Exponent and Roots

Study Unit
Exponents and Roots

Preview
INTRODUCTION
In this study unit, youÊll be learning about exponents and roots and how theyÊre used
in algebra. YouÊll learn how to simplify exponential and radical expressions and the
equations that contain them. YouÊll learn how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide
exponential expressions. Next, youÊll see how to write very large or very small numbers
in scientific notation by using your knowledge of exponents. Finally, youÊll learn about
the Pythagorean theorem and how this useful formula can be applied to real-life situations.
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this study unit , youÊll be able to
■ Define the terms exponent, base, and root
■ Perform operations involving monomials and polynomials with exponents
■ Explain the meaning of negative, zero, and fractional exponents
■ Translate numbers from decimal notation to scientific notation, and vice versa
■ Perform operations involving square roots
■ Define the terms rational number and irrational number
■ Solve equations containing radicals
■ Apply the Pythagorean theorem
Occasionally in this study unit, youÊll come across little puzzles called Mind Teasers.
These puzzles are just for fun and wonÊt be graded. The solutions to the Mind Teaser
puzzles can be found at the back of this booklet.
iii
Contents
EXPONENTS 1
Review of Exponents 1
Positive and Negative Bases 2
Powers of Ten 5
Variables in Exponential Expressions 6
Adding and Subtracting Exponential Expressions 7
Multiplying Exponential Expressions 9
Dividing Exponential Expressions 14
Negative Exponents in Division Problems 16
Raising an Exponential Expression to a Power 20
Raising a Fraction to a Power 26
Expressions with Negative Exponents 32
Fractions with Negative Exponents 37
Scientific Notation 41
ROOTS 51
What Is a Root? 51
Cube Roots and Fourth Roots 53
Radicals with Variables 54
Rational and Irrational Numbers 55
Simplifying Square Roots 57
Simplifying Radical Expressions with Variables 60
Fractional Exponents 64
v
Adding and Subtracting Radicals 70
Multiplying Radicals 73
Dividing Radicals 77
Simplifying Fractions Containing Radicals 79
Using Square Roots to Solve Equations 87
Radical Equations 90
THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM 102

Definition of the Theorem 102
Pythagorean Theorem Problems 103
SUMMARY 113
MIND TEASER ANSWERS 115
GLOSSARY 117
vi Contents
Exponents and Roots
EXPONENTS
Review of Exponents
YouÊll remember that we discussed exponents in an earlier study unit. In this study
unit, weÊll be exploring exponents further. YouÊll learn how to perform operations
with exponents, and how to solve equations that contain exponents. However, letÊs
start by taking a moment to review the most important concepts about exponents.
First, remember that in a multiplication problem, each of the numbers being multi-
plied is called a factor, and the answer is called the product. For example, in the
multiplication problem 5 6 2 = 60, the numbers 5, 6, and 2 are factors, and the
number 60 is the product.
Sometimes, multiplication problems are long and contain one factor thatÊs repeated
many times. For example, the multiplication problem 4 4 4 4 4 contains the
factor 4 repeated five times. Instead of writing out this long multiplication problem,
you can simply write an exponent. An exponent is a „shorthand‰ way of writing a
long multiplication problem. The multiplication problem 4 4 4 4 4, for
example, can be written as the expression 45.
In the expression 45, the number 4 is the base, and the number 5 is the exponent. The
exponent tells you how many times the base is to be multiplied by itself. The expres-
sion 45 can be read „four to the fifth power.‰ Or, you can say that the base 4 has been
„raised to the fifth power.‰ Any mathematical statement that contains an exponent is
called an exponential expression.
1
To solve an exponential expression, you simply perform the multiplication indicated
by the exponent. So, to solve the exponential expression 45, simply multiply 4 by itself
five times.
4 4 4 4 4 = 1,024
Any number can be used as an exponent, even large numbers like 100 or 1,000. The
numbers 0 and 1 can also be used as exponents. The following expressions show
examples of these exponents.
21 40 12100 151
The exponent 1 indicates that the base is to be used as a factor once. So, the exponen-
tial expression 21 equals 2. Any base number with an exponent of 1 is, equal to the
base number itself.
41 = 4 101 = 10 501 = 50 01 = 0
The exponent 0 indicates that the base is to be multiplied by its reciprocal.
1
40 = 4× =1
4
↓
reciprocal
Any number multiplied by its reciprocal equals 1. So, any number with an exponent
of 0 is automatically equal to 1.
10 = 1 150 = 1 2570 = 1 720 = 1
Positive and Negative Bases

Both positive and negative numbers may be used as bases in exponential expressions.
When a positive base number is raised to any power, the result is always a positive
number. Look at the following two examples:
+34 = (+3)(+3)(+3)(+3) = +81

+23 = (+2)(+2)(+2) = +8
2 Exponents and Roots

Raising the positive number 3 to the fourth power yields a positive product. Raising
the positive number 2 to the third power yields a positive product.
When a negative base number is raised to a power, the result could be either positive
or negative, depending on the exponent. For example, in the exponential expression
(–3)2, the base is –3. To solve this expression, multiply –3 by itself.
(–3) (–3) = +9
The answer is positive, because one negative number multiplied by another negative
number produces a positive answer. Now, suppose you have the expression (–3)3. To
solve this expression, multiply –3 by itself three times.
(–3) (–3) (–3) = –27
In a multiplication problem like this one, remember that you must perform the multi-
plication operations from left to right in order. So, you first multiply –3 times –3 to get
+9. Then, you multiply +9 by –3 to get the result, –27. The answer is a negative
number.
It can be a little difficult to multiply out a problem like this one because you have to
keep track of the negative and positive signs at each stage of the multiplication.
However, thereÊs a handy rule you can use to help simplify expressions like this one.
Rule: If the base in an exponential expression is negative, look at the exponent. If the
exponent is an even number, the answer will be positive. If the exponent is an odd number,
the answer will be negative.
So, letÊs look at the exponential expression (–3)5. Look at the exponent. The exponent 5 is
an odd number, so you can see immediately that the answer will be negative. To solve
the expression, simply drop or ignore the negative signs, multiply 3 by itself five
times, then attach the negative sign.
Exponents and Roots 3

(3)5 = 3 3 3 3 3 Write out the multiplication problem without the
negative signs.
3 3 3 3 3 = 243 Perform the multiplication.
–243 Since the exponent (5) is an odd number, the answer

will be negative. Attach the negative sign.
LetÊs look at a few more example problems that illustrate this rule.
Example: Solve the exponential expression (–5)2.

Solution: This exponential expression has a negative base, so use the rule above to
find the solution.
(–5)2 = –5 –5 Write out the multiplication problem.
5 5 = 25 Drop the negative signs and perform the

multiplication.
+25 Since the exponent (2) is an even number, the answer

will be positive. Attach the positive sign. Answer: +25
Example: Solve the exponential expression (–1)7.
Solution: This exponential expression has a negative base, so use the rule above to
find the solution.
(–1)7 = –1 –1 –1 – 1 – 1 –1 –1 Write out the multiplication problem.
1111111=1 Drop the negative signs and perform the

multiplication.
–1 Since the exponent (7) is an odd number, the answer

will be negative. Attach the negative sign. Answer: –1
In the preceding example problems, note that parentheses were used in the exponen-
tial expressions to identify the base. For example, in the exponential expression (–5)2,
parentheses identify the base as (–5).

Now, look at the expression –52. This expression doesnÊt have the same value as the
expression (–5)2. LetÊs evaluate each expression separately to see why this is so.
(–5)2 = (–5) (–5) = +25
In the expression (–5)2, the number –5 is inside parentheses. The negative sign is
attached to the number 5 inside the parentheses. Therefore, –5 is the base, and –5
times –5 is +25.
–52 = –(5)(5) = –25

In the expression –52, the number –5 isnÊt inside parentheses. The negative sign is
attached to the entire value of the expression 52, not just the base number 5. Therefore,
the base in this problem is 5, not –5; 5 times 5 is +25. The negative sign is then attached
onto the answer to give you a result of –25.
The rule to remember in this situation is as follows:
Rule: If a negative sign appears in front of an exponential expression, the negative

sign applies to the value of the entire expression unless the negative sign is included
inside parentheses with the base.
Powers of Ten
A special rule applies to the number 10 when itÊs used as a base in an exponential
expression. Look at the following example.
105 = 10 10 10 10 10 = 100,000
In this problem, the base 10 is raised to the fifth power, which means that 10 is multi-
plied by itself five times. The product is 100,000. Well, instead of writing out and
solving this long multiplication, thereÊs an easier way to solve the problem. Instead of
performing this long multiplication problem, just remember this rule about the powers
of ten:
Rule: Whenever you raise the base number 10 to any power, the answer is always
the digit 1, followed by a certain number of zeros. The exponent tells you how many
zeros should follow the digit 1 in the answer.

exponent is 5 5 zeroes
↓ ↵
105 = 100,000
Thus, in the example 102, the exponent is 2. The value of the expression 102 is 1
followed by two zeros (100). In the example 104, the exponent is 4, and the value of
the expression 104 is 1 followed by four zeros (10,000).
Example: Find the value of each power of ten.
Power of Ten Number of Zeros Value
107 7 10,000,000
109 9 1,000,000,000
103 3 1,000
106 6 1,000,000
Variables in Exponential Expressions

Sometimes in exponential expressions, a variable letter is used as the base.
(Remember that a variable is a letter of the alphabet thatÊs used to stand for an
unknown number.) For example, the expression x3 indicates that the variable x is
to be multiplied by itself three times. So, the expression x3 is equal to x x x. The
expression x4 is equal to x x x x, and so on.
A number or letter by itself with no exponent is understood to have an exponent of 1.

