2.2 Strcuture and Function of Cardiovascular System

SPORT, EXCERSISE & HEALTH
SCIENCE
TOPIC Nº 2 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
2.2 Structure and Function of the

Cardiovascular System
(12 hours)
Prof. MSc. María Carla Cuende Fanton
2.2.1 State the composition of blood
Blood is composed of cells: • Erythrocytes • Platelets, and
• Leucocytes, • Plasma.
Blood is the transport vehicle for

electrolytes, proteins, gases, nutrients,
waste products and hormones.
• Transports nutrients, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, waste products and hormones
to cells and organs around the body.
• Protects us from bleeding to death, via
clotting, and from disease, by
destroying invasive micro-organisms
and toxic substances.
• Acts as a regulator of temperature, the
water content in cells, and body pH.
2.2.1 State the composition of blood
Video 1: Blood
Composition: Components
and Function
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bh5GHLo8seA&ab_
channel=JohnThomas
2.2.2 Distinguish between the functions of erythrocytes
(RBC), leucocytes (WBC) and platelets
• Erythrocytes: Make up 40-45% of the
blood volume known as hematocrit.
Contain an oxygen-carrying pigment
called haemoglobin, which gives blood
its red color.
• Leucocytes: White blood cells <1% of

blood volume, primarily involved in
immune function and protecting body
from infection. They do this by ingesting
foreign microbes in a process called
phagocytosis.
• Platelets: <1% of blood volume. Assist in

the process of repair following an injury.
2.2.2 Distinguish between the functions of erythrocytes
(RBC), leucocytes (WBC) and platelets
Video 2: Red Blood Cell Function

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h8yAcKruJwU&t=1s&ab_channel=
JohnThomas
Video 3: White Blood Cell Function

Overview
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UoKBHN9ZxMA&ab_channel=Joh
nThomas
Video 4: Blood Platelets Function

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KtmHdGRBE2E&t=1s&ab_channel
=JohnThomas
Video 5: Plasma
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KtmHdGRBE2E&t=1s&ab_channel
=JohnThomas
2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference
to the heart chambers, valves and major blood vessels
• Heart: Involuntary muscle

with striated muscle fibers
(myocardium).
• Atria: (left & right) receiving blood

from the body. Have thin walls
because they only have to
pump to the ventricles.
• Ventricles: (left & right) they are thick as they propel blood from the
heart to body.
• Valves: prevent backflow by shutting when the heart relaxes
1. Atrioventricular valves (tricuspid & bicuspid/mitral)
2. Pulmonary and Aortic Semilunar Valve
The heart has it’s own blood supply via the coronary arteries.
• It branches off the aorta.
• It also has its own set of veins.
Process: Picture - 4 chambers:
• Right atrium
1. Superior vena cava • Right
2. Right atrium ventricle
3. Tricuspid valve • Left atrium
4. Right ventricle • Left ventricle
5. Pulmonary valve
6. Pulmonary artery
7. Lungs (deoxygenated gets oxygenated)
8. Pulmonary veins
9. Left atrium
10.Mitral valve
11. Left ventricle
12. Aortic valve
13.Aorta
2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and
the sequence of excitation of the heart muscles
• Intrinsic Regulation Of The Heart: Refers to mechanisms contained
within the heart itself. The force of contraction produced by cardiac muscle is
related to the degree of stretch of cardiac muscle fibers.
• Extrinsic Regulation Of The Heart: Refers to mechanisms external to the
heart, such as either nervous or chemical regulation.
• Nervous Regulation: Baroreceptor Reflex.
• Chemical Regulation: Chemoreceptor Reflex.
Intrinsic control
Extrinsic control
• Control is entirely from within the tissue
or organ.
• Control is from outside of the tissue
• Uses paracrines or properties of muscle
or organ.
tissue.
• Uses nerves or hormones.
• Also known as autoregulation or local
control
• Stroke volumen in hearth.

