Case Studies in Construction Materials: Julia Blazy, Rafa Ł Blazy

Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00549
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm
Case study
Polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete and its application in

creating architectural forms of public spaces
Julia Blazya,*, Rafał Blazyb
a
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Akademicka 5, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
b
Faculty of Architecture, Cracow University of Technology, Podchora˛z_ ych 1, 30-084 Kraków, Poland
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: Fiber reinforced concrete is a cementitious composite material with a dispersed
Received 28 December 2020 reinforcement in a form of fibers. Polypropylene fibers can be divided into microfibers
Received in revised form 7 April 2021 and macrofibers depending on their length and the function that they perform in the
Accepted 7 April 2021
concrete. An overview of selected polypropylene fibers available on the market was
presented. Moreover, the influence of polypropylene fibers on physical and mechanical
Keywords: properties of concrete such as workability; elasticity modulus; compressive, flexural, and
Polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete
tensile strength; toughness; impact, spalling, freeze-thaw, abrasion resistance; water
Physical properties
Mechanical properties
absorption; porosity; permeability; durability, and eco-friendly and economic properties
Sustainable development were discussed. Additionally, certain restrictions while designing fiber reinforced concrete
Public spaces mixture were mentioned. The article proved that public spaces are a promising field of
Urban design polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete application. Since they are subjected to e.g.
unfavorable environmental conditions, impact damages, surface abrasion, and vandalism,
the use of concrete with enhanced propertied will be undeniably beneficial.
© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
Concrete is a material of a high compressive but around ten times smaller tensile strength. Furthermore, it is
characterized by a brittle behavior and does not allow transferring stresses after cracking. In order to avoid brittle failure and
improve mechanical properties, it is possible to add fibers to the concrete mix. This creates fiber reinforced concrete (FRC)
which is a cementitious composite material with a dispersed reinforcement in a form of fibers, e.g. steel, polymer,
polypropylene, glass, carbon, and others. In the last 30 years, progress in the FRC development allowed to produce even more
advanced types of concrete, namely self-compacting fiber reinforced concrete (SCFRC), high- and ultra high-performance
fiber reinforced concrete (HPFRC and UHPFRC, respectively), hybrid fiber reinforced concrete (HFRC), and lightweight fiber
reinforced concrete (LWFRC) [1]. From a simple material, concrete has become a complex solution that can be adapted to
specific applications in accordance with the requirements. These requirements apply not only to mechanical properties, such
as high compressive, tensile, and flexural strength and/or physical properties: an intrinsic flow of the mixture in a situation of
very dense reinforcement or complicated shape of the element but also economic and ecological reasons. Namely, due to the
fact that more and more emphasis is placed on the sustainable development, reduction of carbon dioxide production, and as
a result extending the life of the structure, the longest durability of concrete structures becomes one of the priority
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: julia.blazy@polsl.pl (J. Blazy).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00549
2214-5095/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
J. Blazy and R. Blazy Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00549
requirements. Therefore, the aim is to reduce the number and size of cracks and pores, water permeability, chemical
substances ingress, to enhance protection against corrosion, and to limit the negative effects of freezing and thawing [2].
While characterization FRC, the type of fiber material, shape, and dimensions (length l, diameter d, and aspect ratio-
slenderness l/d) should be taken into account [3–5]. Regarding the material type, metallic and non-metallic fibers can be
distinguished. The first group includes steel fibers, while the second one is very diverse. It comprises synthetic (polymer,
polypropylene), glass, carbon, basalt, and natural fibers. The differences in the behavior of FRC are largely due to the material
from which the fibers are made- its chemical, physical, and mechanical properties [6–9]. Moreover, the fiber dosage Vf has a
significant influence on the properties of concrete [3,10]. However, it cannot be assumed that by increasing the amount of
fibers, FRC properties will be continuously improving. Many researches [6,11–13] point to the concept of an optimally
designed mix in which a compromise between workability and strength of the concrete mix is achieved. As was mentioned
above, fiber dimensions and slenderness is essential when analyzing FRC behavior. For example in [14], the increase of aspect
ratio of steel fibers from 65 to 80 led to the enhancement of modulus of elasticity, flexural tensile strength, and toughness by
0.32–7.16 %, 0.63–50.97 %, and 32.06–155.32 %, respectively depending on the amount of fibers and silica fume. In the work of
Yazici et al. [15] different fiber volumes (0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 %), and slenderness (45, 65, and 80) were considered. The authors
came to the conclusion that higher l/d of fiber led to the improvement of compressive, tensile, and flexural strength- up to 10,
14, 58 %, respectively in comparison with the fiber of the smallest slenderness. Moreover, considering the work of García-
Taengua [16], the use of thin fibers may be a good choice from the point of view of controlling creep strain. Namely, despite
the fiber content and load factor, the slenderness influenced the flexural creep of a pre-cracked element. It was not only
reducing it, but also limiting the influence of the load factor on the creep deformation. It is noteworthy, that in this research,
fiber length had no statistically significant influence on the analyzed creep parameters. The efficiency of the fibers depends
not only on the above-mentioned parameters but also on theirs bonding strength with concrete [17]. For example, silica fume
is usually added to improve the cement paste/aggregate as well as fiber/concrete bond [18]. Furthermore, to increase the
contact surface with the matrix, the fibers have various shapes (crimped, twisted, sinusoidal, hooked) and their indents may
be fibrillated- the endings split during mixing (Fig. 1). Additionally, the shape of fiber affects the mechanical properties of the
concrete mixture [19]. It is proved in [20] that hooked-end steel fibers are more effective in improving the toughness than
other types of fibers. Namely, to obtain a similar value of energy absorption, higher fiber content is required for corrugated
and deformed-end than for hooked-end steel fibers. This is in agreement with the findings of [21] where concrete with 2 % of
hooked-end steel fibers generates higher flexural strength and toughness than concrete mix with crimped and straight steel
fibers. It must be mentioned that the efficiency of the fibers depends also on their orientation in relation to the crack
formation in the concrete element. The most positive effect is obtained when the fibers are perpendicular to the crack in the
direction of the stresses. The scattering of the results in the mechanical tests of concrete is present, among others, due to the
differences in distribution of fibers in the concrete matrix [22].
It should also be noted, that the use of fiber reinforcement in concrete imposes certain restrictions regarding mix
composition, therefore it may be necessary to modify it [3,24–26]. The workability of concrete is influenced not only by mix
composition but also by the amount, shape, and slenderness of the fibers [3,4,23,27–30]. Thus, the use of plasticizers in FRC is
required [31,32]. Otherwise, the mixture may be not workable, more porous and the fibers may be unevenly distributed,
forming clusters [3,27]. Therefore, increased dosage of fibers does not always mean improved mechanical properties of FRC
[29]. Moreover, since fibers bring the additional surface to cover, the amount of cement paste should be increased [27,33].
FRC is mostly used to produce structural elements [34–38] and steel fibers are the most commonly used type of fibers for
enhancement the mechanical properties of concrete [3,39–47]. Less often a possibility of using FRC to create architectural
forms is highlighted. It is a promising field of application especially in urban areas which are subjected to unfavorable
environmental conditions, impact damages, surface abrasion, and vandalism. However, regarding application in
architecture, it is more popular to use polypropylene and glass fibers. Mostly because polypropylene fibers are very
effective in a reduction of plastic shrinkage cracks in the first days of concrete life and significantly improve the post-cracking
behavior of concrete [26,33].
The aim of this research is to study and sum up the influence of polypropylene fibers on the physical and mechanical
properties of concrete and to discuss how polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete (PPFRC) can be used in a promising field of
application which are public spaces. In this paper, the interdisciplinary study involving the combination of two scientific
disciplines: civil engineering and architecture is presented. This is a novelty approach that helps understand and connect
those different knowledge areas. This work is also significant because no similar article concerning the application of
polypropylene fibers in public spaces has been published before.
2. Characteristic of polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete
Polypropylene fibers (PPF) are polymer fibers type which EN 14889-2 [48] defines as straight or deformed fragments of
extruded, oriented, and cut polymer material (Fig. 2). Two types of PPF can be distinguished according to EN 14889-2 [48]:
microfibers and macrofibers. Primarily, they differ in the length but more importantly in the function that they perform in
the concrete. Macrofibers are also called structural fibers because they are able to replace the traditional reinforcement in the
form of steel bars and transfer loads acting on the structure. Therefore, the time needed to make steel reinforcement, and
thus the investment costs, are saved. Their length is usually between 30 and 50 mm. On the other hand, microfibers are
shorter than 30 mm and do not fulfill the load-bearing function. Their main role is to overcome plastic shrinkage and limit
2
Fig. 1. Fibrillated polypropylene fibers a) before mixing b) after mixing [23].
Fig. 2. a) Polypropylene microfibers [49]; b) polypropylene macrofibers [50].
Fig. 3. Types of polypropylene fibers according to EN 14889-2 [48].
the formation of cracks in the concrete. As a result, they increase the durability and prolong the life of the element. Micro PPF
can be an alternative to crack control meshes. They can be classified as a monofilament or fibrillated. The PPF classification is