So, the variable a is understood to have an exponent of 1 (a1).
In an exponential expression, if the base is a variable, the exponent applies only to

the term to which itÊs directly attached, unless that term is isolated in parentheses. For
example, look at the expressions ab4 and (ab)4. In the first expression, ab4, the exponent
4 is attached only to the variable b. So, the value of the expression ab4 is equal to
a b b b b. In contrast, in the expression (ab)4, the exponent 4 applies to the entire
contents of the parentheses. So, the value of the expression (ab)4 is equal to
ab ab ab ab, or a4b4.

ItÊs clear from these examples that grouping symbols like parentheses can change the
meaning of exponential expressions. Be careful when solving exponential expressions,
and always pay attention to the meaning of the grouping symbols.
As youÊve already seen, a variable can be used to represent an unknown base number,
such as x5. However, variables can also be used to represent unknown exponents. For
example, if you need to raise the number 2 to an unknown power, you could write the
expression as 2n. This would mean that 2 is to be used as a factor n times.
Going a step further, if both the base and the exponent are unknown, we could write xn
to indicate that the variable x is to be raised to the nth power. Exponential expressions
like this are sometimes seen in scientific formulas.
Adding and Subtracting Exponential Expressions

In algebra, youÊll often see terms that contain exponents. For this reason, itÊs
important to be able to perform the four main operations (addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division) with exponential expressions. In this section, weÊll take a
look at how to add and subtract exponential expressions.
YouÊll remember from a previous study unit that a monomial is a mathematical expres-
sion that contains just one term. A monomial can be a number like 4 or –7, a variable
such as x or y, or a group of numbers and variables joined together by multiplication
or division, such as 2x or 10abc. A monomial thatÊs just a regular number is called a
constant. In a monomial that contains both a number and a variable connected by
multiplication, the number that appears in front of a variable is called a coefficient.
Exponential expressions like x2 and 3y4 are also monomials. This is because the num-
bers and variables in these exponential expression are connected by multiplication.
However, note that expressions such as 2x2 + 4 or 3xy3 – 2x arenÊt monomials because
these terms are joined by addition and subtraction.
Like monomials or like terms are monomials that contain the exact same variable or
variables. The following four monomials are all like because they all contain the
variable z:
12z 3z –10z –z

This same concept applies to exponential expressions. In order for two exponential
expressions to be like, they must contain both the same variable and the same expo-
nent. For example, the expressions 2x2 and –5x2 are like because they both contain the
variable x and the exponent 2. The expressions 2z2 and 3a4 arenÊt like because they
contain different variables, z and a, and different exponents, 2 and 4. The expressions
4x2 and 3x3 are also not like, because even though they both contain the variable x, the
variables have different exponents, 2 and 3.
The concept of like terms is important in the addition and subtraction of exponential
expressions. You can perform addition and subtraction operations only on exponen-
tial expressions that are like. The expressions must contain the same variables and the
same exponents. Follow this simple rule to add or subtract exponential expressions.
Rule: To add or subtract any like exponential expressions, simply add or subtract the
coefficients. The variables and exponents remain the same.
So, to add the terms 3x2 and 2x2, add the coefficients 3 and 2 to get 5. The variables
remain unchanged, so the sum is 5x2. To subtract 3x2 from 5x2, subtract 3 from 5 to
get 2. The result is 2x2.
Example: Simplify the following exponential expressions by adding or subtracting

the coefficients.
Expression Add or Subtract Answer

the Coefficients
4x2 + 7x2 = ? 4 + 7 = 11 4x2 + 7x2 = 11x2
3a3 + 2a3 + a3 = ? 3+2+1=6 3a3 + 2a3 + a3 = 6a3
6x4 – 3x4 = ? 6–3=3 6x4 – 3x4 = 3x4
c2 – c2 = ? 1–1=0 c2 – c2 = 0

Example: Add the terms 3x2 and 2x2.
Solution: The two terms contain both the same base and the same exponent, so the
terms are like. Add the coefficients to solve.
3x2 + 2x2 = ? Write the problem.
3x2 + 2x2 = 5x2 Add the coefficients (3 + 2 = 5). The base remains the
same. Answer: 5x2
Example: Solve the expression 5t4 – t4.
Solution: The two terms contain both the same base and the same exponent, so the
terms are like. Subtract the coefficients to solve.
5t4 – t4 = ? Write the problem.
5t4 – t4 = 4t4 Subtract the coefficients (5 – 1 = 4). Remember that –t4

has an understood coefficient of –1. Answer: 4t4
Example: Solve the expression 2x3 + 7x2 – 2x2.
Solution: This problem contains three terms. However, only the terms 7x2 and –2x2
are like.
2x3 + 7x2 – 2x2 = ? Write the problem.
2x3 + 7x2 – 2x2 = ? Combine the two like terms (7x2 and –2x2). Subtract
2x3 + 5x2 the coefficients (7 – 2 = 5). The term 2x3 remains
unchanged, and the expression canÊt be simplified
any further. Answer: 2x3 + 5x2
Multiplying Exponential Expressions

ItÊs possible to multiply any two exponential expressions together. However, if youÊre
asked to multiply two exponential expressions with unlike variables together, the only
thing you can do is write all the terms together. So, suppose you need to multiply the
expressions x2 and y3 together. The two expressions have unlike bases. That is, they
contain different variables. To multiply, simply write the terms together to indicate the
multiplication: x2y3.

Now, suppose you need to multiply two expressions with like bases (expressions that
contain the same variable). LetÊs multiply x2 times x3. Both terms contain the same
variable, x.
x2 x3 = ? Write out the multiplication problem.
xxxxx=? The exponent 2 in the first term indicates that the

base x is used as a factor two times. In the second
term, the exponent 3 indicates that the base x is used
as a factor three times.
x5 There are five x factors in all. We represent the five x

factors by using the exponent 5. The value of the
expression is x5.
Now, look back at the original problem, x2 x3. Notice that we could have obtained
the same answer (x5) by simply adding the exponents: 2 + 3 = 5. Thus, x2 x3 = x5. The
following rule applies to the multiplication of exponential expressions.
Rule: To multiply exponential expressions that contain like bases, add the exponents.
xa xb = xa + b
Example: Multiply a2 times a2.
Solution: Since the bases in these two terms are alike, add the exponents.
a2 a2 = ? Write the problem.
a2 a2 = a2 + 2 = a4 Multiply the two terms together. Add the exponents

(2 + 2 = 4). The base stays the same. Answer: a4
Example: Multiply y3 times y.
Solution: Since the bases in these two terms are alike, add the exponents.
y3 y = ? Write the problem.
y3 y = y3 + 1 = y4 Remember that the term y has an understood expo-

nent of 1. Add the exponents (3 + 1 = 4). Answer: y4

Example: Multiply t times v2.
Solution: The bases in these two terms arenÊt like. Therefore, you can only indicate the
multiplication by writing the terms together.
t v2 = ? Write the problem.
t v2 = tv2 You canÊt combine these terms, so just write them

next to each other to indicate the multiplication.
Answer: tv2
Example: Solve the multiplication expression a2 b3 a4 b.
Solution: This problem contains four terms. Multiply the a terms together first, then
the b terms. Finally, write the a and b terms together to form the answer.
a2 b3 a4 b = a2 a4 b3 b Write the problem. Then, rearrange the terms so that

the a terms and the b terms are grouped together.
a2 a4 = a2 + 4 = a6 Multiply the two a terms together. Add the

exponents (2 + 4 = 6).
b3 b = b3 + 1 = b4 Multiply the two b terms together. Add the exponents

(3 + 1 = 4). Remember that the term b has an under-
stood exponent of 1.
a6 b4 = a6b4 Multiply the a and b terms together. Remember, since

these terms arenÊt like, you just write them together
to indicate the multiplication. Answer: a6b4
Now, suppose the expressions you need to multiply together contain coefficients.
How do you multiply? Well, simply multiply the coefficients together first, then
multiply the variable terms.

Example: Multiply 3x2 times 2x2.
Solution: Multiply the coefficients together first, then the variable terms.
3x2 2x2 = ? Write the problem.
32=6 Multiply the coefficients together.
x2 x2 = x2 + 2 = x4 Multiply the two x terms together. Add the exponents

(2 + 2 = 4).
6 x4 = 6x4 Multiply the coefficient and the x terms together.

Remember, since these terms arenÊt like, you just
write them together to indicate the multiplication.
Answer: 6x4
Example: Multiply 4x2 times –6x3.
4x2 –6x3 = ? Write the problem.
4 –6 = –24 Multiply the coefficients together.
x2 x3 = x2 + 3 = x5 Multiply the two x terms together. Add the exponents

(2 + 3 = 5).
–24 x5 = –24x5 Multiply the coefficients and the x terms together.

Remember, since these terms arenÊt like, you just
Answer: –24x5
Now, take a few moments to complete Sharpen Your Skills Practice Exercise 1 on the
following page. Completing these practice exercises will help you check your learning
so far.

Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 1
Periodically throughout this study unit, Sharpen Your Skills Practice Exercises will give you a chance to flex your mental muscles
with some mathematical exercises. These exercises are based on the material you’ve just learned, and are designed to help
you chart your progress as you work through the material. Stop now and take a moment to complete the exercises. When
you’re finished, compare your answers against the answers in Sharpen Your Skills Answer Key Supplement. If you miss an
item, be sure to review the lesson material that relates to it.
1. Simplify each of the following exponential expressions.
a. 74 = ? b. (–10)4 = ? c. 51 = ? d. 04 = ? e. –62 = ? f. –30 = ?
2. Solve each of the following exponential expressions.
a. 16x – 8x = ? b. 9w3 – 6w3 = ? c. 11t2 – 3t2 – 2t2 = ?

d. –3y2 + 4y2 = ? e. 3x2 + 2x2 = ? f. –2b2 + 2b2 = ?
a. m4 m2 = ? b. 2z3 4z = ? c. q0 q7 = ?
d. c3d2 cd2 = ? e. –9w2 –3x = ? f. –6 7a2 = ?
Now, turn to the Answer Key Supplement to check your answers. If you answered any question incorrectly, go back and study
the material further before going on to the next section. DO NOT SEND THESE ANSWERS TO SCHOOL HEADQUARTERS FOR
GRADING.

Dividing Exponential Expressions
You can divide one exponential expression by another as long as the two expressions
5
contain like bases. Look at the expression m . The base in each term is m. LetÊs try
m2
solving the problem by writing out the factors.
Write out the factors. The exponent 5 indicates that m

m5 mmmmm
= is used as a factor five times in the numerator. The
m2 mm
exponent 2 indicates that m is used as a factor two
times in the denominator.
mmmmm When you divide, some of the mÊs cancel out. YouÊre
= m m m = m3
mm left with three mÊs in the numerator, or m3.
You could solve this division problem by factoring, but thereÊs an easier method you
can use instead. You already know that to multiply two exponential expressions with
like bases together, you simply add the exponents. You also know that division is the
inverse or opposite of multiplication. So, based on these facts, follow this rule to
divide exponential expressions:
Rule: To divide exponential expressions that contain like bases, simply subtract
the exponents.
xa
= xa b
b
x
5
So, letÊs look at the problem m again. To divide, simply subtract the exponents
m2
(5 – 2 = 3). The answer is m3. LetÊs solve a few more example problems using the
subtraction of exponents method.
Example: Divide x4 by x2.
Solution: Use the subtraction of exponents method to divide.
x4 x2 = ? Write the problem.
x4 x2 = x4 – 2 = x2 Since the bases are alike, subtract the exponents
(4 – 2 = 2). Answer: x2

Example: Divide p6 by p.
p6 p = ? Write the problem.
p6 p = p6 – 1 = p5 Since the bases are alike, subtract the exponents

(6 – 1 = 5). Remember that p has an understood
exponent of 1. Answer: p5
Example: Divide g3 by g3.
g3 g3 = ? Write the problem.
g3 g3 = g3 – 3 = g0 Since the bases are alike, subtract the exponents

(3 – 3 = 0). Subtracting the exponents results in an
exponent of 0. Remember that any base raised to the
zero power is equal to 1. Answer: 1
Example: Divide 4x2 by 2x.
Solution: Set the problem up as a fraction. Then, divide the coefficients and the vari-
ables separately.
Write the problem as a fraction.

4x2
=?
2x
Divide the coefficients first. Divide 4 by 2 (4 2 = 2).
4x2 2x2
= The result, 2, goes in the numerator of the fraction.
2x x
Divide x2 by x. Subtract the exponents (2 – 1 = 1).

2x2
= 2x YouÊre left with x in the numerator. Answer: 2x
x

Example: Divide a5b3c by ab2.
Solution: Set the problem up as a fraction. Then, divide each variable term separately.

a5 b 3 c
=?
ab 2
ThereÊs an a term in both the numerator and the
a5 b 3 c a4 b3 c
= denominator. Divide a5 by a. Subtract the exponents
ab 2 b2 (5 – 1 = 4). (Remember that a has an understood
exponent of 1.) YouÊre left with a4 in the numerator.
ThereÊs a b term in both the numerator and the

a4 b3 c
= a 4 bc denominator. Divide b3 by b2. Subtract the exponents
b2 (3 – 2 = 1). YouÊre left with b1, or just b, in the numera-
tor. ThereÊs a c term in the numerator, but no like
term in the denominator, so the expression canÊt be
simplified further. Answer: a4bc
Negative Exponents in Division Problems

2
Now, letÊs look at another division problem, z . In this problem, the bases are the
z4
same, so we can subtract the exponents to divide. However, note that the term in the
denominator of the fraction, z4, has a larger exponent than the term in the numerator.
LetÊs solve the problem first by writing out the factors.
zz Write out the factors. The exponent 2 indicates that z

=? is used as a factor two times in the numerator. The
zzzz
exponent 4 indicates that z is used as a factor four
times in the denominator.
zz 1 1 When you divide, some of the zÊs cancel out. YouÊre
= = left with two zÊs in the denominator, or 1 .
zzzz zz z2
z2
You can also solve this problem using the subtraction-of-exponents method.

Write the problem.
z2
=?
z4
Subtract the exponents. Note that because youÊre
z2 24 2
=z =z subtracting 4 from 2, youÊre left with a result of –2,
z4 so your answer has a negative exponent.
YouÊre probably wondering how we got two different answers to this problem
1
( and z–2). Well, these two answers actually have the same value, even though they
2
z
look a little different. In algebra, this relationship is defined by the following rule:
Rule: Any term with a negative exponent is equal to the reciprocal of that term with a
positive exponent.
1
a n =
an
This rule is true as long as the value of a isnÊt 0. If a has a value of zero, then the entire
denominator would have a value of zero, and we know that itÊs impossible to divide
by zero.
The following list is a handy reference that shows the values of the powers of ten,
including the negative powers. Note the pattern in the values given in the list. If you
begin with 104 and work your way down the list, you can see that the exponent decreases
by 1 in each term (from 4 to 3, to 2, to 1, and to 0). Consider the resulting values. The
first value on the list is 10,000. The second value is 1,000, which is the result when you
divide the first value (10,000) by 10. The third value is 100, which is the result when
you divide 1,000 by 10. Each succeeding value can be obtained by dividing the previ-
ous value by 10. At the point at which the exponents become negative, the resulting
values become fractions.

Powers of Ten
104 = 10 10 10 10 = 10,000
103 = 10 10 10 = 1,000
102 = 10 10 = 100
101 = 10
100 = 1
10–1 = 1/101
10–2 = 1/102 = 1/100
10–3 = 1/103 = 1/1,000
10–4 = 1/104 = 1/10,000
Example: Indicate the value of each of the following terms containing negative
exponents.
Term Value
2–1 1
/21 or 1/2
2–2 1
/22 or 1/4
2–3 1
/23 or 1/8
2–4 1
/24 or 1/16

Example: Indicate the value of each of the following terms containing
negative exponents.
Term Value
1
x–1
x1
1
x–2
x2
1
x–3
x3
1
x–4
x4
Example: Divide c4 by c5.
Solution: Use the subtraction-of-exponents method to divide.
Write the problem.

c4
=?
c5
Since the bases are alike, subtract the exponents
c4
= c 4 5 = c1 (4 – 5 = –1).
c5
1 1 Answer: 1
c1 = , or c
c1 c
Example: Divide x3 by x8.

Write the problem.

x3
=?
x8
Since the bases are alike, subtract the exponents
x3
= x 3 8 = x5 (3 – 8 = –5).
x8

1
5 1 Answer:
x = x5
x5
Example: Divide ab2 by ab4.
Write the problem.

ab 2
=?
ab 4
ThereÊs an a term in both the numerator and
ab 2 b2
= denominator. Divide a by a. Subtract the exponents
ab 4 b4 (1 – 1 = 0). The two a terms cancel each other out.
The bases are alike, so subtract the exponents

b2
= b 2 4 = b2 (2 – 4 = –2).
b4
1
2 1 Answer:
b = b2
b2
Raising an Exponential Expression to a Power

Now, letÊs look at another operation we can perform with exponential expressions.
Suppose you need to raise an exponential expression to a power; that is, you need to
multiply it by itself a number of times. How do you do this? LetÊs look at an example.
(x2)3
In this problem, the exponential expression x2 is to be raised to the third power. In

other words, we must multiply x2 by itself three times. LetÊs write out this
multiplication.
(x2)3 = x2 x2 x2 The exponent 3 outside the parentheses indicates that

the contents of the parentheses, x2, is to be used as a
factor three times.
x2 x2 x2 = x x x x x x Each x2 term is equal to x times x. Complete the

factoring out of this problem.

x x x x x x = x6 There are six x factors altogether, so the result of
multiplication is x6.
You can use the factoring method to solve this problem. However, thereÊs an easier
way. Instead of factoring, follow this rule whenever you need to raise an exponential
expression to a power:
Rule: When raising an exponential expression to a power, multiply the exponent

inside parentheses times the exponent outside the parentheses.
(xm)n = xmn
LetÊs look at a few example problems that illustrate this rule.
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (s4)5.
Solution: Use the multiplication of exponents method to solve the problem.
(s4)5 = s4 5 = s20 Multiply the exponents (4 5 = 20). The base remains

the same. Answer: s20
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (b2)2.
(b2)2 = b2 2 = b4 Multiply the exponents (2 2 = 4). Answer: b4
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (a3)0.
(a3)0 = a3 0 = a0, or 1 Multiply the exponents (3 0 = 0). Any term raised to

the zero power has a value of 1. Answer: 1

Example: Simplify the exponential expression (y)6.
(y)6 = (y1)6 The y inside the parentheses has an understood

exponent of 1.
(y1)6 = y1 6 = y6 Multiply the exponents (1 6 = 6). Answer: y6
Terms Containing More Than One Variable

