Lexicology Coursebook (Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng)

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC HÀ NỘI
ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY
TỪ VỰNG HỌC TIẾNG ANH
Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng (Biên soạn)

Senior lecturer, English Department
Hà Nội - 2014
HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A. - Lexicology - 2014
-2-
PREFACE
This material is compiled, first and foremost, to satisfy the demand for
learning and teaching materials in the subject of lexicology at Hanoi University
but not to serve any commercial purpose. It comprises, besides the first unit
serving as an introduction to the subject, nine other units – each deals with a
major matter in the study of the English vocabulary.
The material is intended as a course-book for English language students
whose crucial requirement at the university or college is to fully grasp the nature
of English words. It is also intended as a reference book for all those who find a
thorough understanding of the complex nature of words and a clever and exact
use of words very important for them.
The aims of this material are:
- Providing learners with the very basic understanding of the operation of
the English vocabulary,
- Enabling learners to know how to make new words, and to be aware of the
importance of using the right words in different types of texts,
- Providing learners with the basic knowledge of linguistic phenomena
concerning the English vocabulary,
- Giving learners confidence and refinement in the use of English words and
expressions.
During the process of compilation the compiler tried to make it complete with
definitions and examples for most linguistic concepts, terms dealt with in the book
and update it with “fresh language” collected from books, study reports,
dictionaries, newspapers, reviews, etc. The compiler, making full use of his teaching
experience, also complements the work with jokes, puns, anecdotes, extracts to help
learners relieve their pains in learning such a hard subject as lexicology. Thus,
while studying fundamentals of the main problems associated with English
vocabulary, the users can associate them with more authentic everyday language to
better understand the practicality of what they are studying and find interest in the
subject they are learning.
If a language we are studying can be compared to a society in which we are
living, then each word or expression can be compared to a person in that society.
Accordingly, the right or the wrong use of a word in a text can sometimes bring
about the same advantage or disadvantage that the right or the wrong use of a
person in an organization may result in.
The complier hopes that this material will make a considerable contribution to
improving the teaching and learning of lexicology, one of the three main subjects
in the study of linguistics, at the English Department of Hanoi University..
Compiler
Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng
-3-
HOW TO USE THIS COURSE BOOK

Notes for teachers
The contents of each unit in this course book can be presented in the form of:
- a lecture on the topic
- tutorials
- presentations
- group discussions
Notes for students
Before you start work
First of all, look at the contents, familiarizing yourselves with the topics
covered.
Make sure that you understand the terminologies by looking at the
glossary from page 180 to page 186.
Skim quickly through the entire book, paying attention to subtitles printed in
bold-type capital letters to grasp the main content as well as the lay out of each unit.
Working through a unit
Read each part in the unit carefully, highlighting or underlining what you
think new or important to you.
Study the examples given. Think if you can have similar ones of your own.
Try to relate what you are reading to relevant matters in your mother
tongue.
Study the questions or discussion and activities at the end of each unit to
check your understanding of the key issues presented in the unit.
When you have finished
Remember to do the exercises to consolidate your knowledge of the
subject you have learned as well as to find out what you are still missing in it.
Revise at regular intervals after finishing a unit. Without revision you are
likely to forget and so waste the effort you have exerted. In your initial
work and your revision you should consult a good dictionary.
Choosing a dictionary
A good monolingual dictionary is indispensable to anyone wishing to have a
full mastery of a language. Arm yourself with a good dictionary that contains:
- Etymology of the word (for example, native or Latin or French, etc.),
- Alternative meanings as well as definition,
- A clear guide to how to use the word,
- Clear examples of the word indifferent contexts,
- Stylistic characteristics of the word (for example, formal, informal, slang, etc.),
- Idiomatic expressions with the presence of the word.
-4-
Suggested readings
1. Alexander (1994), Right Word, Wrong Word: Words and Structures

confused and misused by learners of English. Longman ELT.
2. Bùi Minh Toàn (1999), Từ trong hoạt động giao tiếp tiếng Việt, NXB Giáo dục.
3. Crystal D. (1992), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. CUP.
4. Đinh Trọng Lạc (1999), 99 Phương pháp và biện pháp tu từ, NXB Giáo dục.
5. Fromkin V., Rodman R., Hyams. N. (2002), An Introduction to Language
(7th ed). Thomson/Heinle.
6. Gordon A.I., et al (1983), Word Finder. NSW: Reader‘s Digest Services
Pty Ltd.
7. Hurford R.J. and Heasley B. (1983) Semantics: A Course book.
Cambridge: CUP.
8. Nguyễn Như Ý (1998), Từ điển Giải thích thuật ngữ ngôn ngữ học.
NXB Giáo dục.
9. Nguyễn Thành Chương (2007), Enlarging your vocabulary. NXB Tuổi trẻ.
10. Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (1998), Từ vựng học tiếng Việt. NXB Giáo dục
11. Nguyễn Vạn Phú (2000), Tiếng Anh lý thú – Chuyện chữ và nghĩa tiếng
Anh, NXB TP HCM.
12. Phạm Văn Bình (1999), Tục ngữ nước Anh & thành ngữ tiếng Anh giàu
hình ảnh. NXB Hải Phòng.
13. Phạm Văn Bình (2003), Thành Ngữ Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese Idioms).
NXB Đại học Sư phạm.
14. Pocheptsov G.G. (1974), Language and Humour. Vysca Skola Publishers.
15. Võ Đại Quang (2003), Semantics (Ngữ nghĩa học), Đại học Ngoại ngữ -
ĐHQGHN.
-5-
CONTENTS
Page
UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION 13
What is lexicology? 13
What is word? 13
Why should we study words? 14
What does lexicology deal with? 17
What is the structure of language? 18
What is lexicology in the study of the structure of language? 19
Why should we study lexicology? 19
UNIT 2: ETYMOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH WORDS 21