shown in Fig. 3. PPF can be obtained in two ways: by the technique of melt spinning and creating monofilaments or from a
sheet of polypropylene film producing fibrillated fibers [17]. Depending on the production method, fibers have different
mechanical properties [17]. In Table 1 the overview of available on the market selected PPF is presented. It can be concluded
that the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of micro PPF is equal to 300 450 MPa and around 3.8–7.0 GPa,
respectively. For macro PPF the values are higher, 400 760 MPa for the tensile strength and 3.5–12.0 GPa for the modulus of
elasticity.
The idea of fiber hybridization is explained as a combination of fibers from different materials or/and with different
lengths in the concrete mixture and creating HFRC. It is an effective way to control cracks of various sizes, at diverse curing
times and several loading stages [78,79]. The principle of HFRC work is explained in Fig. 4. The short fibers bridge
microcracks when they appear in the concrete. They are more effective than macrofibers because their number in the
mixture is greater for the same volume. As a result, the strength of the concrete increases in the initial tensile phase. When
the microcracks connect and as a result, the macrocracks develop, the longer fibers start to be active and begin to counteract
the crack growth. In this way, the concrete is able to resist a significant load, despite the constantly increasing deformations,
thus the ductility of the concrete is improved. The effectiveness of combining microfibers and macrofibers has been
confirmed, among others, in the research [80], where after combining polypropylene microfibers with macrofibers: the
toughness, compressive, tensile, and flexural strength improved (Fig. 5), and drying shrinkage strain decreased. In the work
of Silva et al. [81], polyethylene/polypropylene mixture of fibers had a positive effect on the post-cracking behavior of
concrete. Additionally, Aslani and Nejadi [82] concluded that steel/polypropylene combination resulted in the enhancement
of compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.
It is important to note, that the loading rate has an influence on the stress-strain curves. According to [83], the
compressive strength, toughness, critical strain and elastic modulus dynamic factors increased with the strain rate. Juhász
et al. [84] reported that FRC members showed a higher performance when loaded at high speed or under impact loading.
Namely, their fracture energy, and therefore their total load-bearing capacity appeared to be greater than that of samples
loaded at regular speeds.
3
Table 1
Overview of selected polypropylene fibers available on the market.
No. Ref. Type Length (mm) Diameter (mm) Tensile strength (MPa) Elastic modulus (GPa)
1 [51] micro PPF 6.0; 12.0; 18.0 0.032 300–400 –
2 [52] 12.0 0.038 – –
3 [53] 6.0; 12.0; 19.0 0.034 420 3.8
4 [54] 12.0 0.018 420 3.8
5 [55,56] 12.0; 18.0 0.030–0.035 – –
6 [57] 12.0 0.034 350–390 3.8
7 [58] 6.4; 12.7; 19.0 0.310 – –
8 [59] 6.4; 12.7; 19.0 0.480 – –
9 [60] 12.7; 19.0 0.022 – –
10 [61] 6.4; 12.7; 19.0 0.048 – –
11 [31] 12.0 0.018 300–450 7.0
12 [62] 12.0 0.018 386 >3.5
13 [63] 12.0 0.018 350 –
14 [64] 19.0 – 379 4.1
15 [65,66] macro PPF 30; 40 0.77 400 5.0
16 [67] 48 0.85 400 4.7
17 [59] 38 0.48 – –
18 [68,69,70] 48; 54; 60 – 640 12.0
19 [71] 58 – 640 10.0
20 [72,73] 48; 65 – 610 10.0
21 [31] 50 0.50 550 7.5
22 [74] 42 section 1 0.5 mm 550 8.2
23 [75] 45 – 620–758 3.5
24 [27] 55 0.85 425 7.3
25 [76] 30 1.00 470 4.7
26 [32] 48 0.60 450 –
27 [77] 54 0.50 570–660 –
Fig. 4. a) Influence of fibers with smaller length on bridging microcracks and increasing tensile strength; b) influence of fibers with higher length on
bridging macrocracks and increasing ductility [3].
Fig. 5. Strength-effectiveness of polypropylene hybrid fiber reinforced concrete (PPHFRC) [80].
Because of low density (0.90 0.91 g/cm3), PPF can ‘flow up’ to the concrete surface [17] resulting in non-uniform fiber
distribution. Another disadvantage is their low hydrophilic nature which may lead to the workability deterioration of fresh
concrete and bonding problems between the fibers and the concrete matrix [17,24,85]. It is noteworthy, that PPF are
chemically resistant hence, alkaline environment of concrete has no negative influence on them [17,23,24,85]. Furthermore,
4
Fig. 6. Shrinkage stresses in concrete (1- with PPF; 2- without PPF) [95].
they do not undergo corrosion and oxidation. As a result, PPF are ideal to use in concretes which will be exposed to
unfavorable environmental conditions including industrial and marine atmosphere [17,23,24,85]. In [86], excellent
performance in a saltwater environment was observed for polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete (PPFRC).
2.1. Crack limitation
The main role that PPF play in the structure of concrete is explained in Fig. 6. As it can be seen, in the first hours of
concrete life, when it has very low both strength and Young's modulus, stresses resulting from plastic shrinkage
exceeds its strength. Due to this, shrinkage cracks occur. A large number of evenly distributed PPF limit the crack
formation by reducing their width by 2 orders of magnitude [17]. PPF are working as a three-dimensional
reinforcement [87] which bridges the cracks and does not allow them to grow. It must be mentioned, that cracks are
not dangerous neither for structure nor for serviceability as long as they do not exceed a certain value. When concrete
changes from plastic to solid-state and when Young's modulus of the concrete is greater than Young's modulus of the
fibers, then micro PPF are considered to no longer play their main role. In the study performed in [88], concrete
samples with no fibers had a cracking area equal to 1743 mm2, samples with 0.05 % and 0.1 % of PPF- 992 and 99 mm2,
respectively. Therefore, the cracking reduction factor for the first case was equal to 43 and for the second case- 94. This
is in agreement with the findings of Islam and Gupta in [89], where the addition of 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30 % of fibers
resulted in 32, 53, 78, 91, 100 % crack limitation. Furthermore, in [90] the cracking area decreased by 99 % in the
concrete with 0.5 % of PPF. PPF not only limit the crack formation during plastic shrinkage but also during drying
shrinkage [17,23,90]. In [91], the drying shrinkage of the concrete with 0.5 % of PPF (l = 12 mm) was characterized by
329 micro-strain, while for the unmodified concrete by 418 micro-strain what gave a 21 % drop in drying shrinkage for FRC.
Regarding the study of Yousefieh et al. [92], 0.2 % addition of 12 mm long PPF led to the decrease of drying shrinkage by 12
%. The positive effect of PPF during drying shrinkage is also confirmed in [93], where the reduction is between 11 and 18 %
for fiber dosage ranging from 0.15 % to 0.45 % (l = 12 mm). For LWFRC, similar conclusions can be made because in the work
of Amran et al. [94] several concrete mixtures were tested with different densities (foam volumes), fiber contents, and at
different curing periods. All research results led to the conclusion that the inclusion of PPF improved the drying shrinkage
resistance of concrete.
2.2. Elasticity modulus
Concerning the modulus of elasticity (Ecm), in the work of Altalabani et al. [96], it changed by a maximum of 3231 MPa, so
by 13 % within the tested specimens. In the study performed by Sivakumar and Santhanam [79], Ecm rose by 6.5 % due to the
addition of 4.5 kg/m3 (Vf = 0.5 %) of PPF. In [97], the plain concrete’s modulus of elasticity was equal to 48.6 GPa and the
incorporation of PPF led to its drop by 10 % (43.7 GPa) for Vf = 0.5 % and by 18 % (40.0 GPa) for Vf = 2.0 %. The decrease in Ecm
was also noted in [98], where the incorporation of 0.07, 0.1, and 0.13 % of PPF characterized by l = 19 mm and d = 0.1 mm,
changed from 41.7 GPa to 38.7, 39.9, and 36.7 GPa, respectively. Sometimes, the influence of fiber addition cannot be clearly
defined, like in the research of Velasco et al. [99]. Namely, the addition of 0.25 % of PPF to the concrete C65 which Ecm was
equal to 32.25 GPa, resulted in an 8.3 % Ecm increase. However further increase of fiber dosage to 0.50 % caused the drop of Ecm
to 32.48 GPa, so the increase (0.7 %) was almost insignificant in comparison to the plain concrete. Similarly, in the case of
concrete C85, for PPFRC with 0.25 % fibers, Ecm changed just by 0.2 %. Additionally, when Vf = 0.5 % for C85, Ecm was reduced by
8.6 %. In conclusion, the effect of fiber incorporation on concrete’s elasticity modulus is ambiguous, nevertheless, it can be
said that it does not have a significant influence.
5
2.3. Compressive strength
PPFRC is not characterized by significantly improved compressive strength because this mostly depends on the concrete
matrix [17,25,27,100]. In [75], the compressive strength (fc) increased by 6% when the fiber dosage increased from 0% to 0.3 %.
In some findings [33,63,77,101,102], the decrease of fc with the increase of Vf could be observed. However, in other cases, like
in [103,104], fc increased up to the certain value of fiber content and then decreased. This may be the result of poor
workability caused by the excessive amount of fibers and the increase of air content [4] and porosity [30,31,33,105]. Besides
this, the increase of air content can be influenced by the fiber-aggregate interaction [3]. Similarly to the case of elasticity
modulus, it can be said that fc is not significantly effected by incorporation of PPF.
2.4. Post-cracking behavior, ductility, toughness
The post-cracking behavior and the ductility of PPFRC are remarkably improved in comparison to the plain concrete
[75,106,107]. PPFRC, after reaching the peak value and consequently the appearance of a first structural crack, does not
undergo the brittle failure, but continue to transfer stresses what is presented in Fig. 7. Moreover, the toughness, which is the
energy required to destroy concrete, equaled to the area under the bending-deflection curve, is higher for the concrete with
fibers than without [17,26]. It was observed in the work [106] where the toughness index for the plain concrete was equal to 0
and for PPFRC with 0.5 % and 1.1 % of fibers reached 22 and 38, respectively. Similarly, in [96] the toughness index from 0 for
the concrete without fibers increased to almost 18 and 20 for mixes with 4 and 6 kg/m3 of PPF.
2.5. Tensile strength
Positive improvement is also noticed in the tensile behavior of concrete with PPF in comparison with the one without
[4,101,107–110]. In [29], the addition of 1 % of micro PPF resulted in 8 % higher splitting tensile strength (fspl) and the addition
of 4 % of macro PPF in 65 % enhancement. In [111], fspl increased from 5.27 MPa for the normal concrete to 5.95 (113 %), 6.10
(116 %), 6.30 (120 %) MPa for the concrete with 0.15, 0.30, 0.45 % micro PPF, respectively. According to [112], LWFRC with 0.2
and 0.4 % micro PPF, had 19 and 35 % higher fspl than ordinary concrete, respectively. Additionally, the tested cylinders did not
break into two halves, but remained inconsistent in shape after reaching the maximum tensile force. This is in agreement
with the finding of Castillo-Lara et al. [113] where fspl increased from 0.225 MPa for lightweight plain concrete to 0.242, 0.341,
and 0.275 MPa when 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 % of 19 mm long PPF, respectively were incorporated. In Fig. 8, uniaxial tensile stress-
