CELL STRUCTURE

 Organisms can be prokaryotes or eukaryotes

o Eukaryotes are multicellular organisms that include all animals,
plants, algae, and fungi
o Prokaryotes are smaller and simpler like bacteria
o Both types of cells contain organelles which are parts of cells that
have a specific function
 Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells

Structure of eukaryotic cells

 Cell wall: a rigid structure that surrounds cells in plants, algae and fungi
o In plants and algae, it is made of cellulose
o In fungi, it is made of chitin
o A cell wall supports cells and stops them from changing shape

 Cell-surface membrane: the membrane found on the surface of animal

cells and under the cell wall in plants, algae, and fungi
o It regulates the movement of substances in and out of a cell
o It also has receptors which allow it to respond to chemicals like
hormones

 Nucleus: a large organelle surrounded by a double membrane called a

nuclear envelope which has openings called nuclear pores
o The nucleus contains chromosomes which are made from linear
DNA bound to proteins
o It also contains one or more nucleoli
o The nucleus controls the cells activities by controlling the
transcription of DNA
o The nuclear pores allow RNA to move out of the nucleus and into
the cytoplasm
o The nucleolus is the site of the ribosome
 Mitochondrion: an oval shaped organelle with a double membrane
o Inner membrane is folded to form cristae
o Space inside is called the matrix
o Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration

 Chloroplast: only found in a plant and algal cells

o Surrounded by a double membrane and contains structure called
thylakoid membranes
o The fluid around the grana and lamellae is canned the stroma
o Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis

 Golgi apparatus: an organelle made of a stack of flattened sacs

o Processes and packages lipids and proteins by adding
carbohydrate groups to them
o Produces secretory enzymes
o Forms lysosomes
o The Golgi apparatus is surrounded by Golgi vesicles that transport
and store lipids

 Lysosome: a Golgi vesicle that contains digestive enzymes (lysosomes)

like proteases and lipases
o Can be used to break down material ingested by the cell or break
down worn-out cell components
o Also can release enzymes to the outside of the cell

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum: a system of sheet-like membranes that

enclose a fluid filled space and covered with ribosomes
o The RER is the site of protein synthesis by ribosomes
o It also provides a pathway for protein transport

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: similar to the RER but doesn’t have

ribosomes
o Site of lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
 Ribosome: a very small organelle that either are free in the cytoplasm or
bound to the RER
o Made of two parts: smaller and larger subunits
o Ribosomes synthesise proteins from mRNA and amino acids

 Vacuole: a large fluid-filled sac

o Found In the cytoplasm of plant cells
o Contains cell sap
o Helps to maintain pressure inside the cell and stop plants wilting
o Also can be used to isolate unwanted chemicals in the cell
Cell specialisation and organisation

 In multicellular organisms, cells become specialised to carry out specific

functions
 Different types of cells have different structures to help them carry out
their functions
 Cells are organised into tissues, tissues into organs, and organs into
organ systems
o Specialised cells of the same function group together into tissues
o Tissues of the same function form organs
o Organs group with other organs to form organ systems

STRUCTURE OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS

 Cell wall: rigid structure that provides support to the cell

o Made of murein

 Capsule: some bacteria have a capsule made of slime

o Helps protect bacteria from attack and allows groups of bacteria to
stick together

 Cell surface membrane: phospholipid bilayer similar to a eukaryotic cell

 Circular DNA: prokaryotes don’t have nuclei or proteins associated with

DNA – just a loop of circular DNA free in the cytoplasm

 Plasmids: small extra loops of DNA that carry genes that can help with
survival e.g. antibiotic resistance
o Not always present in prokaryotes and some prokaryotes can have
several
o Plasmids can be transferred between prokaryotes

 Flagellum: a long hair-like structure found in some species

o Used to make the cell move

 The cytoplasm has no membrane-bound organelles

o Contains free 70s ribosomes
Virus structure

 Viruses are non-living and acellular

 Made up of nucleic acids surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid
 Attachment proteins are found on the surface of the virus to allow it to
attach to and enter a host cell

CELL DIVISION

Mitosis
 eukaryotes replicate via mitosis
 there are two types of cell division in eukaryotes: mitosis and meiosis
o mitosis produces two identical ‘daughter’ cells for growth or
repair of tissue
o meiosis produces four genetically different daughter cells for
reproduction
o in multicellular organisms, not all cells retain their ability to divide
but those that do follow the cell
The cell cycle

 the cell cycle consists of interphase and mitosis

 interphase is a period of growth and DNA replication that is divided into

three stages: G1, S and G2
o during G1, the cell grows and makes organelles and proteins that
will be needed
o during S, the DNA replicates
o During G2, the cell grows again, and proteins needed for cell
division are made