Now, suppose youÊre trying to solve a problem that has more than one variable inside
the parentheses. For example, look at the following expression:
(x2y3)2 LetÊs use the factoring method to solve the

problem.The base in this problem is x2y3, and the
exponent 2 tells you to use the base as a factor twice.
(x2y3)2 = x2y3 x2y3 Write out the multiplication.
x2 x2 = x2 + 2 = x4 Multiply the x terms together. Add the exponents

(2 + 2 = 4).
y3 y3 = y3 + 3 = y6 Multiply the y terms together. Add the exponents

(3 + 3 = 6).
x4y6 Multiply the x and y terms together. To indicate the

multiplication, simply write the x and y terms
together.
While the factoring method will work to solve this problem, thereÊs a shorter way.
Instead of factoring, separately raise each term inside the parentheses to the second
power.
(x2y3)2 = (x2)2 (y3)2 Write the problem. Raise each term (x2 and y3) to the
second power.
(x2)2 = x2 2 = x4 Raise the x term to the second power. Multiply the

exponents (2 2 = 4).
(y3)2 = y3 2 = y6 Raise the y term to the second power. Multiply the


together.
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (xy)2.
Solution: The exponent 2 tells you to raise each term inside the parentheses to the sec-
ond power.
(xy)2 = (x)2 (y)2 Write the problem. Raise each term (x and y) to the
second power.
(x)2 = x1 2 = x2 Raise the x term to the second power. Multiply the

exponents (1 2 = 2). Remember that x has an under-
(y)2 = y1 2 = y2 Raise the y term to the second power. Multiply the

exponents (1 2 = 2). Remember that y has an under-

together. Answer: x2y2
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (m2n3)3.
Solution: The exponent 3 tells you to raise each term inside the parentheses to the
third power.
(m2n3)3 = (m2)3 (n3)3 = ? Write the problem. Raise each term (m2 and n3) to the
third power.
(m2)3 = m2 3 = m6 Raise the m term to the third power. Multiply the

(n3)3 = n3 3 = n9 Raise the n term to the third power. Multiply the


m6n9 Multiply the m and n terms together. To indicate the
multiplication, simply write the m and n terms
together. Answer: m6n9
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (a2b5)3.
third power.
(a2b5)3 = (a2)3 (b5)3 Write the problem. Raise each term (a2 and b5) to the
third power.
(a2)3 = a2 3 = a6 Raise the a term to the third power. Multiply the

(b5)3 = b5 3 = b15 Raise the b term to the third power. Multiply the
a6b15 Multiply the a and b terms together. To indicate the

multiplication, simply write the a and b terms
together. Answer: a6b15
Terms Containing Constants

Suppose one of the terms in the exponential expression contains a constant factor. How
do you raise such an expression to a power? Well, you use the same multiplication-of-
exponents method we used before. This time, however, you raise the constant to the
power along with the other factors.
LetÊs look at an example problem. Simplify the expression (4x2y2)3.

(4x2y2)3 = (4)3 (x2)3 (y2)3 Write the problem. The exponent 3 tells you to raise
each term inside the parentheses to the third power.
Raise each term (4, x2 and y2) to the third power.
(41)3 = 43 Raise the constant to the third power. Remember that

4 = 4 4 4 = 64
3
the constant has an understood exponent of 1. The
result is 43. However, this term can be simplified further.
Multiply out the constant factors (4 4 4 = 64).

(x2)3 = x2 3 = x6 Raise the x term to the third power. Multiply the
(y2)3 = y2 3 = y6 Raise the y term to the third power. Multiply the

64x6y6 Multiply the constant, the x term, and the y term

together. To indicate the multiplication, simply
write all the terms together. Answer: 64x6y6
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (3m3n4)4.
fourth power.
(3m3n4)4 = (3)4 (m3)4 (n4)4 Write the problem. Raise each term (3, m3, and n4) to
the fourth power.
(31)4 = 34 Raise the constant to the fourth power. Remember

3 = 3 3 3 3 = 81
4
that the constant has an understood exponent of 1.
The result is 34. However, this term can be
simplified further. Multiply out the constant factors
(3 3 3 3 = 81).
(m3)4 = m3 4 = m12 Raise the m term to the fourth power. Multiply the
(n4)4 = n4 4 = n16 Raise the n term to the fourth power. Multiply the
81m12n16 Multiply the constant, the m term, and the n term

together. To indicate the multiplication, simply write
all the terms together. Answer: 81m12n16

Raising a Fraction to a Power
Consider the exponential expression (1/3)4. The exponent 4 tells you to use the base
as a factor four times. You could solve this problem by writing out the factors and
multiplying, like this:
1 1 1 1
=?
3 3 3 3
However, there is a much easier method to use. Follow this rule when raising a
fraction to a power.
Rule: To raise a fraction to a power, separately raise both the numerator and
denominator to the indicated power.
a
⎛x⎞ xa
⎜ ⎟ a
⎝y⎠ y
Now, using this method, letÊs solve the example problem (1/3)4.
4 Write the problem. Raise both the numerator and the

⎛1⎞ 14
⎜ ⎟ 4 denominator to the fourth power.
⎝3⎠ 3
When you raise the numerator to the fourth power,
14 1
the result is 14. Multiply to simplify the term
34 34 (1 1 1 1 = 1).
1 1 When you raise the denominator to the fourth power,

81 the result is 34. Multiply to simplify the term
34
(3 3 3 3 = 81). Answer: 1
81
4
⎛ x2 ⎞
This same rule applies when a fraction contains variables. Look at the fraction ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ .
⎝y ⎠
x2
The base in this problem is 3 . To solve the problem, raise both the numerator
y
and the denominator to the fourth power.
( ) Write the problem. Raise both the numerator and

4
⎛ x2 ⎞
4
x2
⎜ ⎟ = denominator to the fourth power.
=?
( )
⎜ y3 ⎟ 4
⎝ ⎠ y 3

(x2)4 = x2 4 = x8 Raise the numerator to the fourth power. Multiply
the exponents (2 4 = 8).
(y3)4 = y3 4 = y12 Raise the denominator to the fourth power. Multiply

x8 Write the numerator and denominator together to

x8
y12 complete the fraction. Answer:
y12
Now, letÊs solve a few more example problems.
2
⎛ ⎞
Example: Simplify the exponential expression ⎜ x ⎟ .
⎜ y5 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Solution: Raise both the numerator and denominator to the second power.
⎛ x ⎞
2 Write the problem, and raise both the numerator and
⎟ = ( )
x 2
⎜ denominator to the second power.
⎜ y5 ⎟ ⎛ y5 ⎞
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
12
(x ) = x = x2
1 2
Raise the numerator to the second power. Remember
that x has an understood exponent of 1. Multiply the
(y5)2 = y5 2 = y10 Raise the denominator to the second power. Multiply


x2
y10

2
⎛ 3 ⎞
Example: Simplify the exponential expression ⎜ a ⎟ .
⎜ b3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Solution: Raise both the numerator and denominator to the second power.
( ) Write the problem, and raise both the numerator and

2
⎛ a3 ⎞
2 a3
⎜ ⎟ = denominator to the second power.
⎜ b3 ⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎛ b3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a3)2 = a3 2 = a6 Raise the numerator to the second power. Multiply

(b3)2 = b3 2 = b6 Raise the denominator to the second power. Multiply

a6 Write the numerator and denominator together to

a6
b6 complete the fraction. Answer:
b6
3
⎛ 2 ⎞
Example: Simplify the exponential expression ⎜ x ⎟ .
⎜ y3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Solution: Note that this fraction contains negative exponents. However, you solve this
problem in exactly the same way as you did the previous problems.
( )
x2
3
⎛ x2 ⎞ denominator to the second power.
⎜ ⎟ =
⎜ y3 ⎟ ⎛ y3 ⎞
3
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(x–2)3 = x–2 3 = x–6 Raise the numerator to the second power. Multiply
the exponents (–2 3 = –6).
(y–3)3 = y–3 3 = y–9 Raise the denominator to the second power. Multiply
the exponents (–3 3 = –9).

x6
y9

2
⎛ 2 ⎞
Example: Simplify the exponential expression ⎜ a ⎟ .
⎜ x2 y3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Solution: This fraction contains two variables in the denominator. However, the
process used to solve the problem is still the same as before. Start by raising both the
numerator and denominator to the second power.
( )
2 2
⎛ a2 ⎞ a
denominator to the second power.
⎜ ⎟ =
⎜ x2 y3 ⎟ ⎛ x2 y3 ⎞
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a2)2 = a2 2 = a4 Raise the numerator to the second power. Multiply
(x2y3)2 = (x2)2 (y3)2 Raise the denominator to the second power. To do

this, youÊll need to raise each of the variables in the
denominator (x2 and y3) to the second power.
(x2)2 (y3)2 = x2 2 y3 2 To raise x2 to the second power, multiply the expo-

nents (2 2 = 4). To raise y3 to the second power,
multiply the exponents (3 2 = 6).
x2 2 y3 2 = x4y6 Write the two terms together to complete the

denominator.
a4 Write the numerator and denominator together to

a4
x 4 y6 complete the fraction. Answer:
x 4 y6
3
⎛ ⎞
Example: Simplify the exponential expression ⎜ 2 s ⎟ .
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝t u⎠
Solution: This fraction contains a constant in the numerator as well as two variables in
the denominator. Follow the problem solving steps carefully to simplify the problem.
Start by raising both the numerator and denominator to the third power.
3 Write the problem and raise both the numerator and