strain curves for mentioned concrete mixtures are presented. It can be seen that after reaching the first-peak load, therefore
crack occurrence and a sudden drop of load, there was still an increase in load and a second-peak load can be distinguished.
Furthermore, when 1.5 % of PPF were used, this increase even overtook the first peak load. It is noteworthy, that the
incorporation of fibers, did not significantly influence the inner structure of lightweight concrete. However, the finding that
the tensile strength increases with the increase of fiber dosage may not always be true because of the possible occurrence of
workability deterioration, unfavorable fiber distribution, or other factors [25,28,104,114].
2.6. Flexural strength
Regarding the flexural strength (ffl), in the work of Mahdil et al. [63], the resistance enhanced by 1.15 and 1.34 times when
respectively 0.5 and 1.0 % of micro PPF were added to the mixture. In [91], the flexural strength improved by 14, 18, and 21 %
Fig. 7. Flexural stress-deflection curves for PPFRC and plain concrete [17].
6
Fig. 8. Uniaxial tensile stress-strain curves for lightweight plain concrete (PFC) and LWFRC with 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 % of PPF (PP0.5FC, PP1.0FR, PP1.5FRC,
respectively) [113].
compared with the plain concrete when 0.15, 0.30, and 0.50 % of 12 mm long PPF were added to the batch. Similar relations
are noticed in the case of LWFRC studied by Amin et al. [112], where flexural strength increased by 21 and 41 % for mixtures
with 0.2 and 0.4 % of PPF (l = 12 mm; d = 0.025 mm), respectively in comparison with plain concrete. In general, the
incorporation of PPF to the concrete is beneficial in terms of the flexural behavior (Fig. 7) and integrity of the specimens
[4,32,101,104,106,111] as long as the sufficient workability is provided.
2.7. Impact resistance
PPF have also a positive effect on the impact resistance of concrete [77,96,115,116]. The incorporation of just 0.1 % of
micro PPF increased almost three times the number of blows until failure [28]. Moreover, in the other research [117], the
number of blows to destroy the sample with 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 % of macro PPF increased 3.0, 3.3, and 4.8 times, respectively
(Fig. 9a). These results are in the agreement with [118], where the number of blows for failure changed from 97 (100 %) for
ordinary concrete to 494 (509 %), 933 (962 %), and 723 (745 %) for PPFRC with Vf equaled to 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 %, respectively
(Fig. 9b).
2.8. Spalling resistance
Furthermore, for PPFRC the percentage of spalling is reduced in comparison with concrete without fibers [119–121]. It is a
result of the development of additional fire protection. Namely, PPF melt at 160 170⁰C and spalling takes place in a
temperature equals to 190 250⁰C. Therefore, after fibers melting, empty channels are formed and an additional pathway is
created for gas to escape. Simultaneously, it reduces the internal pore pressure. Cross-section of PP fiber before and after
thermal treatment is presented in Fig. 10. These findings have also been proven in works of i.a. Kalifa et al. [122], Algourdin
et al. [123], Ozawa et al. [105], and Velasco et al. [99]. In conclusion, PPF significantly increase the durability of concrete in the
case of fire.
2.9. Freeze-thaw resistance
The study performed by Bolat et al. [124] showed that the addition of PPF provided an enhancement of the concrete
durability by the increase of freeze-thaw resistance of PPFRC. This is also supported by the conclusions of Zhang and Li [125]
who stated that the use of PPF results in the reduction of freeze-thaw damages. According to them, this is due to the
limitation of microcracks number where water is likely to freeze. Another explanation is given by Karahan and Atiş in [30],
where the reduction in the strength after a certain number of freeze-thaw cycles is smaller for PPFRC than for plain concrete.
Namely, it is widely known that water present in concrete pores increases its volume when freezes. Due to this concrete
starts to expand and additional tensile stresses occur. Finally, it may lead to concrete disintegration when the tensile strength
of the material will be exceeded. However, fibers that are distributed in the concrete matrix restrain this expansion and
decrease the freeze-thaw deterioration. Similar findings are presented in [126] where the compressive strength after frost-
resistance trial decreased by 20 % for unmodified concrete, while for the concrete with fibers by only about 8%, depending on
the length of the fibers that were used. Additionally, during the freeze-thaw cycles of the ordinary concrete, a significant loss
of sample mass was observed as opposed to the concrete with fiber reinforcement. The latter is also able to go through more
freeze-thaw cycles.
7
Fig. 9. Number of blows until the first crack and failure for FRC with different Vf for: a) [117] b) [118].
Fig. 10. Cross-section of PP fiber a) fiber is visible before temperature treatment; b) melted fiber after 200℃ treatment, only bed of the fiber is visible [122].
8
Fig. 11. Depth of wear of plain concrete and PPFRC with 0.10 % of PPF of different type [127].
2.10. Abrasion resistance
It is noteworthy, that the incorporation of PPF have a positive effect on the abrasion resistance of concrete. This concept
has been proven in the work of Horszczaruk [127] where a mean depth of wear decreased from 29 to 42 % (depending on the
type of fiber) for PPFRC when compared with plain concrete after incorporation of 0.9 kg/m3 of fibers what is shown in Fig. 11.
Similar improvement was observed in [124], where Vf was equal to 0.425 % and l = 30 mm. For concretes with monofilament
and fibrillated PPF (Vf = 0.1 %; l = 12 mm), the increase in the abrasion resistance ranged from respectively 6.41–7.41% and
from 13.47 to 15.43 % depending on the water to cement ratio [128].
2.11. Water absorption, porosity, permeability
Concerning the water absorption of PPFRC, in many researches it is smaller when comparing with the plain concrete
[100,124,129–131]. In the work of Afroughsabet and Ozbakkaloglu [111], the water absorption for ordinary concrete was
equal to 1.52 %, while for concretes with 0.15, 0.30, 0.45 % of PPF it decreased by 39, 46, 49 %, respectively. Similarly in [25],
the water absorption was reduced from 2.481 % to 1.366 %, so by around 45 % for PPFRC. The water absorption of PPFRC was
24.7 % lower than for concrete without fibers in [124]. This can be a result of the minimalized amount of cracks limited by
the action of the fibers. However, there are studies in which the addition of fibers has a negative influence on absorbability.
For example, Szmarzewski concluded in his research [97] that the incorporation of 0.5 and 1.0 % of PPF (l = 12 mm) led to 33
% absorbability increase- from 0.6 % to 0.9 %. In [30], the water absorption increased by 6.5–28%, depending on the volume
content of fly ash, for samples with 1.8 % of PPF. Finally, the study performed in [132] found that samples with smaller fiber
dosages (up to 0.3 %) underwent the absorption decrease and with higher Vf, the increase was noted. Influence of PPF
addition on water absorption of concrete reported in [30,130,132] is presented in Fig. 12a. As it can be seen, the effect of PPF
on water absorption cannot be clearly assessed. One of the factors, that may have a significant influence on it, is connected
with workability: distribution of fibers within the mixture and level of porosity. Regarding it, there are studies in which the
porosity increases as the fiber dosage increases [30,132,133]. However, in other works the relation is opposite. In [97] the
porosity decreases from 4.3 % for plain concrete to 4.0, 3.9, 3.8 % for PPFRC with 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 % of fibers, respectively; in [99]
concretes C65 and C85 had porosity equal to 7.72 and 6.82 %, respectively, while after addition of 0.25 % of PPF- 7.51 and 6.59
%; 0.50 % of PPF- 7.42 and 6.66 %, respectively. It cannot be said without any doubt that with the increase of fiber volume, the
porosity increases or decreases. Sometimes, like in [130], porosity decreases with the increase of Vf limited to a smaller
amount to then increase again for higher fiber additions. A summary of how PPF incorporation changes the porosity of
concrete in [30,99,130,132] is shown in Fig. 12b. Furthermore, the effect of PPF on permeability is not clearly defined too.
Islam and Gupta [89] in their research concluded that incorporation of PPF increases both concrete permeability of water
and gas. A similar finding is reported in the work of Hager [134]. On the other hand, many researchers found a positive
influence of the fibers on permeability. In the work of Zhang and Li [125], the inclusion of PPF decreased the length of water
permeability of concrete. Similarly, in [11] the samples with the fibers had lower permeability than samples without them.
There are also studies in which the permeability decreases as the Vf increases up to a certain value, afterwards the
permeability increases and sometimes it is even higher than for the plain concrete [98]. Usually, this is a result of poor
workability and the excessive amount of fibers in the mixture.
9
Fig. 12. Influence of PPF incorporation on a) water absorption; b) porosity reported in selected studies.
2.12. Eco-friendly and economic
Nowadays, the concept of susceptibility and eco-friendly materials is widely discussed in the construction industry.
During the 20th century, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the environment has increased by 50 % [135]. Concrete
production is responsible for 2–3 % of energy demand per year and 8–9 % of total C02 in the atmosphere [136]. This is why the
building industry has to face an additional challenge which is producing concrete structures fulfilling eco-friendly
requirements and with improved durability.
Enhancing the durability of reinforced concrete is connected with the protection against corrosion of steel bars and
sulfate attack, so water and ions penetration through cracks and pores [135]. It is widely known that one of the major reasons
for cracks occurring in the concrete is plastic shrinkage at early ages. Due to this, the idea of both fiber incorporation and
replacing traditional reinforcement by fibers seems to be very beneficial from the point of view of sustainable development.
In the work of Ali et al. [137] the comparative study of the plain concrete and concretes with different types of fibers: steel,
glass, and polypropylene is presented. It was found that the production of PPF created less CO2 by 30 and 9% than steel and
glass fibers, respectively. Additionally, despite the higher costs per m3 of mixture and per unit flexural strength, PPFRC was
cheaper when it came to cost per m2 of pavement what is shown in Fig. 13. Similar conclusions were presented in [17]. The
environmental and economic aspects of pavements produced from mentioned above different concretes were considered. It
was concluded in [137] that, since PPFRC was characterized by higher flexural and residual strength than plain concrete, the
required thickness of the element was smaller: for PPFRC with Vf = 0.5 % by 35 mm and for PPFRC with Vf = 1.0 % by 50 mm
than for plain concrete. This influenced the overall cost (USD/m2) of such pavement and decreased it by 6 and 8% for PPFRC