 Mitosis is a period of cell division that has four stages: prophase,

metaphase, anaphase, and telophase and cytokinesis

o Prophase:
 Chromosomes condense and become visible
 Centrioles move to opposite ends of cell and start forming a
network of fibres called the spindle
 Nuclear envelope breaks down and chromosomes are free
in the cytoplasm
o Metaphase:
 The chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell and
attach themselves to the spindle via their centromere
o Anaphase:
 The centromeres divide and the sister chromatids separate
 Each sister chromatid is pulled to the opposite end of the
cell
o Telophase and cytokinesis:
 The chromosomes reach their respective poles and become
longer and thinner
 The nuclear envelope reforms
 The cell become longer and thinner in the middle and
eventually splits into two
o Mitosis is a highly controlled process and cancer is uncontrolled
mitosis
 Many cancer treatments target the cell cycle to kill the
tumour cells
 However, this also targets normal body cells that are rapidly
dividing such as hair cells
Binary fission

 Prokaryotes replicate via binary fission

1. The circular DNA replicates once and plasmids replicate multiple
times
2. The cell gets bigger and the loops of DNA move to opposite poles of
the cells
3. The cytoplasm divides and a new cell membrane and cell wall begins
to form
4. Two ‘daughter’ cells are formed, each with one loop of circular DNA
but a variable number of plasmids

 Viruses are non-living so they cannot replicate by themselves

 They use a host cell to replicate

o The attachment proteins bind to complementary receptors on the
cell-surface membrane of the host cell
o They then interject their DNA or RNA into the host cell and it
begins producing new viral components which are assembled into
new viruses
MICROSCOPES
 Magnification: difference in size between the image and the real object
o Magnification: size of image / size of real object
 Resolution: a measure of how detailed the image is
o Calculated as the minimum distance apart that two points have to
be to be able to be distinguished by the microscope

Types of microscopes

 There are two main types: light and electron

Light microscopes Electron microscopes

Use light to form an image
Maximum resolution of 0.2
micrometers
Maximum magnification of x1500
Uses electrons to form an image
Maximum resolution of 0.0002
micrometers
Maximum magnification of
x1,500,000

 There are two main types of electron microscope: transmission and

scanning

Transmission (TEM) Scanning (SEM)

Uses electromagnets to focus
electrons into a beam that passes
through a thin section of the
specimen and into a screen behind to
form a photomicrograph
Denser areas of the specimen absorb
more electrons and so appear darker
Pros: extremely high-resolution
images
Cons:
specimen must be very thin
complex staining process required
image is 2D
image is not in colour
Uses electromagnets to scan the
beam of electrons over the surface of
the specimen
Electrons are scattered with
computer analysis, a 3D image can be
produced that shows the surface of
the specimen
Pros: can use thicker specimens that
TEM, image is 3D
Cons:
Specimen must be extremely thin
Complex staining process required
Image is not in colour
Lower resolution than TEM
CELL FRACTIONATION AND UNTRACENTRIFUGATION

 Cell fractionation is a method of breaking cells up and separating the

components

 Step 1: homogenisation (breaking up the cells)

o Can be done by grinding the cells in a blender or vibrating them
o The solution should be ice-cold (to reduce activity of enzymes that
might break down organelles) and isotonic

 Step 2: filtration (removing complete cells and debris)

 Step 3: ultracentrifugation (separating the organelles)

o Pour cell fragments into a test tube and put the test tube into a
centrifuge
o Spin the centrifuge at a low speed
 The heaviest organelles are forced to the bottom to form a
thick sediment called the pellet
 The liquid above is called the supernatant and is transferred
to another test tube to be spun again
o Spin the centrifuge faster to isolate the mitochondria in the pellet
then drain the supernatant to spin again
o Continue the process to isolate the next heaviest
o Organelles are isolated in this order: nuclei, mitochondria,
lysosomes, ER, ribosomes
TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES
Structure of the cell surface membranes

 All cell membranes have the same basic structure

o All cells are surrounded by membranes
o The cell membrane surrounding the cell is called the cell-surface
membrane

 Cell surface membranes are made up of a phospholipid bilayer with

other molecules embedded in it such as proteins, glycolipids,
glycoproteins and cholesterol
o The membrane has a ‘fluid mosaic’ structure
o The phospholipid molecules form a continuous bilayer which is
called ‘fluid’ as the phospholipids are constantly moving