What is etymology? 21
Etymology of the English words 22
Where did the English words come from? 22
Old English (450-1100 ad) 23
Middle English (1100-1500) 23
Modern English 23
Early modern English (1500-1800) 23
Late modern English (1800-present) 23
Borrowed words in English language 24
Types of borrowings 26
- International words 26
- Etymological doublets 26
- Translation-Loans (calques) 27
- Hybrids 27
Changes borrowings have undergone 28
- Phonetic assimilation 28
- Grammatical assimilation 29
- Semantic assimilation 29
Relationship between etymological and stylistic characteristic of 30
words
-6-
Why learning about word origins or etymologies? 32

Questions for discussion and activities 33
UNIT 3: WORD FORMATION 34

Basic concepts 34
- Morpheme 34
- Root 34
- Stem 35
- Base 35
- Affix 35
- Paradigm 35
Types of words 35
- Root words 35
- Derived words 35
- Compound words 35
- Shortenings/contracted words 36
Major types of word formation 36
- Affixation/derivation 36
- Conversion (Zero-derivation) 44
- Composition/compounding 46
Classification of compounds 47
- Structural criterion 48
- Semantic criterion 48
Compounds versus word combinations 49
Shortening/Contraction 50
Minor types of word formation 52
- Onomatopoeia/Sound imitation 52
- Reduplication 53
- Back-formation/Reversion 54
UNIT 4: WORD MEANINGS 56

What is meaning? 56
-7-
Three conceptions of meaning 56

- Words → things 56
- Words → concepts → things 57
- Stimuli → word → responses 58
Semantic structure of the word 58
Types of semantic components 61
Polysemy 63
Semantic treatment of polysemy 64
Context and meaning 65
How words develop new meanings 66
Development of new meanings 67
- Metaphor 67
- Metonymy 68
- Generalization /extension 69
- Specialization /narrowing 69
- Degradation/pejoration 70
- Elevation/ amelioration 70
UNIT 5: HOMONYMY 73
What are homonyms 73
Classification of homonyms 73
- Homonyms proper 73
- Homophones 74
- Homographs 75
- Full homonyms 75
- Partial homonyms 75
Sources of homonyms 76
- Phonetic changes 77
- Borrowing 77
- Word-building 78
- Split polysemy/ disintegration 78
Homonymy versus polysemy 79
-8-
UNIT 6: SYNONYMY- ANTONYMY 82

What are synonyms 82
Classification of synonyms 84
Types of connotations 87
- Connotation of degree of intensity 87
- Connotation of duration 87
- Emotive connotation 88
- Evaluative connotation 88
- Causative connotation 88
- Connotation of manner 89
- Connotation of attendant circumstances 89
- Connotation of attendant features 90
- Stylistic connotations 90
Sources of synonyms 91
- Borrowings 91
- Dialectical words 92
- Euphemisms 92
- Shift of meaning 92
- Word-formation 92
Implication 92
ANTONYMY 93
What are antonyms? 93
Distribution of antonymy 94
Classification of antonyms 94
- Root (absolute) antonyms 94
- Derivational antonyms 95
UNIT 7: EUPHEMISMS 98
What is euphemism? 98
Characteristics of euphemism 98
-9-
- Fuzziness 98
- Universality 99
- Localization 99
- Contemporaneity 99
Types of euphemisms 100
- Negative euphemisms 100
- Positive euphemisms. 100
Euphemisms in use 100
Why is euphemism? 103
- Social taboos 103
- Superstitious taboos 105
- Political taboos 108
How to create euphemisms 109
- Foreign words 109
- Abbreviations 110
- Abstractions 110
- Indirection 110
- Understatements 111
- Lengthy expressions 111
- Phonetic distortion 111
- Slang 111
Bad effects of over using euphemisms 112
UNIT 8: PHRASEOLOGY - IDIOMS AND PROVERBS 114

Overview 114
Main characteristics 114
Phraseological units versus free word-groups 116
Semantic criterion 117
Structural criterion 118
- Restriction in substitution 118
- Restriction in introducing any additional components 118
- Grammatical invariability 119
- 10 -
Principles of classification 119

Traditional principle 120
Semantic principle 121
- Phraseological combinations 121
- Phraseological unities 121
- Phraseological fusions 122
The structural principle 122
Proverbs 125
UNIT 9: FORMAL OR INFORMAL 129

Neutral or basic layer 129
Literary or formal layer 130
- Common literary words 130
- Terms and learned words 130
- Poetic words and highly literary words 131
- Archaic words 132
- Barbarisms 133
- Literary coinages 133
Colloquial or informal layer 135
- Common colloquial words 135
- Slang 137
- Dialectal words 139
- Jargonisms 140
- Professionalisms 141
- Vulgar words 142
- Colloquial coinages 142
Professionalisms versus terms and jargonisms 143
- Professionalisms versus terms 143
- Professionalisms versus jargonisms 144
- 11 -
UNIT 10: REGIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH 146

