony’s the
time I hae seen him lying at the side o’ the wimpling burn, writing on
ony bit paper he could get haud o’. After he was dead, this bit sang
was found in his pocket, and his puir mother gied it to me, as a kind
o’ keepsake; and now I’ll let you hear it,—I sing it to the tune o’ ‘I hae
laid a herrin’ in saut.’”
Song.
It’s I’m a sweet lassie, without e’er a faut;
Sae ilka ane tells me,—sae it maun be true;
To his kail my auld faither has plenty o’ saut,
And that brings the lads in gowpens to woo.
There’s Saunders M‘Latchie, wha bides at the Mill,
He wants a wee wifie, to bake and to brew;
But Saunders, for me, at the Mill may stay still,
For his first wife was pushioned, if what they say’s true.