Examples where both control mechanisms occur:
• Arteriolar diameter.
Intrinsic Regulation Of The Heart
• The heart is able beat spookly after being separated from the
body from it’s owner (as seen in horror films) is not totally a
product of overactive imaginations.
• The hearth can actually continue to beat for a number of hours if
supplied with appropriate nutrients and salts.
• This is because the hearth has it’s own specialized conduction
system and can beat independently of it’s nerve suplly.
Intrinsic Regulation Of The Heart
• Starts in the right atrium,
• A cardiac impulse is initiated from the sinoatrial (SA) node
(pacemaker),
• The impulse causes the atria to contract,
• Cardiac impulse reaches and activates the atrioventricular (AV)
node,
• This passes the impulse down Bundle of His (in the septum of the
heart),
• Bundle of his splits left and right, up around the heart (Purkinje
fibers),
• The impulse is spread around the walls of ventricles causing them
to contract,
• Ventricles relax and the cycle starts again.
Video 6: Conduction system of the heart
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TnFoJ7Hhi-
M&ab_channel=Dr.GBhanuPrakashAnimatedMedicalVideos
Conduction system
• When the hearts beats, the blood needs to flow
through it in a controlled manner, in through the
atria and out through the ventricles.
• Hearth muscles is described as being myogenic,
since the beat starts in the hearth muscles itself
with electrical signal in the sinoatrial node
(pacemaker).
• This electrical signal

then spreads through
the hearth in what is
often described as a
wave of excitation.
Conduction system
• From the sinoatrial node, the electrical
signal spreads through the walls of the
atria, causing them to contract and
forcing blood into ventricles.
• The signal then passes through the
atrioventricular node found in the
atrioventricular septum and down
through some specialised fibres, wich
form the bundle of His.
• This is located in the septum separating the two ventricles.
• The bundle of His branches out into two bundle branches and then
into smaller bundles called Purkynje Fibres, wich spread
throughout the ventricles, causing them to contract.
Conduction system
Cardiac Cycle
• The complete sequence of events from the beginnin of one heart
beat to the beginnin of the next.
• An electrical impulse (depolarization event) is conducted through the
myocardium causing the cardiac cycle.
• Systolic/Diastolic (Contraction/Relaxation) pressures in the ventricles.
Extrinsic Regulation Of The Heart
• Although the heart is capable of beating
independently of body control systems, in
order to adapt its rate to the changing needs
of the body it is carefully regulated by the
nervous system.
• A number of other factors, including
hormones, ion concetration and change
in body temperature con inlfuence heart
rate.
• The heart is innervated by parasympathetic
nerves that slow it’s rate, and
• By sympathetic nerves that speed it up.
• Parasympathetic innervation
originates in the cardiac centers in
the medulla and passes to the
heart by way of the vagus nerves.
• Vagus nerve fibres richly supply the
SA and AV nodes.
• When stimulated, these
parasympathetic nerves reléase
acetylcholine, which slows the
heart.
*Acetylcholine is the chief neurotransmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system that
contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily secretions, and slows heart
rate.
• Sympathetic nerves that serve
the heart originate in the upper
thoracic spinal cord and reach the
myocardium by way of several
nerves sometimes called
accelerator nerves.
• These nerves supply the nodes and
also the muscle fibres themselves.
• When estimulated, they reléase
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) is a hormone
norepinephrine, wich increase that is released predominantly from the ends of
sympathetic nerve fibres and that acts to
the heart rate as well as the increase the force of skeletal muscle contraction
strength of ventricular contraction. and the rate and force of contraction of the
heart.
• Norepinephrine is released from
the adrenal medulla of the
adrenal glands as a hormone into
the blood it’s also a
neurotransmitter in the central
nervous system where it’s released
from noradrenergic neurons during
synaptic transmission.
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) is a hormone

that is released predominantly from the ends of
sympathetic nerve fibres and that acts to
increase the force of skeletal muscle contraction
and the rate and force of contraction of the
heart.
• Autonomic Nervous System: Responsible for control of
involuntary or visceral bodily functions. Comprises the
sympathetic system (stimulates the heart to beat faster) and the
parasympathetic system (returns the heart to its resting rate).
The cardiac control center controls these two systems. The
cardiac control system is located in the medulla oblongata of the
brain.
• Sympathetic Nervous System:

Stimulates the heart to beat
faster; due to multiple factors.
During exercise, 3 receptors are
stimulated; proprioceptors,
baroreceptors, chemoreceptors.
The receptors send impulses
(action potentials) to the cardiac
control center (medulla oblongata),
which then sends an impulse
through the sympathetic nervous
system to stimulate the SA node
of the heart where the heart rate
increases.
• Parasympathetic Nervous
System: When exercise stops,
the receptors pick up decreases
in CO2 levels, blood pressure
and muscle movement; hence
impulses are sent to the cardiac
control center (medulla oblongata).
An impulse is sent to the

parasympathetic nervous
system which stimulates the SA
node and heart rate decreases.
Hormonal Control
• Adrenaline and noradrenaline are stress hormones.
• Released by adrenal glands
• Exercise causes stress induced adrenaline response which results
in:
 Stimulation of SA node, which results in increased speed
and force of contraction.
 Increase in blood pressure due to constriction of blood
vessels.
 Increase in blood glucose levels (glucose is used by muscles for
energy)
2.2.5 Outline the relationship between the pulmonary
and systematic circulation
• Pulmonary circulation: is the

portion of the cardiovascular
system that carries oxygen-depleted
blood away from the heart and to
the lungs and then returns it,
oxygenated, back to the heart.
• Systematic circulation: is the

portion of the cardiovascular
system that carries the oxygenated
blood away from the heart and
delivers it to the body. It also carries
the deoxygenated blood after use
back to the heart to be re-
oxygenated.
Pulmonary and Systemic circulation
Blood vessels:
• Arteries: Transport oxygenated blood away from heart (e.g.
Pulmonary artery)
• Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart (e.g. Pulmonary
vein)
• Capillaries: Carry food and oxygen to tissues, carry waste away.
ARTERIES VEINS
Carry oxygenated Carry deoxygenated
Oxygen blood (with the exception blood (with the exception
concentration of the pulmonary and of pulmonary and umbilical
umbilical artery). veins).
Superficial, Deep,
Pulmonary and
Types Pulmonary and
Systemic arteries.
Systemic veins.
FROM the heart to
Direction of blood From various parts of
various parts of the
flow the body TO the heart
body.
Aren’t present (except Are present,

Valves
for semi-lunar valves) especially in limbs.
2.2.6 Describe the relationship between heart rate, cardiac output and
stroke volume at rest and during exercise
• Heart Rate: (HR) Number of times the heart beats per minute
(bpm)
• Stroke Volume: (SV) Amount of blood pumped by each ventricle
per beat (liters)
• Cardiac Output: (Q) Amount of blood pumped from the heart in
one minute (liters)
Basal Heart Rate: when HR is reduced to a min (ex. sleeping)
Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate Q = SV x HR
When the body starts to exercise there is a higher demand of oxygen, causing heart
rate, stroke volume and cardiac output to increase
2.2.6 Describe the relationship between heart rate, cardiac output and
stroke volume at rest and during exercise
Ok so if Cardiac Output is calculated by…Q = SV x HR then…
How is Stroke Volume Calculated?
Cardiac Output (Q)
Stroke Volume (SV) = -----------------------------------------------
Heart Rate (HR)
2.2.7 Analyze cardiac output, stroke volume, and heart rate data for
different populations at rest and during exercise.
Cardiac Output: Because stroke volume increases, cardiac output
increases simultaneously with the increase in heart rate and the
body beings to work harder.
• An increase of body temperature results in a lower venous

return to the heart, a small decrease in blood volume from
sweating. A reduction in stroke volume causes the heart rate
to increase to maintain cardiac output.
• Blood viscosity, if the blood is

thinker and more viscous, it
makes it more difficult to be
returned back (up gravity) to
the heart to pick up more
oxygen.
Cardiac Output
Stroke volume
• Increases according to how you exercise because your body needs
more oxygen and nourishment, which are both received from the
blood.
• Increases depending on the type of physical activity your are doing

and your training level.
• During an upright physical activity like jogging, stroke volume

increases from about 50 mL at rest to 120 mL at maximal exercise
intensity.
• In a trained Olympic runner, stroke volume can increase from 80

mL at rest to 200 mL during maximal exercise intensity as the
heart pumps more efficiently.
Heart Rate (HR) – Stroke Volume (SV) & Cardiac Output (Q)
Library Research:
• Complete a review of literature analyzing cardiac output, stroke

volume and heart rate data for different populations.
IMPORTANT CITE YOUR SOURCES!!!!!
• Populations to consider include: Males/Females, Trained/Untrained