 Proteins can either be embedded in one phospholipid layer or span the

whole bilayer
o Proteins just in one layer are normally for mechanical support or
act as receptors
o Proteins spanning both layers can be channel or carrier proteins to
transport substances in and out of cells

 Glycolipids are formed from a carbohydrate bound to a lipid molecule

o They extend out of the phospholipid bilayer into the environment
outside of the cell
o They act as cell-surface receptors and help to maintain the
stability of the membrane
o They can also allow cells to bind together to form tissues

 Glycoproteins are proteins embedded in the membrane with a

carbohydrate group attached to them
o They act as receptors/recognition sites and help cells bind
together to form tissues
 o They also allow immune cells to recognise self-cells, so they don’t
get attacked
 Cholesterol molecules are found inside the phospholipid bilayer between
the phospholipid molecules, and they increase the strength of the
membrane
o They pull the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids together
which limits their movement, which makes the membrane more
rigid especially at high temperatures
o This helps to maintain the shape of animal cells

 The cell-surface membrane is partially permeable which means it lets

some things through but not others
o Small, lipid-soluble molecules can pass through the lipid bilayer
o Other molecules can only enter the cell is there is a specific
channel or carrier protein for them
MOVEMENT ACROSS CELL-SURFACE MEMBRANES

DIFFUSION
 Diffusion is the net movement of particles from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration
o It is a passive process (does not require energy from ATP)
o It occurs due to the random movement of particles
o The concentration gradient is the path from the area of high
concentration to the area of low concentration – particles move
down a concentration gradient

 Simple diffusion occurs when the molecule can move freely through the
cell-surface membrane
o This occurs for small, non-polar molecules such as oxygen and
carbon dioxide
o To increase the rate of simple diffusion, increase the surface area

 Facilitated diffusion involves the use of channel and carrier proteins

o Large molecules and charged ions aren’t able to move via simple
diffusion as they can’t pass through the lipid membrane
o Instead, they move through channel or carrier proteins down a
concentration gradient
o It is a passive process
o Channel proteins form pores that allow a specific molecule to pass
through
o Carrier proteins change shape when a specific molecule binds to
them and deposits the molecule inside the cell
o The increase rate of facilitated diffusion, increase the number of
channel/carrier proteins on the exchange surface
OSMOSIS
 Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules
o It is the movement of water from an area of high water potential
to an area of low water potential
o It is a passive process
o Water potential is the ‘concentration’ of water
 A solution with a high concentration of solute will have low water
potential and vice versa
 To increase the rate of osmosis, increase the water potential gradient,
make the exchange surface thinner and increase the surface area of the
exchange surface

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Active transport is the movement of substances from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration against the concentration
gradient that requires energy
 It is an active process (requires energy from ATP)
 Carrier proteins are used in active transport
o The molecule or ion binds to a specific carrier protein
o ATP breaks down into ADP and a Pi group which releases energy
to change the shape of the carrier protein
o The molecule is deposited in the cell and the carrier protein
reverts to its original shape
 Co-transporters are a type of carrier protein that bind two molecules at
the same time
o One of the molecules moves down its concentration gradient and
this moves the other against its concentration gradient
 An example of this is the transport of glucose using sodium in the ileum
o Sodium moves into the cells down its concentration gradient, and
this moves glucose in as well, against its concentration gradient
DEFINITIONS

Active transport: the movement of substances from an area of low

concentration to an area of high concentration against the concentration
gradient that requires energy

Osmosis: the movement of water from an area of high water potential to an

area of low water potential

Diffusion: the net movement of particles from areas of high concentration to

areas of low concentration

cell wall: a permeable layer that surrounds cells made of polysaccharides that
gives strength to the cell

chloroplast: an organelle found in plants and algae that is the site of

photosynthesis

vacuole: a membrane found in plant cells that contains cell sap

flagella: a tail structure found on bacterial cells that is used for cell movement

Golgi apparatus: an organelle found in eukaryotic cells that is involved in the

modification and packaging of proteins

Lysosomes: membrane-bound vesicles found in the cytoplasm

Mitochondrion: an organelle found in eukaryotic cells that is the site of aerobic

respiration

Nucleus: an organelle found in eukaryotic cells that stores the genetic

information of the cell as chromosomes and is surrounded by a membrane
called the nuclear envelope

Plasmids: a circular loop of DNA found in the cytoplasm of bacterial cells

Ribosomes: organelles found either free in the cytoplasm or membrane bound

that are involved in protein synthesis

RER: a membrane-bound organelle that is involved in the synthesis and

packaging of proteins

SER: a membrane-bound organelle that is involved in lipid synthesis.