with 0.5 and 1.0 % of PPF, respectively. Additionally, the carbon emission per m2 of pavement was reduced by 13–18 %
depending on the fiber dosage. In the other study [138], the thickness of concrete pavement was reduced by 18 % thanks to
the incorporation of PPF. Because of the additional cost of PPF (0.9 USD/kg), the overall cost (USD/m3) of concrete mix
(including mixing, transportation, and placing costs) was slightly higher than the cost of the plain concrete mix (USD/m3): for
normal strength fiber concrete it increased by 14 % and for high strength fiber concrete by 18 % (Fig. 13). Nevertheless, when
analyzing the cost per unit flexural strength and per m2, it was concluded that for PPFRC it was comparable, if not smaller
than for ordinary concrete (Fig. 13). In the research of Yin et al. [17] to produce 100 mm thick footpath of an area equal to 43
10
Fig. 13. Cost per m3 of mixture/Cost per m2 of pavement/Cost per unit flexural strength for FRC with different Vf reported in [137] and [138].
m2, three sheets of SL82 type steel mesh (156 kg) or 4 kg/m3 (17 kg) of plastic fibers was necessary to obtain the same
reinforcement degree. Regarding the costs, such amount of fibers can be almost twice cheaper than those three meshes. It is
also noteworthy, that expenses connected with laying, cutting, tying, and workmanship have to be taken into account for
traditional steel reinforcement while in the case of PPFRC, the fibers can be simply added during the mixing process of
concrete. When comparing with other types of fibers (steel and glass), PPF may be the most expensive one, however, they
have the lowest density and due to this 1 % of PPF is equal to about 9 kg/m3, not 26 or 78 kg/m3 like for glass or steel fibers,
respectively [137,138]. Finally, it is concluded that PPFRC is both more economic and eco-friendly than plain concrete.
Furthermore, in the literature, there are studies [139–141] in which the recycled PPF were used, what is another way to
improve the sustainability of concrete production.
2.13. Comparison of PPFRC with plain concrete
Characterization of selected PPFRC materials in comparison with plain concretes reported in different literature studies
mentioned above is presented in Table 2. The conclusions drawn in 2.1–2.12 were made on the basis of the attached table
thanks to which the differences between concrete with and without polypropylene fibers are even better and more widely
visible.
3. Application of polypropylene fibers in creating architectural forms of public spaces
As it was mentioned before, the main field of fiber reinforced concrete application is the production of structural
elements. Less commonly the possibility of using such concretes to create architectural forms is discussed. One of the field’s
applications in architecture are public spaces.
Public spaces are one of the most important urban spaces [142] and the perception of the city depends on their
attractiveness. Moreover, through them, cities are valued as friendly and attractive to people. Not only the scale and form of
row spaces, but also their surface quality and usability are significant. For example, too slippery surface of the footbridge in
Bilbao is a huge problem for residents and tourists. Furthermore, the durability and resistance of skateparks are of great
importance because they are usually intensively used and the quality of their execution directly contributes to the safety and
comfort of users. The surface class is of particular importance here and it depends on resistance to unfavorable
environmental conditions, mechanical damages, freeze-thaw, abrasion, and others. It is significant to limit the possibility of
cracks and irregularities formation when designing skateparks. As a result, PPFRC with its enhanced properties can be an
adequate solution for such applications. Another very important issue is the surface designing of promenades, avenues, and
coastal boulevards [143–145], especially when they are in contact with salt water as well as with acidified water (e.g. due to
pollutions). In such a case, they should remain durable and resistant to unfavorable chemical factors. PPF are fulfilling those
requirements since they are not influenced by the harmful effects of chemicals. The wharves, which play the role of public
spaces, are frequently visited spaces and as a result, their direct contact with water requires special protection. Damaged and
corroded coastal surfaces often create a dangerous space for users, especially for people with a reduced sense of balance,
mainly the elderly and children. Furthermore, increased resistance of the wharves is especially required on those fragments
that can additionally function as transshipment sites. In areas with a climate with minus temperatures, pavements are
additionally subjected to water freezing in pores of the concrete and their volume increase, thus the pavement can undergo
damages such as chipping and bursting. Moreover, water absorption, porosity, and permeability of concretes used in such
areas should be taken into consideration. Those problems concern not only strictly functional elements but also various
elements of small architecture in public spaces, for example: benches, flower pots, litter bins, etc. Regarding design forms
which are often found in public spaces like modern sculptures, winding benches or seats, bent fragments of floors, arches,
and bends of retaining walls, PPFRC offers the ease of creating complicated and complex shapes. It is also noteworthy, that in
the situation of damage, cracks occurring or concrete spalling, the reinforcement made of PPF is not a threat, unlike steel bars
11
Table 2
Characterization of selected PPFRC materials in comparison with plain concretes reported in different literature studies mentioned in the article.
Ref. Name w/c Vf l/d Slump Slump Ecm fc fspl ffl Impact Water Porosity
flow resistance absorption
First Failure
crack
(-) (%) (mm/mm) (mm) (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (blows) (blows) (%) (%)
[128] E1 0.50 0.00 15 35.1 3.1
E2 0.60 0.00 60 26.7 2.3
E3 0.70 0.00 170 17.8 1.5
(1)
F1/120 0.50 0.10 12/- 15 38.0 3.5
(1)
F2/120 0.60 0.10 12/- 60 30.7 2.8
(1)
F3/120 0.70 0.10 12/- 170 19.1 1.8
(2)
S1/120 0.50 0.10 12/- 10 37.8 3.4
(2)
S2/120 0.60 0.10 12/- 55 27.1 2.4
(2)
S3/120 0.70 0.10 12/- 160 18.4 1.6
[127] CO 0.30 0.00 94.5 4.2
CF1 0.30 0.10 19/- 105.6 4.7
(1)
CF2 0.30 0.10 12 19/- 100.1 4.5
CF3 0.30 0.10 19/- (1) 105.2 4.3
[25] OC 0.60 0.00 120 33.7 2.6 4.3 2.48
HFRC-8 0.60 0.80 48/0.917 80 34.8 2.8 5.1 1.42
HFRC-6 0.60 0.60 48/0.917 99 34.6 2.8 4.5 1.75
HFRC-4 0.60 0.40 48/0.917 105 34.6 2.7 4.4 1.37
[29] 1 0.38 0.00 93 58.4 3.4
2 0.38 4.00 50/1.0 20 55.3 5.6
3 0.38 1.00 6/0.018 20 58.2 3.7
[28] 1 0.49 0.00 748 40.7 4.1 71 76
2 0.49 0.05 12/0.018 686 42.9 4.3 111 121
3 0.49 0.10 12/0.018 556 42.8 4.4 196 200
4 0.49 0.15 12/0.018 428 38.0 3.9 31 35
[97] CO 0.27 0.00 48.6 139.8 9.4 7.7 0.60 4.30
CPP 0.5 0.27 0.50 12/0.025 43.7 131.4 10.5 8.0 0.90 4.70
CPP 1.0 0.27 1.00 12/0.025 42.6 118.5 10.5 7.0 0.90 4.00
CPP 1.5 0.27 1.50 12/0.025 40.9 115.8 9.9 6.5 0.80 3.90
CPP 2.0 0.27 2.00 12/0.025 40.0 114.7 9.4 5.6 0.70 3.80
[125] 1 0.40 0.00 560 220
2 0.40 0.06 10 20/- 540 215
3 0.40 0.08 10 20/- 530 213
4 0.40 0.10 10 20/- 510 205
5 0.40 0.12 10 20/- 500 203
[130] TR 0.41 0.00 52.2 4.8 3.00 12.16
TR PP03 0.41 0.30 15/- 55.5 4.7 3.00 10.88
TR PP06 0.41 0.60 15/- 57.8 4.7 2.85 10.88
TR PP09 0.41 0.90 15/- 56.9 4.7 2.62 10.62
TR PP12 0.41 1.20 15/- 53.2 4.7 2.93 11.01
TR PP15 0.41 1.50 15/- 52.2 5.2 2.51 11.90
[137] PC 0.55 0.00 3.6
FCC-0.5 % 0.55 0.50 12/0.030 3.9
FCC-1.0 % 0.55 1.00 12/0.030 4.2
[89] F1 0.34 0.00 44.8 3.0
F2 0.33 0.10 20/0.067 44.0 4.2
F3 0.34 0.15 20/0.067 43.4 3.9
F4 0.34 0.20 20/0.067 42.3 3.6
F5 0.35 0.25 20/0.067 41.5 3.1
F6 0.35 0.30 20/0.067 40.3 2.7
[92] PC 0.45 0.00 41.1
PPFRC 0.45 0.20 12/0.022 45.6
[91] L-0.00 (3) 0.36* 0.00 125 10.4 2.6
L-0.15 (3) 0.36* 0.15 12/- 124 12.6 2.6
L-0.30 (3) 0.36* 0.30 12/- 122 11.8 2.8
L-0.50 (3) 0.36* 0.50 12/- 120 11.9 3.3
M-0.00 (4) 0.36* 0.00 145 23.2 4.4
M-0.15 (4) 0.36* 0.15 12/- 143 22.5 5.0
M-0.30 (4) 0.36* 0.30 12/- 140 22.3 5.2
M-0.50 (4) 0.36* 0.50 12/- 136 22.6 5.3
[132] Plain 0.31* 0.00 170 46.0 58.8 5.7 3.33 7.96
MP0.25 0.31* 0.25 39/0.78 170 47.3 63.5 6.1 3.15 7.54
MP0.5 0.31* 0.50 39/0.78 170 48.0 61.3 6.2 2.80 7.51
MP0.75 0.31* 0.75 39/0.78 170 49.0 60.7 6.2 2.69 7.43
MP1.0 0.31* 1.00 39/0.78 170 49.6 59.4 6.7 2.66 8.15
MP1.25 0.31* 1.25 39/0.78 170 49.8 56.4 7.2 2.60 8.23
12
Table 2 (Continued)
First Failure
crack
PP0.1 0.31* 0.10 12/0.019 140 51.7 65.6 6.2 3.16 7.57
PP0.2 0.31* 0.20 12/0.019 125 52.4 62.6 6.4 2.93 7.03
PP0.3 0.31* 0.30 12/0.019 100 51.2 58.9 6.3 3.23 7.77
PP0.4 0.31* 0.40 12/0.019 78 43.8 55.4 5.5 3.40 8.14
PP0.5 0.31* 0.50 12/0.019 55 42.8 53.4 5.5 3.35 8.18
PP0.1MP0.9 0.31* 1.00 12/0.019 + 39/ 140 46.8 61.3 6.7 2.95 7.20
0.78
PP0.2MP0.8 0.31* 1.00 12/0.019 + 39/ 117 49.0 59.3 6.4 2.95 7.00
0.78
PP0.3MP0.7 0.31* 1.00 12/0.019 + 39/ 95 51.8 55.6 6.1 3.63 8.64
0.78
PP0.4MP0.6 0.31* 1.00 12/0.019 + 39/ 72 48.4 52.6 5.5 3.67 8.72
0.78
PP0.5MP0.5 0.31* 1.00 12/0.019 + 39/ 50 47.1 49.9 5.2 4.36 9.39
0.78
(5)
NS3 0.31* 0.00 140 46.5 63.9 6.6 2.85 6.83
SF10 (6) 0.31* 0.00 110 49.1 81.1 7.3 2.86 6.85
MP1.25NS3 (5) 0.31* 1.25 39/0.78 135 51.7 62.6 7.3 2.51 7.10
PP0.2NS3 (5) 0.31* 0.20 12/0.019 80 47.5 66.8 6.8 2.74 6.67
PP0.1MP0.9NS3 0.31* 1.00 12/0.019 + 39/ 90 47.5 64.2 7.1 2.80 6.79
(5)
0.78
MP1.25SF10 (6) 0.31* 1.25 39/0.78 110 55.6 70.7 7.7 2.33 5.59
PP0.2SF10 (6) 0.31* 0.20 12/0.019 100 49.7 75.6 7.4 2.27 5.46
PP0.1MP0.9SF10 0.31* 1.00 12/0.019 + 39/ 90 50.3 74.5 7.5 2.69 6.45
(6)
0.78
[96] Mix-0 0.40 0.00 820 24.1 61.2 4.4 7.5 150 260
Mix A 0.40 0.22 12/0.032 763 25.2 61.3 4.5 7.4 152 263
Mix B 0.40 0.33 12/0.032 663 25.2 58.0 4.5 7.5 153 263
Mix C 0.40 0.44 39/0.78 790 24.4 59.6 4.1 5.8 204 699
Mix D 0.40 0.67 39/0.78 778 24.3 57.3 4.0 6.1 209 715
Mix E 0.40 0.23 12/0.032 + 39/ 778 25.0 61.4 4.4 5.6 152 460
0.78
Mix F 0.40 0.33 12/0.032 + 39/ 800 26.4 60.1 4.0 5.5 459 767
0.78
Mix G 0.40 0.34 12/0.032 + 39/ 785 21.1 61.8 3.6 5.2 408 764
0.78
Mix H 0.40 0.58 12/0.032 + 39/ 780 27.3 61.2 5.1 5.7 365 723
0.78
[79] C1 0.43 0.00 31.1 56.1 4.1 5.2
PP12 0.43 0.50 20/0.10 33.1 56.1 4.4 5.6
[99] C65 (7) 0.43 0.00 32.3 64.2 7.72
C85 (8) 0.36 0.00 35.7 82.6 6.82
(7)
C65PP0.25 0.43 0.25 40/- 34.9 68.1 7.51
(7)
C65PP0.50 0.43 0.50 40/- 32.5 70.5 7.42
(8)
C85PP0.25 0.36 0.25 40/- 35.8 80.4 6.59
(8)
C85PP0.50 0.36 0.50 40/- 32.6 77.5 6.66
[30] A1 0.35* 0.00 170 37.9 63.4 2.86 7.09
A2 0.35* 0.45 -/- 170 39.0 64.9 3.04 7.51
A3 0.35* 0.90 -/- 160 37.2 62.2 3.38 8.28
A4 0.35* 1.80 -/- 140 36.7 61.5 3.67 8.97
B1 (9) 0.35* 0.00 180 37.5 52.9 3.17 7.77
B2 (9) 0.35* 0.45 -/- 180 39.4 52.0 3.52 8.53
B3 (9) 0.35* 0.90 -/- 160 37.3 53.6 3.63 8.79
B4 (9) 0.35* 1.80 -/- 150 37.2 49.5 3.76 9.03
C1 (10) 0.35* 0.00 190 36.8 45.3 3.53 8.54
C2 (10) 0.35* 0.45 -/- 190 37.1 43.0 3.69 8.91
C3 (10) 0.35* 0.90 -/- 160 34.2 42.4 3.77 9.07
C4 (10) 0.35* 1.80 -/- 150 35.3 44.3 3.76 9.09
[93] SF10 0.30 0.00 145 34.0 78.5
PP0.15 0.30 0.15 12/0.022 130 33.4 80.1
PP0.30 0.30 0.30 12/0.022 115 32.8 80.6
PP0.45 0.30 0.45 12/0.022 80 32.3 83.3
[106] PC 0.45 0.00 145 37.5 3.3
HPP05 0.45 0.50 38/0.91 135 38.5 3.7
HPP07 0.45 0.70 38/0.91 120 39.5 4.2
HPP09 0.45 0.90 38/0.91 110 35.5 3.6
13
Table 2 (Continued)
First Failure
crack
HP11 0.45 1.10 38/0.91 95 38.5 4.2
HPP13 0.45 1.30 38/0.91 85 37.0 3.1
[124] R1 1.39 0.00 13 31.1
PPFRC 1.39 0.43 27/0.52 12 29.2
w/c: water/cement ratio.