English in America 147
Vocabulary of American English 147
- Historical Americanisms 147
- Proper Americanisms 147
- Borrowings 148
- Shortenings 149
Grammar system of American English 150
American English phonetic percularities 159
American English spelling 160
Features of African-American English 161
English in Asia 164
English in Australia and New Zealand 166
Canadian English 169
English in the Indian subcontinent 170
English in Africa 171
English in Europe 172
APPENDIX 1 174
APPENDIX2 175
APPENDIX 3 176
GLOSSARY 180
BIBLIOGRAPHY 187
DICTIONARIES 190
WEBSITES 190
- 12 -
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS LEXICOLOGY?
The word lexicology derives from the Greek, with lexis meaning
―speech, word”, and logia, ―the study of”, a suffix derived from logos,
amongst others meaning ―speech, oration, discourse, quote, study, calculation,
reason‖.
In a word, lexicology can be defined as the study of words or
vocabulary.
WHAT IS WORD?
The Longman Dictionary of the English Language (1984) defines
word as “a meaningful unit of spoken language that can stand alone and is
not divisible into similar units”. Meanwhile, the Chambers Dictionary
(1993) defines it as “the smallest unit of language that can be used
independently”
Words are essential units of language. All of us rely on a huge
repertoire of words each time we communicate. We assemble long lists of
words (dictionaries and have frequent debates about what exactly a word
means (or doesn‘t mean) and who has the authority to decide about such
issues. In everyday talk we often speak about ―words‖ without ever
realizing that ―word‖ could be a problematic notion.
And there are so many other ways in which word can be described:
Word is a means of communication; a saying or expression; a brief conversation,
a rumour, a hint, a sign or signal…
A unit of language that native speakers can identify; “Words are the blocks
from which sentences are made”; “He hardly said ten words all morning”
A brief statement; “He didn't say a word about it”
A verbal command for action: ―When I give the word, charge!‖
Discussion: an exchange of views on some topic; ―We had a good
discussion‖; ―We had a word or two about it”.
Parole: a promise: ―He gave his word”.
- 13 -
Bible: the sacred writings of the Christian religions; ―He went to carry the
Word to the heathen‖.
Something said; an utterance, remark, or comment: May I say a word
about that?
Discourse or talk; speech: Actions speak louder than words.
Music: the text of a vocal composition; lyrics.
An assurance or promise; sworn intention: She has kept her word.
A verbal signal for action or direction, command: When I give the word, fire!
A verbal signal: a password or watchword.
A watchword or slogan: Of a political party the word now is “freedom”
News or information: He sent word that he would be late. Any word on
your promotion?
Rumor: Word has it they're divorcing.
An instance of vocal intercourse, chat, talk, or discussion: to have a word
with someone
An undertaking or promise: I give you my word. He kept his word.
An autocratic decree or utterance; order: His word must be obeyed.
Linguistics: Word is one of the units of speech or writing that native
speakers of a language usually regard as the smallest isolable meaningful
element of the language.
A word is the smallest free form (an item that may be uttered in
isolation with semantic or pragmatic content) in a language, in contrast to a
morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning.
A sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation in writing
or printing, that symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist
of a single morpheme or of a combination of morphemes.
WHY SHOULD WE STUDY WORDS?

