Regulation of respiration

• Normal rate of breathing: 12-16/min

• Regulation of respiration:
• Neural control
• Chemical control
• Reflex control of respiration
Neural control
• Voluntary system
• Located in cerebral cortex

• Automatic system
• Ondine’s curse
• Automatic control is sometimes disrupted without loss of
voluntary control
• Automatic system
• Located in brainstem
• Consists of 2 types of
neurons: a) I-neurons b) E-
neurons

• Medullary respiratory center

• Pontine respiratory center
Medullary respiratory center
• Dorsal respiratory group of
neurons (DRG)

• Ventral respiratory group of

neurons (VRG)

• Pre-botzinger complex
(Pacemaker cell)
Dorsal respiratory group of neurons
(DRG)
• Located in the dorsal portion of the
medulla

• Its neurons are located within the

nucleus of the tractus solitarius and
adjacent reticular formation

• Consists of I-neurons inspiration

Inspiratory ramp signal
• The nervous signal that is transmitted to
the inspiratory muscles increases steadily
in a ramp manner for about 2 seconds

• Ceases abruptly for the next 3 secs (turns

off excitation of the diaphragm) to cause
expiration

• Cycle repeats…
• Provides rhythmic drive
(inspiratory ramp) to the
diaphgram via the phrenic
motor nerves (C3-C5

• They receive afferents (vagus)

from the airways and
chemoreceptors
Ventral respiratory group of neurons
• Situated in the ventral aspect of
medulla

• Found in the nucleus ambiguus

rostrally and the nucleus
retroambiguus caudally
• Remain almost totally inactive during normal quiet
respiration

• Contains both I and E neurons

• Provide the powerful expiratory signals to the abdominal

muscles during very heavy expiration
 pre-Bötzinger complex
Central Pattern Generator
• Rhythmic respiration is initiated by a
small group of pacemaker cells in the pre-
Bötzinger complex

• Located bilaterally between nucleus

ambiguus and lateral reticular nucleus

• These neurons discharge rhythmically, and

they produce rhythmic discharges in
phrenic motor neurons
Pontine respiratory center
a) Apneustic center
b) Pneumotaxic center
Apneustic center
• Present in lower pons

• Strongly activates medullary inspiratory

center

• Its stimulation results in prolonged inspiratory

effort interrupted by brief expiration
(apneusis)

• Apneustic center is inhibited by pneumotaxic

center
Pneumotaxic center
• Located dorsally in the nucleus
parabrachialis of the upper pons

• Control the “switch-off” point of the

inspiratory ramp

• Limits the Duration of Inspiration and

Increases the Respiratory Rate
Chemical control of respiration
• Maintains the pO2, pCO2 and H+ ion concentration of the
blood

• Respiratory chemoreceptors:
a) Peripheral Chemoreceptors
b) Medullary (Central) Chemoreceptors
Medullary (Central) Chemoreceptors

• Located bilaterally, lying only 0.2 millimeter beneath the

ventral surface of the medulla

• Highly sensitive to changes in either blood Pco 2 or hydrogen

ion concentration
• Chemosensitive area are especially
excited by hydrogen ions

• H+ ion stimulates medullary

respiratory center increased
ventilation
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
• Carotid and Aortic Bodies

• Location: carotid body near the

common carotid artery bifurcation on
each side and aortic bodies near the
arch of aorta

• Contains two types of cells-Type I and

Type II cells
• Type I or Glomus cells are
associated with afferent nerve
endings

• Type II cells are supporting cells-

support Type I cells
Mechanism of release of neurotransmitter
by Type I cells

• Hypoxiadecrease activity of O2-sensitive K +

channeldecrease K+ effluxincrease Ca2 +
influxdepolarization of cell membranerelease
of neurotranmitterstimulate afferent nerve
endings stimulation of respiratory center
increased ventilation.
Reflex Control of Respiration
• Hering-Breuer reflex
• Head’s paradoxical reflex
• J reflexes
• Joint and Muscle Proprioceptive Reflexes
• Reflexes Originating in Irritant Receptors
Hering-Breuer Reflex
• Hering and Breuer discovered in 1868
that every inspiration brings about its
own end by virtue of the pulmonary
distension which it induces (Hering-
Breuer inflation reflex)

• Also, conversely, reduction in lung

volume initiates inspiration (Hering-
Breuer deflation reflex)
Head’s Paradoxical Reflex
• Inflation of lungs, under certain conditions, enhances inspiration

• Since inflation induces further inflation of lungs, the reflex is

considered paradoxical

• The reflex is seen when conduction in vagi has been partially

blocked by cooling to 5°C

• May have a role to play in initiation of respiration at birth

Joint and Muscle Proprioceptive Reflexes
• Mechanoreceptors located in the joints and muscles detect
the movement of limbs and stimulate the inspiratory center

• This reflex is important in the early ventilatory response to

exercise
J Reflexes
• J receptors (juxtapulmonary) are located in the alveolar walls
near the capillaries

• J receptors are activated by engorgement of pulmonary

capillaries with blood or when pulmonary edema occurs

• Stimulation of J receptors produces tachypnoea and

ultimately dyspnea ( difficulty in breathing)
Reflexes Originating in Irritant Receptors
• Irritant receptors are located between epithelial cells lining the
airways

• Stimulated by cold air, mucus, dust

• Information from these receptors are conveyed to CNS via vagus

• The reflex effects are bronchoconstriction, hyperpnoea and

cough
Thank you