*
Water/binder ratio.
(1)
Fibrillated fiber.
(2)
Monofilament fiber.
(3)
LWFRC with targeted density 800 kg/m3.
(4)
LWFRC with targeted density 1000 kg/m3.
(5)
Mixture with addition of nano-silica.
(6)
Mixture with addition of silica fume.
(7)
Mixture with targeted fc=65 MPa.
(8)
Mixture with targeted fc=85 MPa.
(9)
Mixture with addition of 60 kg/m3 of fly ash.
(10)
Mixture with addition of 120 kg/m3 of fly ash.
which very often protrude from the concrete fragments and can be dangerous for the users. Additionally, when the
traditional steel reinforcement is exposed, it can be subjected to negative action of corrosion especially when the concrete
was used to create ponds, fountains, artificial beaches, or in the neighborhood of marine atmosphere. It should be
highlighted that improved mechanical properties and higher strength of PPFRC are an additional advantage because public
spaces are more susceptible to vandalism. Finally, since public spaces are subjected to unfavorable environmental conditions,
impact damages, surface abrasion, vandalism, and require improved durability, resistance, and safety, the use of PPFRC may
be very beneficial.
PPFRC is used in public areas to create architectural forms such as:
decorative pavements of science centers (Fig. 14a), shopping malls, zoos, rest areas, promenades, bus stops, parking, ferry
terminals (Fig. 14b);
fountains (Fig. 14c), sculptures (Fig. 14d), artificial rocks, beaches, exotic landscapes (Fig. 14e);
door surrounds (Fig. 14f);
skateparks (Fig. 14g).
In conclusion, it is also worthy to pay attention to some habits and symbolism of materials used in space. Brick is kind and
has been “tamed” for centuries, wood is associated with warmth and coziness, steel and glass with corporate skyscrapers and
they are impersonal. As it turns out, concrete works best in constructing monuments. It is expressive and can contain many
meanings, as proven by such projects as: Valdefierro Park in Saragossa designed by Héctor Fernández Elorza and Manuel
Fernández Ramírez; Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin designed by Peter Eisenman; Eduard Wallnîfer Platz
in Innsbruck; Monument to the Nagew Brigade called Andarta and Beer Sheva in Israel designed by Dani Karavan.
4. Conclusions
Currently, great emphasis is placed on interdisciplinary works, describing more than one scientific field. This article has
been written with the intention of connecting and better understanding the following fields: civil engineering and
architecture. Thanks to this approach and cooperation, it is possible to use the achievements of several sciences. Additionally,
despite the fact that there are many articles on the use of polypropylene fibers in structural elements, this is the first article to
show the possibilities of the application of these fibers in architectural elements of public spaces.
The main role that polypropylene fibers play in the structure of concrete is the reduction of plastic shrinkage cracks. In
Table 3 the influence of the inclusion of the polypropylene fibers to the concrete on different physical and mechanical
properties is presented. Many features of polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete are enhanced as a result of mix
modification. However, there are also properties whose effect is neutral or hard to clear evaluation. Additionally, special
attention should be paid to the workability of fiber reinforced concrete, since it can undergo significant deterioration when
an excessive amount of fibers is incorporated. It should be also mentioned that the conclusion: higher fiber content- better
characteristic is not always a true. Namely, polypropylene fibers improve properties of the material, but until a certain dosage
which, if it is exceeded, will have negative results. Therefore, it is important to analyze mixture composition and properties of
the fibers (material, shape, and dimensions: length, diameter, slenderness) when making the decision about the optimal
14
Fig. 14. Examples of PPFRC application in public spaces [146–149].
fiber content. The ecological and economic benefits of polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete are also advantageous when it
comes to the sustainable development. Public spaces are a promising field of polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete
application. Since they are subjected to e.g. unfavorable environmental conditions, impact damages, surface abrasion, and
vandalism, the use of concrete with enhanced properties will be undeniably beneficial. Polypropylene fiber reinforced
concrete is applied to create decorative pavements, fountains, sculptures, artificial rocks, and beaches, exotic landscapes,
door surrounds, and skateparks.
15
Table 3
Influence of polypropylene fiber inclusion to the concrete on different properties.
Property Influence
Workability –
Crack limitation ++
Elasticity modulus 0/
Compressive strength 0/
Tensile strength +
Flexural strength +
Toughness ++
Impact resistance ++
Spalling resistance ++
Freeze-thaw resistance ++
Abrasion resistance +
Water absorption
Porosity
Permeability
Durability ++
Eco-friendly +
Economic +
0 neutral; - negative; difficult to assess; + positive; ++ very positive.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
Acknowledgements
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
References
[1] J. Blazy, S. Nunes, C. Sousa, M. Pimentel, Development of an HPFRC for use in flat slabs, in: P. Serna, J.R. Martí-Vargas, A. Llano-Torre, J. Navarro-Gregori
(Eds.), Concr. Improv. Innov. RILEM-Fib Int. Symp. FRC 2020, Springer, 2021, pp. 209–220, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58482-5_19.
[2] L. Feo, F. Ascione, R. Penna, D. Lau, M. Lamberti, An experimental investigation on freezing and thawing durability of high performance fiber
reinforced concrete (HPFRC), Compos. Struct. 234 (2020) 111673, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2019.111673.
[3] I. Markovic, High-Performance Hybrid-Fibre Concrete, DUP Science DUP, Delft, 2006.
[4] O. Gencel, C. Ozel, W. Brostow, G. Martínez-Barrera, Mechanical properties of self-compacting concrete reinforced with polypropylene fibres, Mater.
Res. Innov. 15 (2011) 216–225, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/143307511X13018917925900.
[5] N. Banthia, R. Gupta, Influence of polypropylene fiber geometry on plastic shrinkage cracking in concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) 1263–1267, doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.01.010.
[6] M.N. Soutsos, T.T. Le, A.P. Lampropoulos, Flexural performance of fibre reinforced concrete made with steel and synthetic fibres, Constr. Build. Mater.
36 (2012) 704–710, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.06.042.
[7] E.S. Bernard, Influence of toughness on the apparent cracking load of fiber-reinforced concrete slabs, J. Struct. Eng. 132 (2006) 1976–1983, doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9445(2006)132:12(1976).
[8] P. Iyer, S.Y. Kenno, S. Das, Mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced concrete made with basalt filament fibers, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 27 (2015) 04015015,
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0001272.
[9] T.R. Patil, A.N. Burile, Comparative study of steel and glass fiber reinforced concrete composites, Int. J. Sci. Res. 5 (2015) 690–694, doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.21275/v5i5.nov163300.
[10] R. Madandoust, M.M. Ranjbar, R. Ghavidel, S.F. Shahabi, Assessment of factors influencing mechanical properties of steel fiber reinforced self-
compacting concrete, Mater. Des. 83 (2015) 284–294, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.06.024.
[11] S. Kakooei, H.M. Akil, M. Jamshidi, J. Rouhi, The effects of polypropylene fibers on the properties of reinforced concrete structures, Constr. Build. Mater.
[12] F. Shi, T.M. Pham, H. Hao, Y. Hao, Post-cracking behaviour of basalt and macro polypropylene hybrid fibre reinforced concrete with different
compressive strengths, Constr. Build. Mater. 262 (2020) 120108, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120108.
[13] N. Buratti, C. Mazzotti, M. Savoia, Post-cracking behaviour of steel and macro-synthetic fibre-reinforced concretes, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2011)
2713–2722, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.12.022.
[14] F. Köksal, F. Altun, I. Yiǧit, Y. Şahin, Combined effect of silica fume and steel fiber on the mechanical properties of high strength concretes, Constr.
Build. Mater. 22 (2008) 1874–1880, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.04.017.
[15] Ş. Yazici, G. Inan, V. Tabak, Effect of aspect ratio and volume fraction of steel fiber on the mechanical properties of SFRC, Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (2007)
1250–1253, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2006.05.025.
[16] E. García-Taengua, S. Arango, J.R. Martí-Vargas, P. Serna, Flexural creep of steel fiber reinforced concrete in the cracked state, Constr. Build. Mater. 65
(2014) 321–329, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.139.
[17] S. Yin, R. Tuladhar, F. Shi, M. Combe, T. Collister, N. Sivakugan, Use of macro plastic fibres in concrete: a review, Constr. Build. Mater. 93 (2015) 180–188,
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.05.105.
[18] R.V. Balendran, F.P. Zhou, A. Nadeem, A.Y.T. Leung, Influence of steel fibres on strength and ductility of normal and lightweight high strength concrete,
Build. Environ. 37 (2002) 1361–1367, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1323(01)00109-3.
[19] P. Balaguru, H. Najm, High-performance fiber-reinforced concrete mixture proportions with high fiber volume fractions, ACI Mater. J. 101 (2004), doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.14359/13361.
[20] P. Balaguru, R. Narahari, M. Patel, Flexural toughness of steel fiber reinforced concrete, ACI Mater. J. 89 (1992), doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.14359/4019.
[21] P. Soroushian, Z. Bayasi, Fiber type effects on the performance of steel fiber reinforced concrete, ACI Mater. J. 88 (1991), doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.14359/
1883.
16
[22] V. Afroughsabet, L. Biolzi, T. Ozbakkaloglu, High-performance fiber-reinforced concrete: a review, J. Mater. Sci. 51 (2016) 6517–6551, doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1007/s10853-016-9917-4.
[23] T. Zych, W. Krasodomski, Polyolefin fibres used in cementitious composites-manufacturing, properties and application, Tech. Trans. Civ. Eng. 3 (2016)
155–178, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4467/2353737XCT.16.223.5972.
[24] A. Mohajerani, S.-Q. Hui, M. Mirzababaei, A. Arulrajah, S. Horpibulsuk, A. Abdul Kadir, M.T. Rahman, F. Maghool, Amazing types, properties, and
applications of fibres in construction materials, Materials 12 (2019) 2513, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma12162513.
[25] K. Behfarnia, A. Behravan, Application of high performance polypropylene fibers in concrete lining of water tunnels, Mater. Des. 55 (2014) 274–279,
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.09.075.
[26] N.K. Singh, B. Rai, A review of fiber synergy in hybrid fiber reinforced concrete, J. Appl. Eng. Sci. 8 (2018) 41–50, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/jaes-
2018-0017.
[27] M.H. Wan Ibrahim, S.A. Mangi, M.K. Burhanudin, M.B. Ridzuan, N. Jamaluddin, S. Shahidan, Y. Wong, S. Faisal, M.A. Fadzil, P.J. Ramadhansyah, S.S. Ayop,
N.H. Othman, Compressive and flexural strength of concrete containing palm oil biomass clinker and polypropylene fibres, IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci.
Eng. 271 (2017) 012011, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/271/1/012011.
[28] S. Widodo, Fresh and hardened properties of polypropylene fiber added self-consolidating concrete, Int. J. Civ. Struct. Environ. Infrastruct. Eng. Res.
Dev. 3 (2012) 3008, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.6088/ijcser.201203013008.
[29] M. Saidani, D. Saraireh, M. Gerges, Behaviour of different types of fibre reinforced concrete without admixture, Eng. Struct. 113 (2016) 328–334, doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.01.041.
[30] O. Karahan, C.D. Atiş, The durability properties of polypropylene fiber reinforced fly ash concrete, Mater. Des. 32 (2011) 1044–1049, doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.matdes.2010.07.011.