Metaphorically, each word can be compared with one person, given
birth to at a certain period of time, undergoing a long process of changes,
both in appearance and personality. For some, the study of words is a
painful and senseless job but for many, it is of great interest because each
word can tell its own tales, has its own life and fate. The more they study
- 14 -
words the greater attraction they find. Hereinafter, we shall find some
stories of words:
Computer technology has become a major part of people's lives. This
technology has its own special words. One example is the word mouse. A
computer mouse is not a small animal that lives in buildings and open fields. It
is a small device that you move around on a flat surface in front of a
computer. The mouse moves the pointer, or cursor, on the computer screen.
Computer expert Douglas Engelbart developed the idea for the
mouse in the early nineteen-sixties. The first computer mouse was a carved
block of wood with two metal wheels. It was called a mouse because it had
a tail at one end. The tail was the wire that connected it to the computer.
Using a computer takes some training. People who are experts are
sometimes called hackers. A hacker is usually a person who writes software
programs in a special computer language. But the word hacker is also used
to describe a person who tries to steal information from computer systems.
Another well known computer word is Google, spelled g-o-o-g-l-e.
It is the name of a popular ―search engine‖ for the Internet. People use the
search engine to find information about almost any subject on the Internet.
The people who started the company named it Google because in
mathematics, googol, spelled g-o-o-g-o-l, is an extremely large number. It
is the number one followed by one-hundred zeros.
When you ―Google‖ a subject, you can get a large amount of
information about it. Some people like to Google their friends or
themselves to see how many times their name appears on the Internet.
If you Google someone, you might find that person's name on a
blog. A blog is the shortened name for a Web log. A blog is a personal Web
page. It may contain stories, comments, pictures and links to other Web
sites. Some people add information to their blogs every day. People who
have blogs are called bloggers.
Blogs are not the same as spam. Spam is unwanted sales messages
sent to your electronic mailbox. The name is based on a funny joke many
years ago on a British television show, ―Monty Python's Flying Circus.‖
Some friends are at an eating place that only serves a processed meat
product from the United States called SPAM. Every time the friends try to
speak, another group of people starts singing the word SPAM very loudly.
This interferes with the friends' discussion – just as unwanted sales
messages interfere with communication over the Internet. (VOA)
- 15 -
The following story will help us trace the origin of the suffix ―-en‖
in English:
Why is “-en” the plural of ox?
According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English, the
suffix -en, among other things, forms the plural of ―a few nouns such as
children, oxen‖. However, I cannot find the noun ―childr‖ in any dictionary.
What is the origin of this strange plural-making suffix? What other
examples, if any, are there in addition to oxen?
English grammar a thousand years ago was more like that of modern
German, with endings for the noun that varied according to the job it was
doing in the sentence. There were about a dozen markers for the plural in all.
As the language changed in the centuries after the Norman Conquest
most of these were lost. The last survivors were -s and -en, the two most
common plural markers in the old language; for a while the two vied for
supremacy. The rare plural forms like oxen are left over from that period,
with -en used for a very few words that fought off the encroachment of -s.
Children is a special case. One of the plurals of child was childer.
This was once common in several English dialects; it used one of the Old
English endings, -er, that vanished from the language in medieval times (it
survives in German). This was then re-pluralised using -en in some parts of
the country, perhaps under the belief that childer was actually singular. It
seems that the same thing happened in Dutch, to make the modern plural
kinderen. The English plural should similarly have been childeren, but the
first e vanished, as it often does in unstressed syllables in the middle of
words. The intermediate plural childer survives only in some local dialects.
In chicken, the -en ending isn‘t a plural, but a diminutive, expressing
small size or affection, which also turns up in kitten and maiden. Chicken is
derived from the same root as cock (through several layers of change) and
originally referred to a young bird; chick looks as though it ought to be the
root from which chicken was derived, but actually it‘s an abbreviated form
of chicken that appeared in the 14th century.
The only other common plural in -en that survives in the modern
language is brethren. This came from an older spelling of brother as
brether, and lost the middle e just as children did. For a while both brothers
and brethren meant the same thing, but the latter gradually shifted sense to
refer to a spiritual relationship.
- 16 -
WHAT DOES LEXICOLOGY DEAL WITH?
Lexicology deals not only with simple words in all their aspects but
also with complex and compound words, the meaningful units of language.
Since these units must be analyzed in respect of both their form and their
meaning, lexicology relies on information derived from morphology, the
study of the forms of words and their components, and semantics, the study
of their meanings.
However, lexicology must not be confused with lexicography, the
writing or compilation of dictionaries, which is a special technique rather
than a level of language studies.
The form or morphological structure or external structure of words is
often associated with the study of word building or word formation where
processes of making new word are dealt with.
The meaning or semantic structure or internal structure of word is
often analyzed on two different levels: paradigmatic and syntagmatic.
Syntagmatically, the semantic structure of the word is analyzed in its
linear relationships with the neighboring words in connected speech.
Paradigmatically, the word is studied in its relationships with other
words in the vocabulary system. For example,
She will leave tomorrow.
He can come today.
The relation between she, will, leave and tomorrow is syntagmatic one.
The relation between she and he, will and can, leave and come,
tomorrow and today is paradigmatic one.
Related issues that are dealt with in this subject are etymology,
homonymy, antonymy, synonymy, phraseology, etc.
One further important objective of lexicological studies is the study
of the vocabulary of a language as a system.
The vocabulary can be studied synchronically, that is, at a given
stage of its development, or diachronically, that is, in the context of the
process through which it grew, developed and acquired its modern form.
- 17 -
WHAT IS THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE?
The structure of language is something that most of us take completely for
granted. We are so used to speaking and understanding our mother tongue
with unselfconscious ease that we do not notice the complex linguistic
architecture that underlies almost every sentence. We forget the years we
expended in mastering this skill, so that when we encounter the structural
complexity of a foreign language as an adult, we are often amazed at the
level of difficulty involved. Similarly, when we hear of people whose ability
to control the structures of their language has broken down, as in the case of
aphasia, we can be surprised at the amount of structural planning involved in
the linguistic analysis and treatment of their handicap. Such instances suggest
the central importance of the field of linguistic structure, not only to such
specialists as teachers or therapists, but to all who wish to further their
understanding of the phenomenon of language.
A simple but effective way of sensing the variety and complexity of
language structure is to turn a radio dial slowly from one end of the
waveband to the other. The first reaction to the auditory tangle of sounds
and words must be one of confusion; but if we stop and listen for a while to
one of the foreign language stations, a pattern will gradually emerge. Some
will stand out, and some (such as international products or political names)
may be recognizable. The pronunciation will become less alien, as we
detect the melodies and rhythmical patterns that convey such information as
‗starting‘ and ‗questioning‘. We may even find ourselves distinguishing
familiar from unfamiliar sounds.
The same kind of reaction takes place when we scan an array of foreign
language publications. Instead of sounds and rhythms, we are now dealing
with shapes and spaces; but the principle is the same. The multifarious variety
of visual forms, many of which are expressing similar meanings, is striking
manifestation of the diversity and depth of language structure.
There is too much going on in a piece of speech, writing, or signing
to permit us to describe its characteristics in a single, simple statement. For
example, even in a short spoken sentence such as Hello there!, several
things are taking place at once. Each word conveys a particular meaning.
There is a likely order in which the word may appear – we would not say
There hello! Each word is composed of a specific sequence of sounds. The
sentence as a whole is uttered in a particular tone of voice (poorly signaled
in writing through the exclamation mark). And the choice of this sentence
immediately constrains the occasion when it might be used – on a first
meeting (and not, for example, upon leave-taking). While we say or hear
- 18 -
the sentence, we are not consciously aware of all these facets of its
structure, but once our attention is drawn to them, we easily recognize their
existence. We could even concentrate on the study of one of these facets
largely to the exclusion of the others – something that takes place routinely
in language teaching, for instance, where someone may learn about aspects
of ―pronunciation‖ one day, and of ―vocabulary‖ or ―grammar‖ the next.
WHAT IS LEXICOLOGY IN THE STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE OF