& Young/Old people.
• Males vs. Females
 Females have a higher Heart rate than those of men at max.
 Their stroke volume is lower than that of men at max.
 Their cardiac output is lower than men at max.
• Young vs. Old
 Older people do have a slightly higher cardiac output than
children.
 Children have a higher over all heart rate and lower stroke volume
 Adults have lower heart rate but higher stroke volume
• Trained vs. Untrained
 A trained person has a higher cardiac output than a untrained
person
 The trained resting heart rate is lower at rest but same at max
 The stroke volume is always higher for a trained
2.2.8 Explain cardiovascular drift
• Is the progressive increase in heart rate and decrease in stroke
volume that begins after approximately 10 min of prolonged
moderate-intensity exercise, is associated with decreased
maximal oxygen uptake, particularly during heat stress.
• Consequently, the increased heart rate reflects an increased

relative metabolic intensity during prolonged exercise in the heat
when cardiovascular drift occurs, which has implications for
exercise prescription.
• An increase of body temperature results in a lower venous return
to the heart, a small decrease in blood volume from sweating. A
reduction in stroke volume causes the heart rate to increase to
maintain cardiac output.
• Blood viscosity, if the blood is thicker and more viscous, it makes it

more difficult to be returned back (up gravity) to the heart to pick
up more oxygen.
• If you begin a 90 minute steady state ride on your bike at a
controlled intensity, your heart rate may be 145 after 10 minutes.
• However, as you ride and check your heart rate every 10 minutes,
you will notice a slight upward “drift”.
• By 90 minutes, your heart rate may be 160. Why is this happening if
intensity is held constant?
 There are two explanations. As you exercise, you sweat. A
portion of this lost fluid volume comes from the plasma
volume. This decrease in plasma volume will diminish:
1. Venous return, and
2. Stroke volume.
Venous return mechanism:
• Is the transport of blood to the right side of the heart via the
veins.
• Up to 70% of the total blood volume is contained in the veins at
rest.
• This provides a large reservoir of blood, which can be returned
rapidly to the heart when needed.
• The heart can only pump as much blood as it receives, so cardiac
output is dependent on venous return.
• A rapid increase in venous return enables a significant increase
in stroke volume and therefore cardiac output.
• Veins have a large lumen and often little resistance to blood
flow.
• Blood pressure is low by the time blood enters the veins. This
mean that active mechanisms are needed to help venous return.
Mechanisms that help!

1. Skeletal muscle pump: When muscles contract and relax, they change
shape. This change in shape means that the muscles press on the nearby
veins, causing a pumping effect and squeezing the blood towards the heart.
2. Respiratory pump: When muscles contract and relax during the

inspiration and expiration process, pressure changes occur in the thoracic
and abdominal cavities. These pressure changes compress the nearby veins
and assist the flow of blood back to the heart.
Mechanisms that help!

3. Valves: It is important that blood in the veins flows in only one direction. The
valves ensure that this happens. Once the blood has passed through the
valves, they close to prevent the flowing back.
4. Smooth muscle: There is a very thin layer of smooth muscle in the walls of
the veins. This helps to squeeze blood back.
5. Gravity: This assists the flow of blood from body parts above the heart.
VIDEO 6: Mechanisms of Venous Return, Animation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKJr5uqPv5s&ab_channel=AlilaMedicalMedia
Venous return and exercise:

• Venous return must be maintained during exercise to ensure that
the skeletal muscles receive enough oxygen to meet the demands
of the activity.
• At rest, the valves and the smooth muscle in veins are sufficient to
maintain venous return.
• During exercise, the demand for oxygen is greater and the heart
beats faster, so the skeletal muscle pump and respiratory pump
are required to help out.
• This is possible during exercise because the skeletal muscles are
constantly contracting and breathing rate is elevated.
• This mechanisms need to be maintained immediately after
exercise.
• Performing an active cool-down keeps the skeletal muscle pump
and respiratory pump working, thus preventing the blood from
pooling.
2.2.9 Define the terms systolic and diastolic blood
pressure.
Let’s first define BLOOD PRESSURE
Is the pressure of the blood within the arteries. It’s produced
primarily by contraction of the heart muscle. It’s measurement is
recorded by two numbers.
• Systolic
• Diastolic
2.2.9 Define the terms systolic and diastolic blood
pressure.
Systolic blood pressure:
• The force exerted by the blood on the arterial walls during
ventricular contraction.
• The top number, which is also the higher of the two numbers.
Diastolic blood pressure:

• The force exerted by the blood on the arterial walls during
ventricular relaxation.
• The bottom number, which is also the lower of the two
numbers.
2.2.10 Analyze systolic and diastolic blood pressure data
at rest and during exercise.
 During exercise and rest the diameter of the arteries,
arterioles, and opening/closing of capillaries needs to be
carefully regulated to keep blood pressure at a sufficient level
to ensure cardiovascular function.
 Achieved by involuntary control of the smooth muscle inside

the circulatory system.
 If all of this smooth muscle relaxed then there would not be
sufficient pressure to return blood to the heart.
 The nervous system and cardiovascular system interact so

there is sufficient relaxation of some vessel walls and contraction
of others to ensure that enough blood is getting to all organs
requiring exchange, yet blood pressure is maintained.
Bottom Line: As muscles work harder, blood pressure will go
up to meet the demands of the muscles needing more blood.
 However we see little or no change in Diastolic BP during

cardiovascular exercise, but we see a normal increase in
Systolic BP.
 During resistance exercise we see an increase in both

Systolic and Diastolic BP.
2.2.11 Discuss how systolic and diastolic blood pressure
respond to static and dynamic exercise.
Although blood pressure goes up during any kind of exercise, the

exact changes are different according to whether the exercise is
static or dynamic.
Static Exercise (or isometric)
Defined as a sustained contraction of a muscle group where the

muscle is contracted but there is no change in muscle length (i.e.
weight lifting, yoga).
Why does Systolic blood pressure increase?
 Volume of blood + contraction rate a larger amount of blood is

being pumped through the arteries with each contraction;
Why does Diastolic blood pressure increase?
 The pressure on the arterial walls is increased even during

relaxation.
 The vasoconstriction creates an increase in pressure.
 Muscles squeeze the veins to promote venous return, by doing

so increases pressure.
 During static exercise, breathing is more constricted, there is

less oxygen and more carbon dioxide, the heart must work
harder to pump the blood it does have to supply the muscles
with sufficient oxygen to continue the static exercise.
Dynamic Exercise
Why does Systolic blood pressure increase at a lower rate?
 The breathing frequency is much higher than in static exercise,

therefore the pressure is not as high as during static exercise.
Why does Diastolic blood pressure remain the same?
 Muscles are moving constantly, no added pressure on constant

contraction
 You are constantly breathing, which allows carbon dioxide to be
quickly expelled
 Arteries are dilated as vasodilation is occurring
2.2.12 Compare the distribution of blood at rest and the
redistribution of blood during exercise.
2.2.13 Describe the cardiovascular adaptation resulting
from endurance exercise training.
Heart Adaptation
• The myocardium
increases in
thickness.
• The left ventricles
internal
dimensions
increase.
Stroke Volume
• The increase in size of the heart enables the left ventricle to
stretch more and thus fill with more blood.
• The increase in muscle wall thickness also increases the
contractility resulting in increased stroke volume at rest and
during exercise, increasing blood supply to the body.
Resting Heart Rate
• As the stroke volume

increases the cardiac
output can remain
constant, therefore
enabling the resting
heart rate to be
lower.
Cardiac Output
• Cardiac output increases exponentially during maximal exercise,

because of increases stroke volume.
• This results in a greater oxygen supply, waste removal and
hence improved endurance performance.
Muscular Adaptations
• Increased capillarization of the

trained muscles.
• Improvements in the vasculature
efficiency.
Blood
• Resting blood pressure decreases

