Regulation of

respiration
CHAPTER 42
Dr Sobia Humerah
Respiration is a reflex process.

it can be controlled voluntarily for a short period

of about 40 seconds.
However, by practice, breathing can be withheld
for a long period.
 At the end of that period, the person is forced
to breathe.
Respiration is subjected to variation, even under
normal physiological conditions.

For example, emotion and exercise increase the

rate and force of respiration.

But the altered pattern of respiration is brought

back to normal, within a short time by some
regulatory mechanisms in the body.
Regulation of respiration

To adjust the rate of alveolar ventilation

almost exactly to the demands of the
body , so the blood PO2 and PCO2 are
maintained
Normally, quiet regular breathing occurs because
of two regulatory mechanisms:
1. Nervous or neural mechanism
2. Chemical mechanism
Control systems
Nervous regulation (respiratory centers)
Chemical (PO2, PCO2 and pH)
Nervous regulation
Involuntary (respiratory centers)
Voluntry (cerebral cortex)

CHEMICAL Regulation
CO2 via CSF……central chemoreceptors
O2 via blood…….peripheral
chemoreceptors
H+ via blood …… peripheral
chemoreceptors
Respiratory Centers of the CNS
The primary
portions of the
brainstem that
control
ventilation are
the medulla
oblongata and the
pons.
 Nervous mechanism
Nervous mechanism that regulates the
respiration
includes:
1. Respiratory centers
2. Afferent nerves
3. Efferent nerves
RESPIRATORY CENTERS
Respiratory centers are group of neurons, which
control the rate, rhythm and force of respiration.

These centers are bilaterally situated in reticular

formation of the brainstem.
Depending upon the situation in brainstem,
the respiratory centers are classified into two
groups:
A. Medullary centers
1. Dorsal respiratory group of neurons
2. Ventral respiratory group of neurons
B. Pontine centers
3. Apneustic center
4. Pneumotaxic center
Respiratory Center
following groups of
neurons in the
respiratory center.
Dorsal respiratory
group (medulla).
Ventral respiratory
group (medulla).
Pneumotaxic center
(pons).
Dorsal Respiratory Group
Sets the basic respiratory
rate.
Stimulates the inspiratory
muscles to contract
(diaphragm).
The signals it sends for
inspiration start weakly and
steadily increase for ~ 2 sec.
This is called a ramp and
produces a gradual inspiration.
The ramp then stops abruptly
for ~ 3 sec and the diaphragm
relaxes.
MEDULLARY CENTERS
1. Dorsal Respiratory Group of Neurons
 are diffusely situated in the nucleus of tractus
solitarius which is present in the upper part of
the medulla oblongata .
these neurons are collectively called inspiratory
center.
All the neurons of dorsal respiratory group are
inspiratory neurons and generate inspiratory
ramp by the virtue of their autorhythmic property

Function
Dorsal group of neurons are responsible for basic
rhythm of respiration.
Control of Dorsal Respiratory Group
 The vagus nerve and glossopharyngeal
nerves receive input from:
Peripheral chemoreceptors
Baroreceptors
Several pulmonary receptors
Sensory input can change 2 qualities of
the ramp:
The rate of increase (e.g., increase during
heavy breathing to fill lungs more rapidly).
The timing of the stop (e.g., stopping the
ramp sooner shortens the rate of
inspiration and expiration, thus increasing
the frequency of respiration).
2. Ventral Respiratory Group of Neurons

These two nuclei are situated in the medulla

oblongata, anterior and lateral to the nucleus of
tractus solitarius.
Ventral respiratory group has both inspiratory
and expiratory neurons.
Function
Normally, ventral group neurons are inactive
during quiet breathing and become active during
forced breathing.

During forced breathing, these neurons stimulate

both inspiratory muscles and expiratory muscles
Ventral Respiratory Group
Inactive during normal, quiet
respiration.
At times of increased
ventilation, signals from the
dorsal group stimulate the
ventral group.
The ventral group then
stimulates both inspiratory
and expiratory muscles. E.g.,
the abdominal muscles are
stimulated to contract and
help force expiration.
PONTINE CENTERS
3. Apneustic Center

 is situated in the reticular formation of lower

pons.
Function
Apneustic center increases depth of inspiration
by acting directly on dorsal group neurons.
Stimulation of apneustic center causes apneusis.

Apneusis is an abnormal pattern of respiration,

characterized by prolonged inspiration followed
by short, inefficient expiration.
Primary function of pneumotaxic center is to
control the medullary respiratory centers,
particularly the dorsal group neurons.

It acts through apneustic center.