LANGUAGE?
With lexicology, we are studying one of three main components of
the structure of language namely, phonology, lexicology and syntax.
Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in
natural languages. It analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by
determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and explaining how
these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.
Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies words, their nature
and meaning, words' elements, relations between words (semantic
relations), word groups and the whole lexicon. So, lexicology deals with
special aspects.
Syntax deals with the general facts of language. Syntax is general
because it deals with rules and regularities that apply to classes of words as
a whole, whereas lexicology is particular because it is concerned with the
way individual words operate and affect other words in the same context.
WHY SHOULD WE STUDY LEXICOLOGY?

To some extent, each living language can be seen as a society with
each word as a person. When we learn a new language, we move into a new
society. You cannot integrate into that society unless you understand the
people there and understand their ways of life, their way of thinking, their
culture. Similarly, you cannot master a language without having a good
knowledge of vocabulary: you do not know where the words come from,
what kinds of words they are, how they work, what meanings they have in
different combinations they are in, and so on and so forth. Words are the
means by which we understand the ideas of others and express our own
opinions. It is only logical then that people who know how to use words
concisely and accurately find it easier to achieve their aims. Lexicology will
definitely facilitate your course of action.
- 19 -
Questions for discussion and activities
1. What is word?
2. Why should we study word?
3. What is lexicology?
4. What is lexicology in the study of linguistics?
5. What does lexicology deal with?
6. Why is it necessary for language learners in general and students
of English in particular to study English lexicology?
7. What are your expectations in learning this subject?
8. What difficulties can you envisage in learning this subject?
- 20 -
UNIT 2
ETYMOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH WORDS
WHAT IS ETYMOLOGY?
Etymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how
their form and meaning have changed over time.
For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of
texts in these languages and texts about the languages to gather knowledge
about how words were used during earlier periods of their history and when
they entered the languages in question. Etymologists also apply the methods
of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about languages that
are too old for any direct information to be available. By analyzing related
languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can
make inferences about their shared parent language and its vocabulary. In
this way, word roots have been found that can be traced all the way back to
the origin of, for instance, the Indo-European language family.
Even though etymological research originally grew from the
philological tradition, currently much etymological research is done on
language families where little or no early documentation is available, such
as Uralic and Austronesian.
Etymologists apply a number of methods to study the origins of
words, some of which are:
Philological research: Changes in the form and meaning of the word
can be traced with the aid of older texts, if such are available.
Making use of dialectological data: The form or meaning of the
word might show variations between dialects, which may yield clues about
its earlier history.
The comparative method: By a systematic comparison of related languages,
etymologists may often be able to detect which words derive from their common
ancestor language and which were instead later borrowed from another
language.
The study of semantic change: Etymologists must often make hypotheses
about changes in the meaning of particular words. Such hypotheses are tested
against the general knowledge of semantic shifts. For example, the assumption of
a particular change of meaning may be substantiated by showing that the same
type of change has occurred in other languages as well.
- 21 -
ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS
Where did the English words come from?
Although more people speak Mandarin Chinese, English is used in
more countries than any other language in the world.
English derives from Old English (sometimes referred to as Anglo-
Saxon), a West Germanic variety, although its current vocabulary includes
words from many languages.
The history of the English language really started with the arrival of
three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD.
These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea
from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the
inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic
speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is
now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from Ungallant and
their language was called Englisc - from which the words England and
English are derived.
English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. To
illustrate the family relationship of these languages, here are the words for
mother and brother.
English mother brother
German mutter bruder
Gaelic máthair braithair
Latin mater frater
Greek mẽtẽr phratẽr
Old Church Slavonic mati bratru
Sanskrit mãtr bhrãtr
Indo-European mãter bhrãter
It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive
amongst the world‘s languages contains an immense number of words of
foreign origin.
In order to have a better understanding of the problem, it will be
necessary to go through a brief survey of certain historical facts, relating to
different epochs.
- 22 -
Old English (450-1100 AD)
The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in
Britain developed into what we now call Old English. Old English did not
sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now would have
great difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the
most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The
words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old
English was spoken until around 1100.
Middle English (1100-1500)