as a result of improved
cardiovascular factors.
• Increase in blood plasma.
• Red blood cell volume and
haemoglobin.
2.2.14 Explain maximal oxygen consumption.
Maximal oxygen consumption represents the functional

capacity of the oxygen transport system and is sometimes
referred to as maximal aerobic power or aerobic capacity.
Fitness can be measured by the volume of oxygen you can

consume while exercising at your maximum capacity.
VO2 max is the maximum amount of oxygen in milliliters, one can

use in one minute per kilogram of body weight.
Those who are ‘fitter’ have higher VO2 max values and can
exercise more intensely than those who are not as well
conditioned.
2.2.14 Explain maximal oxygen consumption.
VO2 max
How well your body can transport and use oxygen during exercise?
VO2 Max Test - What to Expect

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fn3Yr-LS_l0&t=18s
2.2.15 Discuss the variability of maximal oxygen
consumption in selected groups.
Ideal VO2 max scores for various sports
consumption with different modes of exercise.
Numerous studies show that you can increase your VO2 max by
working out at an intensity that raises your heart rate to between
65 and 85% of its maximum for at least 20 minutes three to five
times a week.
Factors affecting VO2 max
The physical limitations that restrict the rate at which energy can
be released aerobically are dependent upon:
• The chemical ability of the muscular cellular tissue system to

use oxygen in breaking down fuels.
• The combined ability of cardiovascular and pulmonary systems
to transport the oxygen to the muscular tissue system.
consumption with different modes of exercise.
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SPORT, EXCERSISE & HEALTH

TOPIC Nº 2 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY

2.2 Structure and Function of the

Blood is the transport vehicle for

• Leucocytes: White blood cells <1% of

• Platelets: <1% of blood volume. Assist in

Video 2: Red Blood Cell Function

Video 3: White Blood Cell Function

Video 4: Blood Platelets Function

• Heart: Involuntary muscle

• Atria: (left & right) receiving blood

• Stroke volumen in hearth.

• This electrical signal

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) is a hormone

• Sympathetic Nervous System:

An impulse is sent to the

• Pulmonary circulation: is the

• Systematic circulation: is the

Aren’t present (except Are present,

Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate Q = SV x HR

• An increase of body temperature results in a lower venous

• Blood viscosity, if the blood is

• Increases depending on the type of physical activity your are doing

• During an upright physical activity like jogging, stroke volume

• In a trained Olympic runner, stroke volume can increase from 80

• Complete a review of literature analyzing cardiac output, stroke

IMPORTANT CITE YOUR SOURCES!!!!!

• Populations to consider include: Males/Females, Trained/Untrained

• Consequently, the increased heart rate reflects an increased

• Blood viscosity, if the blood is thicker and more viscous, it makes it

Mechanisms that help!

2. Respiratory pump: When muscles contract and relax during the

Mechanisms that help!

VIDEO 6: Mechanisms of Venous Return, Animation

Venous return and exercise:

Diastolic blood pressure:

 Achieved by involuntary control of the smooth muscle inside

 The nervous system and cardiovascular system interact so

 However we see little or no change in Diastolic BP during

 During resistance exercise we see an increase in both

Although blood pressure goes up during any kind of exercise, the

Static Exercise (or isometric)

Defined as a sustained contraction of a muscle group where the

Why does Systolic blood pressure increase?

 Volume of blood + contraction rate a larger amount of blood is

Why does Diastolic blood pressure increase?

 The pressure on the arterial walls is increased even during

 The vasoconstriction creates an increase in pressure.

 Muscles squeeze the veins to promote venous return, by doing

 During static exercise, breathing is more constricted, there is

 The breathing frequency is much higher than in static exercise,

Why does Diastolic blood pressure remain the same?

 Muscles are moving constantly, no added pressure on constant

• As the stroke volume

• Cardiac output increases exponentially during maximal exercise,

• Increased capillarization of the

• Resting blood pressure decreases

Maximal oxygen consumption represents the functional

Fitness can be measured by the volume of oxygen you can

VO2 max is the maximum amount of oxygen in milliliters, one can

VO2 Max Test - What to Expect

Factors affecting VO2 max

• The chemical ability of the muscular cellular tissue system to