⎛ 2 s ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ denominator to the third power.
⎝ t2u ⎠

(–2s)3 = (–23) s3 Raise the numerator to the third power. To do this,
(–2)3 (s)3 = –8 s3 raise each of the terms in the numerator (–2 and s) to
the third power. When you raise –2 to the third
power, the result is –8 (–2 –2 –2 = –8). To raise s to
the third power, multiply the exponents (1 3 = 3).
–8s3 Write the terms together to complete the numerator.
(t2u)3 = (t2)3 (u)3 Raise the denominator to the third power. To do this,
raise each of the variables in the denominator (t2 and
u) to the third power.
(t2)3 (u1)3 = t2 3 u1 3 To raise t2 to the third power, multiply the exponents

(2 3 = 6). To raise u to the third power, multiply the
t2 3 u1 3 = t6u3 Write the two terms together to complete the

denominator.
8 s3 Write the numerator and denominator together to

8 s3
t 6 u3 complete the fraction. Answer:
t 6 u3
Now, stop to check your understanding of what youÊve learned so far. Complete
Sharpen Your Skills Practice Exercise 2 on the following page.

Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 2
r7 s k14 m 2 p3
a. =? b. =? c. =? d. =?
r4 s7 k14 mp2
2z2 4y 3 a3 b 2 2 xy 2
e. =? f. =? g. =? h. =?
2x 2y 2 ab 6x
0 4
⎛ a2 ⎞ ⎛ m5 ⎞
3 4
a. (q ) = ? 2 4 3
b. (x y ) = ? c. ⎜ ⎟ =? d. ⎜ ⎟ =?
⎜ b3 ⎟ ⎜ n2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2
⎛ h2 ⎞
3
e. (ab) = ? f. 2
(3y) = ? 2 3
g. (4a ) = ? h. ⎜ ⎟ =?
⎜ j3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
GRADING.

Expressions with Negative Exponents
In an earlier section, you learned a little bit about negative exponents. YouÊll remem-
ber that any term that has a negative exponent is equal to the reciprocal of that term.
1
a n =
an
Frequently in algebra, youÊll be asked to simplify expressions or solve problems that
contain negative exponents. LetÊs look at some different example problems that will
show you how to deal with negative exponents. YouÊll use all the same rules youÊve
learned up to this point to solve the problems. LetÊs start with a few multiplication
problems.
Example: Multiply x6 by x–2.
Solution: Since the bases in these two terms are like, add (combine) the exponents.
x6 x–2 = ? Write the problem.
x6 x–2 = x6 – 2 = x4 Multiply the two terms. Combine the exponents

(6 – 2 = 4). The variable stays the same. Answer: x4
Example: Multiply m–4 by m–3.
m–4 m–3 = ? Write the problem.
m–4 m–3 = m–4 – 3 = m–7 Multiply the two terms. Combine the exponents
(–4 – 3 = –7). The variable stays the same.
Answer: m–7
Example: Multiply t3 by t–2.
t3 t–2 = ? Write the problem.
t3 t–2 = t3 – 2 = t1, or t Multiply the two terms. Combine the exponents

(3 – 2 = 1). The variable stays the same. Answer: t

Example: Multiply y2 by y–2.
y2 y–2 = ? Write the problem.
y2 y–2 = y2 – 2 = y0, or 1 Multiply the two terms. Combine the exponents

(2 – 2 = 0). Remember that any number or variable to
the zero power is equal to 1. Answer: 1
Example: Multiply 3x6 by 2x–2.
3x6 2x–2 = ? Write the problem.
32=6 Multiply the coefficients together.
x6 x–2 = x6 – 2 = x4 Multiply the two x terms together. Add the exponents

(6 – 2 = 4).
6 x4 = 6x4 Multiply the coefficient and the x terms together.

Remember, since these bases arenÊt like, you just
Answer: 6x4
Now, letÊs look at some division problems that contain negative exponents.
Example: Divide a–5 by a2.
a–5 a2 = ? Write the problem.
a5 Since the bases in the two terms are like, you can
= a5 2 = a7 divide the terms. Subtract the exponents (–5 – 2 = –7).
a2
Answer: a–7

Example: Divide y–2 by y–4.
y–2 y–4 = ? Write the problem.
y2 Since the bases in the two terms are like, you can
= y2 (4) divide the terms. Subtract the exponents:
y4
–2 – (– 4) = +2. Answer: y2
y2 (4) = y2 4 = y 2
Example: Divide c–4 by c.
c4 Write the problem.

=?
c
c4 Since the bases in the two terms are like, you can
= c4 1 = c5 divide the terms. Subtract the exponents (–4 – 1 = –5).
c
Remember that c has an understood exponent of 1.
Answer: c–5
Example: Divide z–2 by z–2.
z2 Write the problem.

=?
z2
z2 Since the bases in the two terms are like, you
= z2 ( 2) can divide the terms. Subtract the exponents:
z2
–2 – (–2) = 0. Subtracting the exponents results in an
z2 ( 2) = z2 2 = z, or 1 exponent of 0. Remember that any base raised to
the zero power is equal to 1. Answer: 1

Next, letÊs solve some problems in which youÊll raise exponential expressions to a
power.
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (p–2)3.
Solution: The base p–2 is to be raised to the third power. Use the multiplication of
exponents method to solve the problem.
(p–2)3 = p–2 3 = p–6 Multiply the exponents (–2 3 = –6). The base stays
the same. Answer: p–6
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (h–4)–1.
Solution: The base h–4 is to be raised to the –1 power. Use the multiplication of
(h–4)–1 = h–4 –1 = h4 Multiply the exponents (–4 –1 = +4). The base stays
the same. Answer: h4
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (c–2)0.
Solution: The base c–2 is to be raised to the zero power. Use the multiplication of
(c–2)0 = c–2 0 = c0, or 1 Multiply the exponents (–2 0 = 0). Any term raised
to the zero power has a value of 1. Answer: 1
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (z)–8.
Solution: The base z is to be raised to the –8 power. Use the multiplication of

(z)–8 = z–8 The z inside the parentheses has an understood

exponent of 1. Multiply the exponents (1 –8 = –8).
Answer: z–8

Example: Simplify the exponential expression (xy)–4.
Solution: The base xy is to be raised to the –4 power. To do this, raise each term
(x and y) to the –4 power.
(xy)–4 = (x)–4 (y)–4 = ? Write the problem. Raise each term (x and y) to the –4
power.
(x)–4 = x1 –4 = x–4 Raise the x term to the –4 power. Remember that x

has an understood exponent of 1. Multiply the expo-
nents (1 –4 = –4).
(y)–4 = y1 –4 = y–4 Raise the y term to the –4 power. Remember that y

has an understood exponent of 1. Multiply the expo-
nents (1 –4 = – 4).
x–4y–4 Multiply the x and y terms together. To indicate the

together. Answer: x–4y–4
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (x–2y3)–2.
Solution: The base x–2y3 is to be raised to the –2 power. To do this, raise each term
(x–2 and y3) to the –2 power.
(x–2y3)–2 = (x–2)–2 (y3)–2 = ? Write the problem. Raise each term (x–2 and y3) to the
–2 power.
(x–2)–2 = x–2 –2 x4 Raise the x term to the –2 power. Multiply the expo-
nents (–2 –2 = 4).
(y3)–2 = y3 –2 y–6 Raise the y term to the –2 power. Multiply the expo-
nents (3 –2 = –6).

x4y–6 Multiply the x and y terms together. To indicate the
together. Answer: x4y–6
Example: Simplify the exponential expression (3m–3)2.
Solution: The base 3m–3 is to be raised to the second power.

(3m–3)2 = (3)2 (m–3)2 = ? Write the problem. Raise each term (3 and m–3) to the
second power.
(3)2 = 32 = 3 3 = 9 Raise 3 to the second power. Remember that 3 has an

understood exponent of 1. Multiply the exponents
(1 2 = 2). The result is 32. However, 32 can be simpli-
fied further. Multiply 3 by itself (3 3 = 9).
(m–3)2 = m–3 2 = m–6 Raise the m term to the second power. Multiply the
exponents (–3 2 = –6).
9m–6 Multiply the constant and the m term together. To

indicate the multiplication, simply write the terms
together. Answer: 9m–6
Fractions with Negative Exponents

Any division problem can be written as a fraction. Sometimes, either the numerator or
denominator of a fraction will contain a term with a negative exponent. ThereÊs a use-
ful shortcut that you can use to simplify fractions that contain negative exponents.
Remember the rule we stated earlier: any term with a negative exponent is equal to
1
the reciprocal of that term. So, this means that the term x–2 equals . It also means
x2
1
that the fraction is equal to x–2. Because of this relationship, you can develop the
x2
following rule that allows you to simplify fractions.
Rule: If a fraction contains a term with a negative exponent, you can make the
exponent positive by moving that term from the numerator to the denominator,
or vice-versa.