In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of
modern France), invaded and conquered England. The new conquerors
(called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became
the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a
period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes
spoke English and the upper classes spoke French.
In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but
with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. It
was the language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still
be difficult for native English speakers to understand today.
Modern English
Early Modern English (1500-1800)
Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in
pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being
pronounced shorter and shorter. From the 16th century the British had
contact with many peoples from around the world. This, and the
Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases
entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that there was
now a common language in print. Books became cheaper and more people
learned to read. Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling
and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most
publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English
dictionary was published.
Late Modern English (1800-Present)
The main difference between Early Modern English and Late
Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words,
- 23 -
arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and
technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at
its height covered one quarter of the earth‘s surface, and the English
language adopted foreign words from many countries.
BORROWED WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Etymologically, the vocabulary of any language consists of two
groups - the native words and the borrowed words.
The Old English roots may be seen in the similarity of numbers in
English and German, particularly seven/sieben, eight/acht, nine/neun, and
ten/zehn. Pronouns are also cognate: I/mine/me ich/mein/mich;
thou/thine/thee and du/dein/dich; we/wir us/uns; she/sie. However,
language change has eroded many grammatical elements, such as the noun
case system, which is greatly simplified in modern English, and certain
elements of vocabulary, some of which are borrowed from French.
Although more than half of the words in English come from either
the French language or have a French cognate, most of the common words
used in English are of Germanic origin. For an example of the etymology of
an English irregular verb of Germanic origin, see the etymology of the word
go. Days of the week are derived from old Norse: Monday (Moondæg),
Tuesday (Twiesdæg), Wednesday (Wodensdæg), Thursday (Thorsdæg),
Friday (Friedæg), Saturday (Saternesdæg), Sunday (Sunnandæg).
When the Normans conquered England in 1066, they brought their
Norman language with them. During the Anglo-Norman period, which
united insular and continental territories, the ruling class spoke Anglo-
Norman, while the peasants spoke the vernacular English of the time, as
well as the native Celtic languages.
Anglo-Norman was the conduit for the introduction of French into
England, aided by the circulation of Langue d'oïl literature from France. This
led to many paired words of French and English origin. For example, beef is
related, through borrowing, to modern French bœuf, veal to veau, pork to porc,
and poultry to poulet. All these words, French and English, refer to the meat
rather than to the animal. Words that refer to farm animals, on the other hand,
tend to be cognates of words in other Germanic languages. For example,
swine/Schwein, cow/Kuh, calf/Kalb, and sheep/Schaf.
English words of more than two syllables are likely to come from
French, often with modified terminations. For example, the French words for
syllable, modified, terminations, and example are syllabe, modifié,
- 24 -
terminaisons, and exemple. In many cases, the English form of a word is more
conservative (i.e., has changed less) than the French form. Polysyllabic words
in English also carry connotations of higher education or politeness.
English has proven accommodating to words from many languages,
as described in the following examples.
Scots: cuddle, eerie, and greed
Portuguese: albino, palaver, lingo, verandah, and coconut
Italian: diva, prima donna, pasta, pizza, paparazzi, and umbrella
Arabic: adobe, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, apricot, assassin,
caliber, cotton, hazard, jacket, jar, julep, mosque, Muslim, orange,
safari, sofa, and zero
Japanese: honcho, sushi, and tsunami
Cantonese Chinese: dim sum, gung ho, kowtow, kumquat, ketchup,
and typhoon
Hebrew: behemoth, hallelujah, Satan, jubilee, and rabbi
Russian: taiga, sable, and sputnik
Irish: galore, whiskey, phoney, trousers, and Tory
Sanskrit: brahman, guru, karma, and pandit
Malay: kampong and amok
Swedish: smorgasbord and ombudsman
Spanish has contributed many words, particularly in the
southwestern United States. Examples include buckaroo from vaquero or
―cowboy‖; alligator from el lagarto or ―lizard‖; rodeo and savvy; states'
names such as Colorado and Florida.
Scientific terminology relies heavily on words of Latin and Greek origin.
Greek: drama, comedy, tragedy, scene, botany, physics, zoology,
atomic (as well as many root words: thermo, phobia...)
Latin: convention, animal, bonus, maximum, alumnus, quorum, exit,
scientific, orthography, advantage, debt, agile, abdomen, anatomy, area,
capsule, compensate, dexterity, discus, disc/disk, excavate, expensive,
fictitious, gradual, habitual, insane, janitor, meditate, orbit, peninsula,
physician, superintendent, ultimate…
- 25 -
TYPES OF BORROWINGS
1. International Words
Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result
of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are
called international words.
There are in most of European languages some words whose
meaning – no matter who say them, an Englishman, a Russian or a
Frenchman, etc., i.e. allowing for the difference in pronunciation – is
roughly speaking, identical. The international words can be traced
etymologically, that is to say they came into different languages as a result
of simultaneous or successive borrowing from one or the same source.
―International‖ words differ from other borrowing in that they reflect
the relations of a number of countries and not the relations between two
countries as is the case with borrowed words. Neither should they be
confounded with words of the common Indo-European stock.
Most names of sciences of Latin and Greek origin are international,
e.g., philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, lexicology.
There are also numerous terms of art in this group:
e.g., music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist.
Political terms frequently occur in the international words:
e.g., politics, policy, revolution, democracy, communism, progress
Scientific and technological terms:
e.g., atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik.
The English language also contributed a considerable number of
international words to world languages. Among them the sports terms
occupy a prominent position:
e.g., football, volley-ball, hockey, cricket, golf, etc.
Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries often transport
their names too and, being simultaneously imported to many countries,
become international:
e.g., coffee, cocoa, chocolate, avocado, grapefruit.
2. Etymological Doublets
One of a pair of (or several) words more or less similar in meaning
and phonation, appearing in language as the result of borrowing from the
same source at different times.
- 26 -
The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same
root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests) is a
Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, and yet there is
a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin. Their meanings
are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing.
More examples can be seen in:
abridge-abbreviate, artist-artiste, chieftain-captain,
card-chart, cavalry-chivalry…
Some of these pairs, like shirt and skirt, consist of a native word and
a borrowed word:
shrew, n.(E) – screw, n.(Sc).
Others are represented by two borrowings from the same language
twice, but in different periods:
corpse (Norm. Fr) – corps (Par. Fr.), travel (Norm. Fr) – travail
(Par. Fr.),
cavalry (Norm. Fr.) – chivalry (Par. Fr.), canal (Lat.) – channel (Fr.)
gaol (Norm. Fr.) – jail (Par. Fr.)
hospital (Lat.) – hostel (Norm. Fr.) – hotel (Par. Fr.),
to capture (Lat.) – to catch (Norm. Fr.) – to chase (Par. Fr).
3. Translation-Loans (calques)
Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the
material already existing in the language but according to patterns taken
from another language, by way of literal word-for-word or root-for-root
translation.
for example:
wonder child (from Germ. Wunderkind),
first dancer (from Ital. Prima-ballerina).
The moment of truth (Sp. El momento de la verdad); with a grain of
salt (Lat. Cum grano salis); famous case (Fr. Cause célebre); underground
movement (Fr. Le movement souterrain); that goes without saying (Fr.
Châteaux en Espagne), wall-newspaper (Rus. – деворий газета), five-year
plan (Rus. – пятилетний план), etc.
4. Hybrids
A hybrid is a word whose different elements are of etymologically
different origin, for example,
- 27 -
Aquaphobia – from Latin aqua ―water‖ and Greek φοβία ―fear‖; this
term is distinguished from the non-hybrid word hydrophobia, which can
refer to symptoms of rabies.
Automobile – a wheeled passenger vehicle, from Greek αυτό~ (auto)
―self-‖ and Latin mobilis ―moveable‖
Biathlon – from the Latin bis and the Greek αθλος (athlos) meaning
contest
Bigamy – from the Latin bis meaning ―twice‖ and the Greek γαμος
(gamos) meaning wedlock.
Hexadecimal – from the Greek (hex) meaning ―six‖ and the Latin
decimus meaning ―tenth‖
Homosexual – from the Greek μόvoς (homos) meaning ―same‖ and
the Latin sexus meaning ―gender‖
Monoculture – from the Greek μόνπ (monos) meaning ―one, single‖
and the Latin cultura
Monolingual – from the Greek μόνπ (monos) meaning ―one‖ and the
Latin lingua meaning "tongue"; the non-hybrid word is unilingual
Neonate – from the Greek νέος (neos), ―new‖, and the Latin natus,
―birth‖
Neuroscience – from the Greek νέσρον (neuron), meaning ―sinew‖
and the Latin scientia, from sciens, meaning ―having knowledge of‖
CHANGES BORROWINGS HAVE UNDERGONE