[31] A. El-Newihy, P. Azarsa, R. Gupta, A. Biparva, Effect of polypropylene fibers on self-healing and dynamic modulus of elasticity recovery of fiber
reinforced concrete, Fibers 6 (2018) 9, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fib6010009.
[32] V.M. Sounthararajan, Effect of accelerated curing on the furnace slag based polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete, Adv. Mater. Res. 1150 (2018) 91–
102, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1150.91.
[33] Z. Hongbo, Z. Haiyun, G. Hongxiang, Characteristics of ductility enhancement of concrete by a macro polypropylene fiber, Results Mater. (2020)
100087, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rinma.2020.100087.
[34] M. Moradi, H. Valipour, S.J. Foster, M.A. Bradford, Deconstructable steel–fibre reinforced concrete deck slabs with a transverse confining system,
Mater. Des. 89 (2016) 1007–1019, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.10.059.
[35] S. Iqbal, A. Ali, K. Holschemacher, T.A. Bier, A.A. Shah, Strengthening of RC beams using steel fiber reinforced high strength lightweight self-
compacting concrete (SHLSCC) and their strength predictions, Mater. Des. 100 (2016) 37–46, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2016.03.015.
[36] R. Cajka, Z. Marcalikova, M. Kozielova, P. Mateckova, O. Sucharda, Experiments on fiber concrete foundation slabs in interaction with the subsoil,
Sustainability 12 (2020) 3939, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12093939.
[37] Y. Ding, Q. Wang, F. Pacheco-torgal, Y. Zhang, Hybrid effect of basalt fiber textile and macro polypropylene fiber on flexural load-bearing capacity and
toughness of two-way concrete slabs, Constr. Build. Mater. 261 (2020) 119881, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119881.
[38] A.M. de Luna, J. Ángel, O. Lozano, L.P. Jaime, J.P. Martínez, J. José, S. Bernal, S.H.R. Martínez, R.P. Ceniceros, Experimental mechanical characterization of
steel and polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete, Rev. Técnica La Fac. Ing. Univ. Del Zulia. 37 (2014) 106–115.
[39] W. Abbass, M.I. Khan, S. Mourad, Evaluation of mechanical properties of steel fiber reinforced concrete with different strengths of concrete, Constr.
[40] V. Afroughsabet, L. Biolzi, T. Ozbakkaloglu, Influence of double hooked-end steel fibers and slag on mechanical and durability properties of high
performance recycled aggregate concrete, Compos. Struct. 181 (2017) 273–284, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2017.08.086.
[41] C.A.O. Okeh, D.W. Begg, S.J. Barnett, N. Nanos, Behaviour of hybrid steel fibre reinforced self compacting concrete using innovative hooked-end steel
fibres under tensile stress, Constr. Build. Mater. 202 (2019) 753–761, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.067.
[42] K. Ma, T. Qi, H. Liu, H. Wang, Shear behavior of hybrid fiber reinforced concrete deep beams, Materials 11 (2018) 2023, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/
ma11102023.
[43] A. Lau, M. Anson, Effect of high temperatures on high performance steel fibre reinforced concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) 1698–1707, doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.03.024.
[44] A. Kaïkea, D. Achoura, F. Duplan, L. Rizzuti, Effect of mineral admixtures and steel fiber volume contents on the behavior of high performance fiber
reinforced concrete, Mater. Des. 63 (2014) 493–499, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.06.066.
[45] G. Ruano, F. Isla, R.I. Pedraza, D. Sfer, B. Luccioni, Shear retrofitting of reinforced concrete beams with steel fiber reinforced concrete, Constr. Build.
Mater. 54 (2014) 646–658, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.12.092.
[46] S.M. Mousavi, M.M. Ranjbar, R. Madandoust, Combined effects of steel fibers and water to cementitious materials ratio on the fracture behavior and
brittleness of high strength concrete, Eng. Fract. Mech. 216 (2019) 106517, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2019.106517.
[47] R. Yu, P. Spiesz, H.J.H. Brouwers, Mix design and properties assessment of ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), Cem. Concr. Res.
56 (2014) 29–39, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.11.002.
[48] EN 14889-2:2008. Fibres for Concrete - Part 2: Polymer Fibres - Definitions, Specifications and Conformity, (2008) .
[49] Bautech Bautech, Industrial. Systems & products. Reinforcing fibres. Polypropylene fibres. Baucon, (2020) . (Accessed 22 June 2020) http://www.
bautech.eu/en/products/reinforcing-fibres-for-making-floor/baucon.html.
[50] Y. Liang, Y. Cheng, H. Fu, X. Li, B. Li, Y. Chen, Research into the mechanical properties of wet-sprayed polypropylene fibre-reinforced concrete, Mag.
Concr. Res. 72 (2020) 948–962, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jmacr.18.00025.
[51] Astra, Specification Data Sheet (Belmix), (2020) . https://www.astra-polska.com/oferta/betony-przemyslowe/astra-belmix/.
[52] Bautech, Specification Data Sheet (Baucon), (2020) . http://www.bautech.eu/en/products/reinforcing-fibres-for-making-floor/baucon.html.
[53] Conform, Specification Data Sheet (Texa-Fib), (2020) . http://www.conform.com.pl/oferta/wlokna-polipropylenowe.html.
[54] Conform, Specification Data Sheet (Texa-Fib3), (2020) . http://www.conform.com.pl/oferta/wlokna-polipropylenowe-texa-fib3.html.
[55] BASF, Specification Data Sheet (MasterFiber 012), (2020) . https://www.master-builders-solutions.basf.pl/pl-pl/products/masterfiber.
[57] Target Poland, Specification Data Sheet (Fibromix 12), (2020) . https://silpac.pl/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/KT_Fibromix-12.pdf.
[58] ABC Polymer Industries, Specification Data Sheet (FiberForce 300), (2020) . https://abcpolymerindustries.com/fibers/fiberforce-300/.
[62] H. Chu, J. Jiang, W. Sun, M. Zhang, Effects of graphene sulfonate nanosheets on mechanical and thermal properties of sacrificial concrete during high
temperature exposure, Cem. Concr. Compos. 82 (2017) 252–264, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.06.007.
[63] Z.H. Mahdil, B.H. Maula, A.S. Ali, M.R. Abdulghani, Influence of sand size on mechanical properties of Fiber reinforced polymer concrete, Open Eng. 9
(2019) 554–560, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/eng-2019-0066.
[64] J.J. Myers, M. Tinsley, Impact resistance of blast mitigation material using modified aci drop-weight impact test, ACI Mater. J. 110 (2013) 339–348, doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.14359/51685668.
[67] BASF, Specification Data Sheet (MasterFiber 249), (2020) . https://assets.master-builders-solutions.com/en-ng/masterfiber-249-tds.pdf.
[68] BarChip, Product Data Sheet (BarChip 48), (2020) . (Accessed 16 April 2020) https://barchip.com/product/.
17
[71] BarChip, Product Data Sheet (BarChip MQ58), (2020) . (Accessed 16 April 2020) https://barchip.com/product/.
[72] BarChip, Product Data Sheet (BarChip R50), (2020) . (Accessed 16 April 2020) https://barchip.com/product/.
[73] BarChip, Product Data Sheet (BarChip R65), (2020) . (Accessed 16 April 2020) https://barchip.com/product/.
[74] J. Jeon, W. Kim, C. Jeon, J. Kim, Processing and mechanical properties of macro polyamide fiber reinforced concrete, Materials 7 (2014) 7634–7652, doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma7127634.
[75] R. Ravinder, V. Kumar, C. Kumar, A. Prakash, P.V.V.S.S.R. Krishna, Strength characteristics of fibrous self curing concrete using super absorbent polymer,
Natl. Conf. Recent Adv. Civ. Eng., (2019) .
[76] J.-W. Han, J.-H. Jeon, C.-G. Park, Bond characteristics of macro polypropylene fiber in cementitious composites containing nanosilica and styrene
butadiene latex polymer, Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2015 (2015)207456, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/207456.
[77] M.G. Chorzepa, M. Masud, Performance of multiscale, including nanoscale, fibres in concrete, Emerg. Mater. Res. 6 (2017) 198–209, doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1680/jemmr.16.00020.
[78] J.D. Blunt, C.P. Ostertag, Deflection hardening and workability of hybrid fiber composites, ACI Mater. J. 106 (2009), doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.14359/
56551.
[79] A. Sivakumar, M. Santhanam, Mechanical properties of high strength concrete reinforced with metallic and non-metallic fibres, Cem. Concr. Compos.
29 (2007) 603–608, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.03.006.
[80] M. Hsie, C. Tu, P.S. Song, Mechanical properties of polypropylene hybrid fiber-reinforced concrete, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 494 (2008) 153–157, doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2008.05.037.
[81] E.R. Silva, J.F.J. Coelho, J.C. Bordado, Strength improvement of mortar composites reinforced with newly hybrid-blended fibres: influence of fibres
geometry and morphology, Constr. Build. Mater. 40 (2013) 473–480, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.11.017.
[82] F. Aslani, S. Nejadi, Self-compacting concrete incorporating steel and polypropylene fibers: compressive and tensile strengths, moduli of elasticity and
rupture, compressive stress-strain curve, and energy dissipated under compression, Compos. Part B Eng. 53 (2013) 121–133, doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.compositesb.2013.04.044.
[83] S. Wang, M.-H. Zhang, S.T. Quek, Mechanical behavior of fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete subjected to high strain-rate compressive loading,
Constr. Build. Mater. 31 (2012) 1–11, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.083.
[84] K.P. Juhász, P. Schaul, L. Nagy, Effect of the loading rate on fibre reinforced concrete beams, IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 246 (2017) 012040, doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/246/1/012040.
[85] S.M. Hejazi, M. Sheikhzadeh, S.M. Abtahi, A. Zadhoush, A simple review of soil reinforcement by using natural and synthetic fibers, Constr. Build.
[86] R. Roque, N. Kim, B. Kim, G. Lopp, Durability of Fiber-Reinforced Concrete in Florida environment, Florida, (2009) .
[87] J. Yang, R. Wang, Y. Zhang, Influence of dually mixing with latex powder and polypropylene fiber on toughness and shrinkage performance of overlay
repair mortar, Constr. Build. Mater. 261 (2020) 120521, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120521.
[88] Q. Cao, R. Wang, J. Jia, C. Zhou, Z. Lin, A comparative study of combined treatments for enhanced early-age cracking control of self-consolidating
concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 248 (2020) 118473, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118473.
[89] G.M. Sadiqul Islam, S. Das Gupta, Evaluating plastic shrinkage and permeability of polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete, Int. J. Sustain. Built
Environ. 5 (2016) 345–354, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2016.05.007.
[90] A. Sivakumar, M. Santhanam, A quantitative study on the plastic shrinkage cracking in high strength hybrid fibre reinforced concrete, Cem. Concr.
Compos. 29 (2007) 575–581, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.03.005.
[91] G.W. Leong, K.H. Mo, Z.P. Loh, Z. Ibrahim, Mechanical properties and drying shrinkage of lightweight cementitious composite incorporating perlite
microspheres and polypropylene fibers, Constr. Build. Mater. 246 (2020) 118410, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118410.
[92] N. Yousefieh, A. Joshaghani, E. Hajibandeh, M. Shekarchi, Influence of fibers on drying shrinkage in restrained concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 148
(2017) 833–845, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.093.
[93] V. Afroughsabet, L. Biolzi, P.J.M. Monteiro, The effect of steel and polypropylene fibers on the chloride diffusivity and drying shrinkage of high-
strength concrete, Compos. Part B Eng. 139 (2018) 84–96, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2017.11.047.
[94] Y.H.M. Amran, R. Alyousef, H. Alabduljabbar, M.H.R. Khudhair, F. Hejazi, A. Alaskar, F. Alrshoudi, A. Siddika, Performance properties of structural
fibred-foamed concrete, Results Eng. 5 (2020) 100092, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2019.100092.
[95] Bautech Bautech, Industrial. Systems & Products. Hardened Concrete Floors. Reinforcing Fibres. Baucon, (2020) . http://www.bautech.eu/en/
products/concrete-floor/baucon.html.