1
So, if you have the fraction , simply move the x–3 from the denominator to the
x3
numerator. The exponent –3 becomes +3. Look at the following illustration.
1 1
3
3
x3
x x
Write the Move x3 Make the
fraction. to the exponent
numerator. positive.
2 y5
If you have the fraction , move the y–5 from the numerator to the denominator.
3
The exponent –5 becomes +5.
2 y5 2 y5 2

3 3 3y5
Write the Move y5 Make the
fraction. to the exponent
denominator. positive.
Follow these steps to use the shortcut for simplifying fractions.
Step 1: Simplify any terms or coefficients in the fraction that you can.
Step 2: Locate terms that contain negative exponents.
Step 3: If a term with a negative exponent appears in the numerator, move the
term to the denominator and make the exponent positive.
Step 4: If a term with a negative exponent is located in the denominator, move the
term to the numerator and make the exponent positive.

Step 5: The remaining terms in the numerator and denominator are connected by
multiplication. Multiply any like terms together.
Step 6: Simplify the fraction further if necessary to complete the problem.
Example: Divide x3 by y–4.
Solution: Set up the problem as a fraction. Then, use the steps described earlier to
simplify.
x3 Set up the problem as a fraction.

=?
y4
x3 x3 y4
= , or just x3y4 The term in the denominator (y–4) has a negative
y4 1
exponent. Move this term to the numerator, and
make the exponent positive. The coefficient 1 is
understood to remain in the denominator, but you
donÊt have to write the 1. Answer: x3y4
Example: Divide a–3 by b–2.
simplify.
a3 Set up the problem as a fraction.

=?
b2
a3 1
= 3 2 The term in the numerator (a–3) has a negative expo-
b2 a b
nent. Move this term to the denominator, and make
the exponent positive. The coefficient 1 is understood
to remain in the numerator.
1 b2
= The term b–2 in the denominator has a negative expo-
a 3 b2 a3
nent. Move this term to the numerator and make the
exponent positive. The expression canÊt be simplified
b2
any further. Answer: 3
a

Example: Divide c–2d–2 by c–4.
simplify.
c2 d2 Set up the problem as a fraction.
= ?
c4
c2 d2 1 Both terms in the numerator have negative

= 2 2 4 exponents. Move both terms to the denominator and
c4 c d c
make the exponents positive. The coefficient 1 is
understood to remain in the numerator.
The term c–4 in the denominator has a negative expo-

1 c4
= nent. Move this term to the numerator and make the
c 2 d 2 c4 c2d2
exponent positive.
To simplify the fraction, divide the term c4 by c2.

c4 c2
= Subtract the exponents (4 – 2 = 2). YouÊre left with c2
c2d2 d2
in the numerator.
The fraction canÊt be simplified any further.

c2
c2
d2 Answer: 2
d
3
⎛ 2 ⎞
Example: Simplify the expression ⎜ 3 a ⎟ .
⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ b ⎠
Solution: Use the steps described earlier to simplify.
⎛ 3 a2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
3
=
(3a )3
2 Write the problem. Then, raise both the numerator
and denominator to the power of negative three.
⎝ b3 ⎠
(b )3
3
(3a–2)–3 = (3)–3 (a–2)–3 Raise each of the terms in the numerator (3 and a) to
the power of negative three.
(31)–3 (a–2)–3 = 31 –3 a–2 –3 Remember that the term 3 has an understood expo-
nent of 1. To raise 3 to the power of negative three,
multiply the exponents (1 –3 = –3). To raise a to the
power of negative three, multiply the exponents
(–2 –3 = +6).

31 –3 a–2 –3 = 3–3a6 Write the terms together to complete the numerator.
(b3)–3 = b3 –3 = b–9 Raise the denominator to the power of negative three.

To do this, raise b3 to the power of negative three.
Multiply the exponents (3 –3 = –9).
Write the numerator and denominator together to

33 a6
complete the fraction.
b9
The term 3–3 in the numerator contains a negative

33 a6 a6 a6
= = exponent. Move this term to the denominator and
b9 3 3 b9 27 b9
make the exponent positive. Then, simplify 33 by
multiplying (3 3 3 = 27).
a6 a6 b 9 The term b–9 in the denominator contains a negative

= exponent. Move this term to the numerator and
27 b9 27
make the exponent positive. The expression canÊt be
a6 b 9
simplified any further. Answer:
27
Scientific Notation
In many professions, such as engineering, manufacturing, construction, astronomy, and
physics, very large numbers may be used. Writing out numbers in the millions and bil-
lions is tedious, and thereÊs a good chance of making mistakes. So, instead, people in
these professions often use scientific notation to write out these large numbers.
Scientific notation is a method of abbreviating large numbers by writing the number

as a simple multiplication problem. The multiplication problem consists of a whole
number or a decimal multiplied by a power of ten.
For example, suppose you want to write the number 2,000,000. Instead of writing a 2
followed by all those zeros, you can abbreviate 2,000,000 like this:
2 106

This multiplication problem is a shorter way to express the number 2,000,000. You
know that 106 equals 1,000,000, and 2 times 1,000,000 equals 2,000,000. Thus, 2 106
also equals 2,000,000.
You would abbreviate 430,000 like this:
4.3 105
You know that 105 is equal to 100,000, and 4.3 times 100,000 equals 430,000. So,
4.3 105 equals 430,000.
Scientific notation, as its name suggests, is most often used in scientific work to abbre-
viate very large numbers. For example, an astronomer could use it to abbreviate the
distance from Earth to Pluto in miles. Or, an economist might use it to write out a
large amount of money, such as the amount of the national debt. You can use scientific
notation to abbreviate any number that ends in at least two zeros.
You may also have seen scientific notation used on a calculator. If you try to multiply
two very large numbers together, for example, most calculators display the answer in
scientific notation because there arenÊt enough spaces on its screen to show the
answer in regular number form. If you have a calculator handy, try multiplying
10,000,000 times 10. The calculator may display the answer as „1 08,‰ which means
1 108.
Writing a number in scientific notation isnÊt difficult. LetÊs work through a few
scientific notation problems step by step to see how this process works.
Example: Abbreviate the number 4,000 using scientific notation.
Solution: Set up the number as a simple multiplication problem using a power of ten.
Move the decimal point in the number to the left

until only one nonzero digit remains to the left of
the decimal point. In this problem, youÊll move the
decimal point three places to the left. (Remember, a
decimal point is always understood to be present at
the end of a whole number.)

4 The number 4 will be the first part of the scientific
notation. Write 4 followed by a times sign.
4 10 The second part of your notation is the power of ten.

Write the number 10 after the times sign.
4 103 The number of places you moved the decimal point

to the left will be the exponent on the 10. In this prob-
lem, you moved the decimal point three places to the
left. So, the exponent on the 10 will be 3. Answer: The
number 4,000 equals 4 103 in scientific notation.
(103 = 1,000, and 4 1,000 = 4,000.)
Example: Abbreviate the number 526,000 using scientific notation.
Solution: Set up the number as a multiplication statement using a power of ten.
Move the decimal point to the left until only one

nonzero digit remains to the left of the decimal point.
In this problem, youÊll move the decimal point five
places to the left.
5.26 The number 5.26 is the first part of your scientific

notation. Write 5.26 followed by a times sign.
5.26 10 The second part of your notation is the power of ten.

5.26 105 You moved the decimal point five places to the left,
so 5 will be the exponent on the 10. Answer: The
number 526,000 equals 5.26 105 in scientific nota-
tion. (105 = 100,000, and 5.26 100,000 = 526,000.)
Example: Write the number 1,234,000 in scientific notation.

Move the decimal point to the left until only one
nonzero digit remains to the left of the decimal point.
In this problem, youÊll move the decimal point six
places to the left.


1.234 106 You moved the decimal point six places to the left, so
6 will be the exponent on the 10. Answer: The num-
ber 1,234,000 equals 1.234 106 in scientific notation.
(106 = 1,000,000, and 1.234 1,000,000 = 1,234,000.)
Example: Write the following numbers using scientific notation.
Number Move the Decimal Point Exponent Scientific Notation
3,000 3 3 103
6,400,000 6 6.4 106
12,700 4 1.27 104
645,000 5 6.45 105
Now, suppose you have a number thatÊs less than 1, such as 0.0005. How can you con-
vert this number into scientific notation? Well, itÊs simple. All you need to do is move
the decimal point to the right until one nonzero digit appears to the left of the decimal
point. Moving the decimal point to the right will give you a negative exponent in your
answer. LetÊs look at a few example problems.

Example: Write the number 0.0005 in scientific notation.
Move the decimal point to the right until only one

nonzero digit appears to the left of the decimal point.
In this problem, youÊll move the decimal point four
places to the right.
5 The number 5.0, or simply 5, is the first part of your

scientific notation. Write 5 followed by a times sign.
5 10 The second part of your notation is the power of ten.

5 10–4 You moved the decimal point four places to the left,
so –4 will be the exponent on the 10. Answer: The
number 0.0005 equals 5 10–4 in scientific notation.
(10–4 = .0001, and 5 0.0001 = 0.0005.)
Some Interesting Scientific Facts
• The speed of light is 3 105 kilometers per second.
• A light year is about 5.87 1012 miles.
• The mass of an electron at rest is 9.11 10–28 gram.
Example: Write the number 0.000000245 in scientific notation.