The process of assimilation of borrowings includes changes in
sound-form, morphological structure, grammar characteristics, meaning and
usage. Linguists distinguish phonetic, grammatical and semantic
assimilation of borrowings.
1. Phonetic assimilation
Phonetic assimilation comprises changes in sound-form and stress.
Sounds that were alien to the English language were fitted into its scheme
of sounds. For instance, the long [e] and [E] in recent French borrowings,
quite strange to English speech, are rendered with the help of [ei] (as in the
words communiqué, chaussee, café) Familiar sounds or sound combinations
the position of which was strange to the English language, were replaced by
- 28 -
other sounds or sound combinations to make the words conform to the
norms of the language.
Substitution of native sounds for foreign ones usually takes place in
the very act of borrowing. But some words retain their foreign
pronunciation for a long time before the unfamiliar sounds are replaced by
similar native sounds.
e.g., Garage [ gə‗ra:ʒ – ‗g æra:ʒ – ‗gæridʒ ]
In words that were added to English from foreign sources, especially
from French or Latin, the accent was gradually transferred to the first
syllable. Thus words like honour, reason were accented on the same
principle as the native father, mother.
Some of the French words keep the stress on the final syllable:
machine, cartoon, police.
2. Grammatical assimilation
Usually as soon as words from other languages were introduced into
English they lost their former grammatical categories and inflexions and
acquired new grammatical categories and paradigms by analogy with other
English words.
e. g. sputnik- sputniks- sputnik‟s, coconut - coconuts
However, there are some words in modern English that have for
centuries retained their foreign inflexions.
Phenomenon-phenomena, datum-data, stratum-strata
Other borrowings have two plural forms the native and the foreign,
e. g. antenna- antennae, antennas
formula- formulae, formulas,
memorandum- memoranda, memorandums
3. Semantic assimilation
When a word is taken into another language its semantic structure, as
a rule, undergoes great changes.
Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or two of
their meanings.
Thus, the word timbre that had a number of meanings in French was
borrowed into English as a musical term only.
- 29 -
The words cargo and cask, highly polysemantic in Spanish were
adopted only in one of their meanings – the goods carried in a ship and a
barrel for holding liquids respectively.
In some cases we can observe specialization of meaning, as in the
word hangar, denoting a building in which aero planes are kept and revive,
which had the meaning of review in French and came to denote a kind of
theatrical entertainment in English.
In the process of its historical development a borrowing sometimes
acquired new meanings that were not to be found in its former semantic
structure.
For instance, the word move in modern English has developed the
meanings of ―propose‖, ―change one‟s flat”, ―mix with people” and others that
the French mouvoir does not possess. The word scope which originally had the
meaning of ―aim purpose”, now means ―ability to understand”, ―the field within
which an activity takes place, sphere”, “opportunity, freedom of action”.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETYMOLOGICAL AND STYLISTIC