4. Pneumotaxic Center

Pneumotaxic center is situated in the dorsolateral

part of reticular formation in upper pons.
Pneumotaxic Center
Controls stopping point of
the dorsal group ramp.
Strong pneumotaxic
stimulation shortens the
duration of inspiration and
expiration. This increases
the breathing rate.
rate of breathing
increases upto 30-40
breaths/min and weak
pneuomotaxic stimulation
can decrease the breathing
rate to 3-5 breaths/min.
CONNECTIONS OF RESPIRATORY
CENTERS
Efferent Pathway
Nerve fibers from respiratory centers leave the
brainstem and descend in anterior part of lateral
columns of spinal cord.
These nerve fibers terminate on motor neurons
in the anterior horn cells of cervical and thoracic
segments of spinal cord.
From motor neurons of spinal cord, two sets of
nerve fibers arise
Phrenic nerve fibers (C3 to C5), which supply
the diaphragm

 Intercostal nerve fibers (T1 to T11), which

supply the external intercostal muscles.

Vagus nerve also contains some efferent fibers

from the respiratory centers.
Afferent Pathway
Respiratory centers receive afferent impulses from:
1. Peripheral chemoreceptors and baroreceptors via
branches of glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves

2. Stretch receptors of lungs via vagus nerve.

By receiving afferent impulses from these
receptors,
respiratory centers modulate the movements of
thoracic cage and lungs through efferent nerve fibers
INTEGRATION OF RESPIRATORY
CENTERS
Role of Medullary Centers
Rhythmic discharge of inspiratory impulses
Dorsal respiratory group of neurons are
responsible
for the normal rhythm of respiration.
These neurons maintain the normal rhythm of
respiration by discharging impulses (action
potentials) rhythmically.
These impulses are transmitted to respiratory
muscles by phrenic and intercostal nerves.
Inspiratory ramp
Inspiratory ramp is the pattern of impulse
discharge from dorsal respiratory group of
neurons.
These impulses are characterized by steady
increase in amplitude of the action potential.

Impulse discharge from these neurons is not

sudden and it is also not uniform
Inspiratory ramp signals
To start with, the amplitude of action potential
is low.
 It is due to the activation of only few neurons.

 Later, more and more neurons are activated,

leading to gradual increase in the amplitude of
action potential in a ramp fashion.
Impulses of this type discharged from dorsal
group of neurons are called inspiratory ramp
signals
Ramp signals are not produced continuously but
only for a period of 2 seconds, during which
inspiration occurs.
• After 2 seconds, ramp signals stop abruptly and
do not appear for another 3 seconds.
Switching off the ramp signals causes expiration.
At the end of 3 seconds, inspriatory ramp signals
reappear in the same pattern and the cycle is
repeated.
Significance of inspiratory ramp signals

Significance of inspiratory ramp signals is that

there is a slow and steady inspiration, so that the
filling of lungs with air is also steady.
INFLUENCES FROM THE PNEUMOTAXIC
AND APNEUSTIC CENTERS

The respiratory centers in the pons exert “fine-

tuning” influences over the medullary center to
help produce normal, smooth inspirations and
expirations.
The pneumotaxic center sends impulses to the
DRG that help “switch off ” the inspiratory
neurons, limiting the duration of inspiration.

The apneustic center prevents the inspiratory

neurons from being switched off , thus providing
an extra boost to the inspiratory drive
In this check-and-balance system, the
pneumotaxic center dominates over the apneustic
center, helping halt inspiration and letting
expiration occur normally.
Without the pneumotaxic brakes, the breathing
pattern consists of prolonged inspiratory gasps
abruptly interrupted by very brief expirations.

This abnormal breathing pattern is known as

apneusis; the center that promotes this type of
breathing is the apneustic center.
Apneusis occurs in certain types of severe
brain damage.
 FACTORS AFFECTING
RESPIRATORY CENTERS
Respiratory centers regulate the respiratory
movements by receiving impulses from various
sources in the body.
1. Impulses from Higher Centers

Higher centers alter the respiration by sending

impulses directly to dorsal group of neurons.
2. Impulses from Stretch Receptors of Lungs:
Hering-Breuer Reflex
Hering Breuer reflex is a protective reflex that
restricts inspiration and prevents overstretching
of lung tissues.
It is initiated by the stimulation of stretch
receptors of air passages.
Stretch receptors are the receptors which give
response to stretch of the tissues.

• These receptors are situated on the wall of the

bronchi and bronchioles.
Expansion of lungs during inspiration stimulates the
stretch receptors.
Impulses from stretch receptors reach the dorsal group
neurons via vagal afferent fibers and inhibit them.
 So, inspiration stops and expiration starts.

Thus, the overstretching of lung tissues is prevented.

HeringBreuer reflex does not operate during quiet
breathing.
It operates, only when the tidal volume increases beyond
1,000 mL.
Thanks