[96] D. Altalabani, D.K.H. Bzeni, S. Linsel, Mechanical properties and load deflection relationship of polypropylene fiber reinforced self-compacting
lightweight concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 252 (2020) 119084, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119084.
[97] P. Smarzewski, Effect of curing period on properties of steel and polypropylene fibre reinforced ultra-high performance concrete, IOP Conf. Ser. Mater.
Sci. Eng. 245 (2017) 032059, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/245/3/032059.
[98] N. Flores Medina, G. Barluenga, F. Hernández-Olivares, Combined effect of Polypropylene fibers and Silica Fume to improve the durability of concrete
with natural Pozzolans blended cement, Constr. Build. Mater. 96 (2015) 556–566, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.050.
[99] R.V. Velasco, R.D.T. Filho, E.M.R. Fairbairn, P.R.L. Lima, R. Neumann, Spalling and stress-strain behaviour of polypropylene fibre reinforced hpc after
exposure to high temperatures, 6th RILEM Symp. Fibre-Reinforced Concr. - BEFIB (2004) 699–708.
[100] D. Li, S. Liu, Macro polypropylene fiber influences on crack geometry and water permeability of concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 231 (2020) 117128, doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117128.
[101] H.R. Tavakoli, O.L. Omran, M.F. Shiade, S.S. Kutanaei, Prediction of combined effects of fibers and nanosilica on the mechanical properties of self-
compacting concrete using artificial neural network, Lat. Am. J. Solids Struct. 11 (2014) 1906–1923, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1679-
78252014001100002.
[102] H. Tanyildizi, Statistical analysis for mechanical properties of polypropylene fiber reinforced lightweight concrete containing silica fume exposed to
high temperature, Mater. Des. 30 (2009) 3252–3258, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2008.11.032.
[103] T.W. Ahmed, A.A.M. Ali, R.S. Zidan, Properties of high strength polypropylene fiber concrete containing recycled aggregate, Constr. Build. Mater. 241
(2020) 118010, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118010.
[104] S.P. Yap, C.H. Bu, U.J. Alengaram, K.H. Mo, M.Z. Jumaat, Flexural toughness characteristics of steel-polypropylene hybrid fibre-reinforced oil palm shell
concrete, Mater. Des. 57 (2014) 652–659, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.01.004.
[105] M. Ozawa, S. Subedi Parajuli, Y. Uchida, B. Zhou, Preventive effects of polypropylene and jute fibers on spalling of UHPC at high temperatures in
combination with waste porous ceramic fine aggregate as an internal curing material, Constr. Build. Mater. 206 (2019) 219–225, doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.02.056.
[106] J. Li, J. Niu, C. Wan, X. Liu, Z. Jin, Comparison of flexural property between high performance polypropylene fiber reinforced lightweight aggregate
concrete and steel fiber reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 157 (2017) 729–736, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2017.09.149.
[107] S.H. Said, H. Abdul, The effect of synthetic polyethylene fiber on the strain hardening behavior of engineered cementitious composite (ECC), Mater.
Des. 86 (2015) 447–457, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.07.125.
[108] B. Ramesh, V. Gokulnath, M. Ranjith Kumar, Detailed study on flexural strength of polypropylene fiber reinforced self-compacting concrete, Mater.
Today Proc. 22 (2020) 1054–1058, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2019.11.292.
18
[109] D. Wang, Y. Ju, H. Shen, L. Xu, Mechanical properties of high performance concrete reinforced with basalt fiber and polypropylene fiber, Constr. Build.
[110] R.S. Chidambaram, P. Agarwal, Seismic behavior of hybrid fiber reinforced cementitious composite beam–column joints, Mater. Des. 86 (2015) 771–
781, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2015.07.164.
[111] V. Afroughsabet, T. Ozbakkaloglu, Mechanical and durability properties of high-strength concrete containing steel and polypropylene fibers, Constr.
[112] M. Amin, B.A. Tayeh, I. Saad Agwa, Investigating the mechanical and microstructure properties of fi bre-reinforced lightweight concrete under
elevated temperatures, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 13 (2020) e00459, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00459.
[113] J.F. Castillo-Lara, E.A. Flores-Johnson, A. Valadez-Gonzalez, P.J. Herrera-Franco, J.G. Carrillo, P.I. Gonzalez-Chi, Q.M. Li, Mechanical properties of natural
Fiber reinforced foamed concrete, Materials 13 (2020) 3060, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13143060.
[114] C.S. Das, T. Dey, R. Dandapat, B.B. Mukharjee, J. Kumar, Performance evaluation of polypropylene fibre reinforced recycled aggregate concrete, Constr.
[115] J. Feng, W. Sun, H. Zhai, L. Wang, H. Dong, Q. Wu, Experimental study on hybrid effect evaluation of fiber reinforced concrete subjected to drop weight
impacts, Materials. 11 (2018) 2563, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma11122563.
[116] A. Karimipour, M. Ghalehnovi, J. de Brito, M. Attari, The effect of polypropylene fibres on the compressive strength, impact and heat resistance of self-
compacting concrete, Structures 25 (2020) 72–87, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2020.02.022.
[117] A. Arslan, Mixed-mode fracture performance of fibre reinforced concrete under impact loading, Mater. Struct. 28 (1995) 473–478, doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1007/BF02473167.
[118] R. Jain, R. Gupta, M.G. Khare, A.A. Dharmadhikari, Use of polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete as a construction material for rigid pavements,
Indian Concr. J. 85 (2011) 45–53.
[119] J. Broda, Application of polypropylene fibrillated fibres for reinforcement of concrete and cement mortars, High Perform. Concr. Technol. Appl., InTech,
2016, pp. 189–205, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/64386.
[120] A. Abdelalim, G. Abdelaziz, M. El-Mohr, G. Salama, Effect of aggregate type on the fire resistanc of normal and self-compacting concretes, Eng. Res. J.
122 (2009) 47–62.
[121] M. Zeiml, D. Leithner, R. Lackner, H.A. Mang, How do polypropylene fibers improve the spalling behavior of in-situ concrete? Cem. Concr. Res. 36
(2006) 929–942, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.12.018.
[122] P. Kalifa, G. Chéné, C. Gallé, High-temperature behaviour of HPC with polypropylene fibres - from spalling to microstructure, Cem. Concr. Res. 31
(2001) 1487–1499, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00596-8.
[123] N. Algourdin, P. Pliya, A.-L. Beaucour, A. Simon, A. Noumowé, Influence of polypropylene and steel fibres on thermal spalling and physical-mechanical
properties of concrete under different heating rates, Constr. Build. Mater. 259 (2020) 119690, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2020.119690.
[124] H. Bolat, O. Şimşek, M. Çullu, G. Durmuş, Ö. Can, The effects of macro synthetic fiber reinforcement use on physical and mechanical properties of
concrete, Compos. Part B Eng. 61 (2014) 191–198, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.01.043.
[125] P. Zhang, Q.F. Li, Effect of polypropylene fiber on durability of concrete composite containing fly ash and silica fume, Compos. Part B Eng. 45 (2013)
1587–1594, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2012.10.006.
[126] A. Pietrzak, M. Ulewicz, The effect of the addition of polypropylene fibres on improvement on concrete quality, MATEC Web Conf. 183 (2018) 02011,
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201818302011.
[127] E. Horszczaruk, Abrasion resistance of high-performance hydraulic concrete with polypropylene fibers, Tribologia 1 (2012) 63–72.
[128] Z.J. Grdic, G.A.T. Curcic, N.S. Ristic, I.M. Despotovic, Abrasion resistance of concrete micro-reinforced with polypropylene fibers, Constr. Build. Mater.
_
[129] A. Mardani, M. Ilhan, S. Özen, The effect of shrinkage reducing admixture and polypropylene fibers on drying shrinkage behaviour of concrete, Cem.
Wapno Bet. 3 (2019) 227–237, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.32047/CWB.2019.24.3.227.
[130] S. Ismail, M. Ramli, Effects of adding fibre on strength and permeability of recycled aggregate concrete containing treated coarse RCA, Int. J. Civ.
Environ. Eng. 8 (2014) 918–924.
[131] M. Usman Rashid, Experimental investigation on durability characteristics of steel and polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete exposed to natural
weathering action, Constr. Build. Mater. 250 (2020) 118910, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118910.
[132] S. Fallah, M. Nematzadeh, Mechanical properties and durability of high-strength concrete containing macro-polymeric and polypropylene fibers with
nano-silica and silica fume, Constr. Build. Mater. 132 (2017) 170–187, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.11.100.
[133] M.-H. Zhang, H. Li, Pore structure and chloride permeability of concrete containing nano-particles for pavement, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (2011) 608–
616, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.07.032.
[134] I. Hager, K. Mróz, T. Tracz, Contribution of polypropylene fibres melting to permeability change in heated concrete - the fibre amount and length effect,
IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 706 (2019) 012009, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/706/1/012009.
[135] P. Kumar Mehta, R.W. Burrows, Building durable structures in the 21st century, Indian Concr. J. 75 (2001) 437–443.
[136] P.J.M. Monteiro, S.A. Miller, A. Horvath, Towards sustainable concrete, Nat. Mater. 16 (2017) 698–699, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nmat4930.
[137] B. Ali, L.A. Qureshi, R. Kurda, Environmental and economic benefits of steel, glass, and polypropylene fiber reinforced cement composite application in
jointed plain concrete pavement, Compos. Commun. 22 (2020) 100437, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.coco.2020.100437.
[138] I. Hussain, B. Ali, T. Akhtar, M.S. Jameel, S.S. Raza, Comparison of mechanical properties of concrete and design thickness of pavement with different
types of fiber-reinforcements (steel, glass, and polypropylene), Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 13 (2020) e00429, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.
e00429.
[139] R. Garg, R. Garg, Performance evaluation of polypropylene fiber waste reinforced concrete in presence of silica fume, Mater. Today Proc. (2020) 6–13,
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.06.482.
[140] M. Małek, M. Jackowski, W. Łasica, M. Kadela, Characteristics of recycled polypropylene fibers as an addition to concrete fabrication based on Portland
cement, Materials 13 (2020) 1827, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13081827.
[141] H. Mohammadhosseini, F. Alrshoudi, M.M. Tahir, R. Alyousef, H. Alghamdi, Y.R. Alharbi, A. Alsaif, Durability and thermal properties of prepacked
aggregate concrete reinforced with waste polypropylene fibers, J. Build. Eng. 32 (2020) 101723, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.101723.
[142] J. Gehl, Cities for People, Island press, 2013.
[143] R. Blazy, E. We˛cławowicz-Bilska, Urban structure in contact with water, in: R.O.J. Furdík (Ed.), MobEx 2011-2012 Water City, Towarzystwo Słowaków
w Polsce, Cracow, 2012, pp. 75–80.
[144] R. Blazy, Revitalization of Riverside Boulevards in Poland–a case study on the background of the european implementation, IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci.
Eng. 603 (2019) 042102, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/603/4/042102.
[145] R. Blazy, Commercialization of the public spaces, Archit. V Perspect. Archit. A Urban., (2003) , pp. 27–31.
[146] Bautech, Bautech, Industrial. Systems & Products. Decorative Paving, (2020) . http://www.bautech.eu/en/products/decorative-flooring/decorative-
paving.html.
[147] Bautech Bautech, About us. Blog. Blog. Zewne˛trzna antyposlizgowa nawierzchnia dekoracyjna w porcie, (2020) . (Accessed 16 September 2020)
http://www.bautech.eu/en/blog/port.html.
[148] Bautech Bautech, Cooperation. Technical Articles, PressBeton Vertical- ozdobne sciany z betonu, 2020. http://www.bautech.eu/en/artykuly-
techniczne/pressbeton-vertical-ozdobne-sciany-betonowe.html.
[149] Astra Astra, Realization. Skatepark in Susz, (2020) . (Accessed 16 September 2020) https://www.astra-polska.com/realizacje/skatepark-w-suszu/
#realization.
19