CHARACTERISTIC OF WORDS
When it comes to the role of native and borrowed words in the
language we must not take into consideration only the number of them but
their semantic, stylistic character, their word building ability, frequency value,
collocability (valency) and the productivity of their word-building patterns.
When borrowed words were identical in meaning with those already in
English, the adopted word might replace the native word. In most cases,
however, the borrowed words and synonymous native words (or words
borrowed earlier) remained in the language, becoming more or less
differentiated in meaning and use. As a result, the number of synonymic
groups in English greatly increased. Linguists, writers and others have often
commented on the relationship between such synonyms. Otto Jespersen, for
instance, remarks that the native synonym is always nearer the nation‘s heart
than the French: ―it has the strongest associations with everything primitive,
fundamental, popular, while the French word is often more formal, more
polite, more refined and has a less strong hold on the emotional side of life‖ .
Simeon Potter (1960) makes a similar point: ―English and French
expressions may have similar denotations but slightly different connotations
and associations. Generally the English words are stronger, more physical,
and more human. We feel more at ease after getting a hearty welcome than
- 30 -
after being granted a cordial reception. Compare freedom with liberty,
friendship with amity, kingship with royalty, holiness with sanctity,
happiness with felicity, depth with profundity, and love with charity‖ .
John Orr (1953) notes the ―aristocratic‖ quality of many of the
French words adopted by English: ―When two synonyms exist to-day, one
Anglo-Saxon, the other French: to keep back and to retain, to hold up and
to sustain, smell and odour or perfume, forgive and pardon, right and just,
feed and nourish, same and equal, build and construct, and countless others,
the ancient hierarchy is still manifest - the English word humble, concrete,
matter-of-fact, the French more abstract, academic, intellectual, and
refined, corresponding not so much to a difference of class in the users of
these words as to a difference in the fields of intellectual or social activity
to which the words were and are applied‖ .
The stylistic distinction between the two layers of the English
vocabulary has been emphasized. In many cases, saying that the native word
is more colloquial, while the French synonym is more literary, may sum up
the difference. The former will normally belong to the informal style of
speech, while the latter will be typical of a more formal style or register.
The truth of this observation becomes even more obvious if we
regard certain pairs within which a native word may be compared with its
Latin synonym:
motherly - maternal, fatherly - paternal,
daughterly - filial, childish - infantile, etc.
Motherly love rings sweet and natural, compared to maternal
feelings, which sounds formal and dry.
All the same, the word childish reminds us of all the wonder and
vivid poetry of the earliest human age that infantile cannot do. You may
speak about childish games and childish charm, but about infantile
diseases, whereas infantile mind implies criticism.
The centre of gravity of borrowed words in the stylistic classification
is represented by two groups: learned words and terminology. In these
strata the foreign element dominates the native. It also seems that the whole
opposition of ―formal versus informal‖ is based on the deeper underlying
opposition of ―borrowed versus native‖, as the informal strata, especially
slang and dialect, abound in native words even though it is possible to quote
numerous exceptions.
- 31 -
WHY LEARNING ABOUT WORD ORIGINS OR ETYMOLOGIES?

Etymology deals with the origin or derivation of words. When you
know the meaning of , for example, a Latin or Greek root, prefix, or suffix;
you can better understand, and more easily remember, all the vocabulary
words built on this Latin or Greek element that exists in English words.
Learning one root and you will have the key that will unlock the
meanings of up to ten, twenty, or even hundreds of English words in which
that Latin and/or Greek element (prefix, root, and suffix) appears; for
example, learn ego (Latin, I) and you will immediately have a grasp of the
meanings of egocentric, egomaniac, egoist, egotist, and alter ego all of
which will expand your vocabulary.
- 32 -
Questions for discussion and activities

1. What is meant by etymology?
2. What branch of the family of the Indo-European language
does the English language belong to?
3. Etymologically, how can English be an international language?
4. What are the major stages in the historical development of the
English language?
5. What are the main types of borrowings in the English language?
6. How many typical examples of borrowings in the Vietnamese
language from the English language can you find?
7. What changes can borrowings in the English language
go through?
8. What is the relationship between etymological and stylistic
characteristic of words?
9. Is the relationship between etymological and stylistic
characteristic of words a ―universal‖ one?
- 33 -

Lexicology Coursebook (Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lexicology Coursebook (Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC HÀ NỘI

Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng (Biên soạn)

HOW TO USE THIS COURSE BOOK

1. Alexander (1994), Right Word, Wrong Word: Words and Structures

UNIT 2: ETYMOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH WORDS 21

Why learning about word origins or etymologies? 32

UNIT 3: WORD FORMATION 34

UNIT 4: WORD MEANINGS 56

Three conceptions of meaning 56

Questions for discussion and activities 81

UNIT 6: SYNONYMY- ANTONYMY 82

UNIT 8: PHRASEOLOGY - IDIOMS AND PROVERBS 114

Principles of classification 119

UNIT 9: FORMAL OR INFORMAL 129

UNIT 10: REGIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH 146

WHY SHOULD WE STUDY WORDS?

WHAT IS LEXICOLOGY IN THE STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE OF

WHY SHOULD WE STUDY LEXICOLOGY?

Middle English (1100-1500)

BORROWED WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

CHANGES BORROWINGS HAVE UNDERGONE

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETYMOLOGICAL AND STYLISTIC

WHY LEARNING ABOUT WORD ORIGINS OR ETYMOLOGIES?

Questions for discussion and activities

You might also like