In this problem, youÊll move the decimal point seven


2.45 10–7 You moved the decimal point seven places to the
right, so –7 will be the exponent on the 10. Complete
your scientific notation. Answer: The number
0.000000245 equals 2.45 10–7 in scientific notation.
(10–7 = 0.0000001, and 2.45 0.0000001 =
0.000000245.)
Example: Write 0.00321 in scientific notation.

In this problem, youÊll move the decimal point three


3.21 10–3 You moved the decimal point three places to the
right, so –3 will be the exponent on the 10. Complete
your scientific notation. Answer: The number 0.00321
equals 3.21 10–3 in scientific notation. (10–3 = 0.001,
and 3.21 0.001 = 0.00321.)
To change a scientific notation back to a regular number, simply reverse the process you just
performed. To „undo‰ scientific notation, simply move the decimal point to the right or

left the number of places indicated by the exponent. If the exponent is positive, move
the decimal point to the right. If the exponent is negative, move the decimal point to
the left.
✕ ✕
Example: Change the scientific notation 2.54 105 into decimal notation.
Solution: The exponent is +5, so the decimal point must be moved five places to the
right.
2.54 105 = ? Write the scientific notation.
Move the decimal point five places to the right.

Answer: 254,000
Example: Change the scientific notation 6 103 into decimal notation.
Solution: The exponent is 3, so the decimal point must be moved three places to the
right.
6 103 = ? Write the scientific notation.
Move the decimal point three places to the right.

Answer: 6,000
Example: Change the scientific notation 1.05 10–4 into decimal notation.
Solution: The exponent is –4, so the decimal point must be moved four places to the
left.
1.05 10–4 = ? Write the scientific notation.
Move the decimal point four places to the left.

Answer: 0.000105

Algebra at Work
In science fiction movies and TV programs, characters regularly travel from one planet to another,
and even beyond our own solar system. In reality, humans have traveled to the moon and returned;
however, space travel as it exists in movies and TV isn’t even close to becoming a reality. The
reason is simple: distance.
The speed of light is 300,000 kilometers per second. One light-year is the distance that a beam of
light can travel in one year. So, one light year is equal to 300,000 kilometers per second (the speed
of light) times the number of seconds in one year. The result is approximately 1013 kilometers, a
number so large that it’s usually given in scientific notation.
The nearest star to our solar system is Proxima Centauri, which is 4.2 light years away. If we could
somehow travel to Proxima Centauri in an average airplane, the trip would take about 4 million
years. Even if humans could somehow develop a spacecraft capable of very high speeds, this trip
would still probably require more time than the average human lifetime. So, at least for now, travel
out of our solar system seems to be out of our reach!
Example: Change the scientific notation 6.5 10–1 into decimal notation.
Solution: The exponent is –1, so the decimal point must be moved one place to the
left.
6.5 10–1 = ? Write the scientific notation.
Move the decimal point one place to the left.

Answer: 0.65
Now, take a few minutes to check your progress by completing Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 3 on the following page.

Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 3
1. Solve each of the following multiplication expressions.
a. x–3 x4 = ? b. y–2 y–2 = ? c. 2z2 4z–2 = ? d. 3a–2 2a–3 = ?
2. Solve each of the following division expressions.
a2 a2b3 c3 x2 y4

a. =? b. =? c. =? d. =?
b4 a2b c 2d4 x 2 y4
m3n 2
a. (abc)0 = ? b. 7–2 = ? c. =? d. (2x)–2 = ?
2m 2
(3c )3 d 4e2

e. =? f. (c–2d)–2 = ? g. (x–3)–2 = ? h. (y2)–4 = ?
d 2e 4
4. Write each of the following numbers in scientific notation.
a. 4,557,000 b. 93,390,000,000 c. 0.000035 d. 0.0002
(Continued)

Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 3
5. Write each of the following numbers in decimal notation.
a. 4.28 107 b. 9.3 105 c. 1.32 10–4 d. 6.62 10–6
Now, turn to the Answer Key Supplement to check your answers. If you answered any question incorrectly, go back and study the
material further before going on to the next section. DO NOT SEND THESE ANSWERS TO SCHOOL HEADQUARTERS FOR GRADING.

ROOTS
What Is a Root?
When you raise a number to a power, you multiply it by itself. The opposite of raising
a number to a power is finding a root of the number.
The most common type of root is the square root. You know that when you multiply a
number by itself, you square the number. A square root is a factor that produces a given
number when squared. So, for example, the square root of 4 is 2, because 2 squared
(2 2) equals 4. The square root of 36 is 6, because 6 squared (6 6) equals 36.
The square root of a number is usually written by placing a radical sign in front of
the number. Thus, 9 is read „the square root of 9.‰ The value of 9 is 3, since
3 3 = 9. In the same way, 25 is read „the square root of 25.‰ The value of 25 is 5,
since 5 5 = 25.
A square root expression (an expression containing a radical sign) is often called a
radical expression or simply a radical. The number under the radical sign is called the
radicand.
All of the examples youÊve seen so far have square roots that are whole numbers.
These numbers are called perfect squares. For example, 81 is a perfect square because
its square root is 9, which is a whole number. In contrast, the number 6.25 is not a
perfect square because its square root is 2.5, which is not a whole number.
Every positive number actually has two square roots. Any positive number has both a
negative and a positive square root. For example, 32 = 9, but (–3)2 is also equal to 9. So,
the square root of 9 is either positive 3 or negative 3. This relationship can be stated
with the following equation:
9 = 3
The positive square root of a number is sometimes called the principal square root. So, in
the expression 9 , youÊre being asked to find the principal, or positive, square root of 9.

However, if you see this expression written with a negative sign in front of
it, – 9 , youÊre being asked to find the negative square root of 9.
The following chart shows the numbers one through twenty and their squares. To use
the chart, look at one of the numbers in the number column. When you square either
the positive or negative of this number, the result is the square in the column to its
right. Try to become familiar with these often-used squares, and refer to this chart for
reference when necessary.
Number Square Number Square
1 1 11 121
2 4 12 144
3 9 13 169
4 16 14 196
5 25 15 225
6 36 16 256
7 49 17 289
8 64 18 324
9 81 19 361
10 100 20 400
To check your answer to a square root problem, use division. Simply divide the given
square by the square root. If the result is the same number as the square root, you know
your answer is correct. For example, suppose you think that the square root of 100 is 10. To
check, divide 100 by 10. The result is also 10, so you know that 10 is the correct square root.

If you think that 4 is the square root of 24, divide 24 by 4. The result is 6, so you know
that 4 is not the correct square root of 24.
There is one other rule regarding square roots that you should be familiar with.
Rule: Any number raised to the 1 power is equal to the square root of the number.
2
1
a 2
= a
The opposite of this rule also applies:

1
a =a 2
1 1
2 2
So, applying this rule, you can see that 2 is equal to 2 . The expression 7 is
1
2
equal to 7 . The expression 5 equals 5 , and so on. This rule can be very usefully
applied when youÊre working with more complex radical expressions. WeÊll examine
this rule is more detail later in the study unit.
Cube Roots and Fourth Roots

Square roots are the most commonly seen type of root. However, there are other types
of roots you should be aware of. For example, you may occasionally be asked to find
the cube root of a number. The cube root is simply a number that, when multiplied
together three times, will equal the radicand. So, for example, you know that 2 2 2
equals 8. Thus, the cube root of 8 is 2, since 2 multiplied together three times equals 8.
The fourth root of a number is a number that, when multiplied by itself four times, will
equal the radicand. So, you know that 3 3 3 3 equals 81. The fourth root of 81 is 3,
because 3 multiplied by itself four times equals 81.
The following rule relates to the use of the radical sign with roots.

Rule: The radical sign is used to stand for the root of a number. In the following
expression,
n
a
the n is called the index of the radical. The index tells you what type of root the radical
expression contains. In general, as long as the radicand is a positive number, the value
of n can be any positive number.
So, for example, if a radical expression contains a cube root, the index of the radical
will be 3. The radical sign will be written like this:
3
a
When you see a radical sign like this, youÊll automatically know that youÊre supposed
to find the cube root of the radicand. Similarly, the following radical sign tells you to
find the fourth root of a number:
4
a
When you see this type of radical sign, youÊll know that youÊre supposed to find the
fourth root of the number.
The radical sign on a square root has an index of 2; however, the index 2 is never
actually written. Instead, the index 2 is understood to be present. Whenever you see a
radical sign without an index, youÊll know that youÊre supposed to find the square
root of the radicand.
YouÊll very seldom be asked to find any root other than a square root. However, you
should be familiar with the notion of other roots and recognize them when you see
them.
Radicals with Variables