Case Studies in Construction Materials: Julia Blazy, Rafa Ł Blazy

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case Studies in Construction Materials: Julia Blazy, Rafa Ł Blazy

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case Studies in Construction Materials 14 (2021) e00549

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Case Studies in Construction Materials

Polypropylene ﬁber reinforced concrete and its application in

2. Characteristic of polypropylene ﬁber reinforced concrete

Fig. 1. Fibrillated polypropylene ﬁbers a) before mixing b) after mixing [23].

Fig. 2. a) Polypropylene microﬁbers [49]; b) polypropylene macroﬁbers [50].

Fig. 3. Types of polypropylene ﬁbers according to EN 14889-2 [48].

Fig. 5. Strength-effectiveness of polypropylene hybrid ﬁber reinforced concrete (PPHFRC) [80].

2.1. Crack limitation

2.2. Elasticity modulus

2.3. Compressive strength

2.4. Post-cracking behavior, ductility, toughness

2.5. Tensile strength

2.6. Flexural strength

2.7. Impact resistance

2.8. Spalling resistance

2.9. Freeze-thaw resistance

2.10. Abrasion resistance

2.11. Water absorption, porosity, permeability

2.12. Eco-friendly and economic

2.13. Comparison of PPFRC with plain concrete

3. Application of polypropylene ﬁbers in creating architectural forms of public spaces

w/c: water/cement ratio.

Fig. 14. Examples of PPFRC application in public spaces [146–149].

0 neutral; - negative;  difﬁcult to assess; + positive; ++ very positive.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors report no declarations of interest.

You might also like

0 neutral; - negative; difﬁcult to assess; + positive; ++ very positive.