All of the radical expressions youÊve looked at so far have contained numbers. However,
youÊll frequently see radical expressions that contain variables. For example, look at the ex-
pression x 2 . What is the solution to this expression? Well, remember that every positive
number actually has two square roots. This same rule applies to variables. Any positive
variable has both a negative and a positive square root. For example, x times x equals x2,

but –x times –x also equals x2. So, the square root of x2 is either positive x or negative
x. This relationship can be stated with the following equation:
x2 = x
Radical expressions that contain variables are subject to all the same rules as ordinary
radical expressions. YouÊll look at radicals with variables in more detail a little later in
the study unit.
Rational and Irrational Numbers

a
A rational number is defined as any number that can be written as a fraction where a
b
and b are whole numbers and b ≠ 0
How can you tell whether a number is a rational number? Simply try to write the
number as a fraction and see what occurs. LetÊs look at the number 2. Is 2 a rational
2
number? Well, you can write the number 2 as a fraction: . In this fraction, both the
1
numerator and denominator are whole numbers, and the denominator isnÊt 0.
Therefore, according to the definition above, 2 is a rational number.
1
How about the number ? Well, this number is already a fraction. The numerator is
3
a negative whole number and the denominator is a positive whole number. So,
1
according to the definition above, is a rational number.
3
Finally, how about the decimal 3.25? Well, you can convert this decimal to the mixed
25 1 13
number 3 , or 3 . You can simplify this mixed number to the fraction . Since
100 4 4
both the numerator and denominator of this fraction are whole numbers, then accord-
ing to the definition, 3.25 is a rational number.
Just about all of the numbers we use in day-to-day arithmetic are rational numbers.
1
Some other examples of rational numbers are 3, , –5, and 1.75. In general, the
3
following types of numbers are all rational numbers:
■ Positive or negative whole numbers

■ Positive or negative fractions with nonzero denominators
■ Positive or negative terminating decimals (decimals that end)
■ Positive or negative repeating decimals (decimals in which the same digit or

group of digits repeats unendingly)
■ Positive or negative mixed numbers
Not all numbers are rational numbers, however. Any number that canÊt be written as a
fraction with a positive or negative whole number in the numerator and denominator
is called an irrational number.
A typical example of an irrational number is a nonrepeating, nonterminating decimal

(a decimal in which the digits go on forever without a repeating pattern). Many
square roots are irrational numbers, also. LetÊs examine some of these square roots.
You already know that not all integers are perfect squares. Look at the radical expres-
sion 2 . What number can you multiply by itself to get a result of 2? Well, letÊs
try to estimate the square root. First, try squaring the number 1 (1 1 = 1). The result
is 1, so 1 is too small to be the square root of 2. Now, try squaring the number 2
(2 2 = 4). The result is 4, so 2 is too large to be the square root of 2. From this exam-
ple, you can see that the square root of 2 must be some number between 1 and 2. So,
the number 2 isnÊt a perfect square; thereÊs no whole number that will equal 2 when
multiplied by itself.
You know that the square root of 2 is some number between 1 and 2, but what is the
exact square root? If you have a calculator handy, you can use it to find the answer.
The actual square root of 2 is a nonterminating, nonrepeating decimal: approximately
1.414213. This answer is an irrational number. If you multiply 1.414213 by itself, youÊll
see that the result is close to 2, but itÊs not exactly 2.
When youÊre solving problems that contain radical expressions, itÊs usual to leave an
expression like 2 just the way it is. Since the actual square root of 2 is an irrational
number, we just say that the expression 2 canÊt be simplified further.

Simplifying Square Roots
YouÊve seen that the value of the radical expression 2 is an irrational number and
that it canÊt be simplified further. However, some radical expressions can be simpli-
fied. For example, consider the radical expression 50 . What is the value of this
expression? Well, the radicand 50 isnÊt a perfect square. You can see that 7 is too small
to be the square root of 50 (72 = 49) and 8 is too large to be the square root (82 = 64).
So, the square root of 50 is an irrational number somewhere between 7 and 8.
However, even though the square root is an irrational number, you can still simplify
this expression. YouÊll do this with factoring.
To simplify this expression, what you need to do is to try to factor 50, and look for
any factors that are perfect squares. Remember that factors are simply the numbers
that can be multiplied together to equal 50. What are the factors of 50? Well, one pair
of factors is 5 and 10 (5 10 = 50). However, neither 5 nor 10 is a perfect square. How
about the factors 2 and 25 (2 25 = 50)? You know that 25 is a perfect square. These
are the factors you want. In the radical expression, substitute those factors for the
original radicand 50.
50 = 25 2
Now, to simplify the expression, you can find the square root of each factor separately.
The algebraic rule that applies to this property is the following:
Rule: If a and b are nonnegative numbers, then ab = a b . So keeping this rule

in mind, letÊs solve our problem.
Write the problem. Then, find the square root of each

25 2 = 25 2
factor.
25 2 =5 2 The square root of 25 is 5 (5 5 = 25). The

expression 2 is in its simplest form.
This is the simplest form of the expression 50 .

5 2 =5 2

Note that the answer to this problem was written without any multiplication sign
between the 5 and the 2 . Any time a number appears in front of a radical expres-
sion, it indicates that the radical expression is to be multiplied by that number. A
number that appears in front of a radical sign is called the coefficient.
Now, letÊs simplify a few radical expressions to practice the rule you learned in this
section.
Example: Simplify the expression 27 .
Solution: The radicand isnÊt a perfect square. So, factor the radicand so that one of the
factors is a perfect square.
9 3 = 27 One pair of factors is 9 and 3 (9 3 = 27). The factor

9 is a perfect square.
27 = 93 Substitute the factors 9 3 for the radicand in the

original expression.
93 = 9 3 Find the square root of each factor. The square root of
9 is 3 (3 3 = 9). The expression 3 is in its simplest
form.
9 3 = 3 3

3 3 = 3 3
Answer: 3 3
4 5 = 20 One pair of factors is 2 and 10 (2 10 = 20). However,
neither of these factors is a perfect square. Another
pair of factors is 4 and 5 (4 5 = 20). The factor 4 is a
perfect square.

original expression.

45 = 4 5 Find the square root of each factor. The square root of
4 is 2 (2 2 = 4). The expression 5 is in its simplest
form.
4 5 = 2 5

2 5 = 2 5
Answer: 2 5
9 2 = 18 One pair of factors is 6 and 3 (6 3 = 18). However,

neither of these factors is a perfect square. Another
pair of factors is 9 and 2 (9 2 = 18). The 9 is a perfect
square.

radical expression.
92 = 9 2 Find the square root of each factor.
9 2 = 3 2 The square root of 9 is 3 (3 3 = 9). The expression

2 is in its simplest form.

3 2 = 3 2
Answer: 3 2
Solution: The radicand isnÊt a perfect square. However, the only factors of 31 are 1
and 31. Neither of the factors is a perfect square, so this expression canÊt be simplified
further. Answer: 31

Example: Simplify the radical expression 2 27 .
9 3 = 27 One pair of factors is 9 and 3 (9 3 = 27). The factor 9

is a perfect square.

radical expression.
93 = 9 3 Find the square root of each factor.
9 3 = 3 3 The square root of 9 is 3 (3 3 = 9). The expression

3 is in its simplest form.

3 3 = 3 3
23 3 =6 3 However, remember that there was a coefficient in

front of the radical in the original expression. We
must multiply the coefficient 2 times the new
coefficient 3 (2 3 = 6). Answer: 6 3
Simplifying Radical Expressions with Variables

Consider the radical expression c 6 . How can you simplify this expression? Well,
remember the rule you learned earlier in this study unit:
Rule: Any number raised to the 1 power is equal to the square root of the
2
number. This relationship can be expressed with the following equation:
1
a 2
= a
The reverse of this equation is also true:

1
a =a 2

You can use this rule to simplify radical expressions containing variables. Look at the
expression again: c 6 . To simplify the expression, raise the radicand c6 to the 1

power. 2
Now, remember that when you raise an exponential

c 6 = (c 6 )
1
2
expression to a power, you multiply the exponents.
Multiply the exponents (6 1/2 = 6/1 1/2 = 6/2 = 3).

c6 = c3
1
2
The base remains the same.
c3 The answer is c3.
Example: Simplify the expression x4 .
Solution: Raise the radicand to the 1 power to simplify.

2
Raise the radicand to the 1/2 power.

x4 = (x 4 )
1
2
Multiply the exponents (4 1/2 = 4/1 1/2 = 4/2 = 2).

x4 = x2
1
2
Answer: x2
Mind Teasers are little puzzles youÊll see throughout the study unit. Remember, these puzzles are
just for fun and wonÊt be graded.
When an automobile accident occurs on a highway, the police officers called to the scene always
look at the length of skid marks left on the surface of the road near the crash. The length of the
skid marks can tell the police how fast a car was going when the driver applied the brakes. The
following formula can be used to estimate the speed of a car from the length of skid marks:
SPEED = 2 5L
In this formula, L stands for the length of the skid marks.
Now, suppose youÊre a police officer at the scene of an accident. You measure the skid marks on the pavement
nearby and find that the marks are 20 feet long. How fast was the car going when the driver applied the brakes?
Solution on page 115.

Example: Simplify the expression t3 .
Solution: Raise the radicand to the 1 power.

2
Raise the radicand to the 1/2 power.
t 3 = (t 3 ) 2
1
Multiply the exponents (3 1/2 = 3/2).

t3
1 3
2
=t 2
3 Now, note that the expression still isnÊt in its simplest

t 2
form. Because the original radicand had an odd num-

ber for an exponent, the problem failed to work out
properly. LetÊs try solving the problem again using
another method.
LetÊs factor the radicand so that one of the factors

t3 = t2 t = t2 t under the radical sign is a perfect square.
The factor t2 is a perfect square, so the square root of

2
t t =t t =t t t2 is t. The second factor, t , is in its most simplified
term. Answer: t t
Example: Simplify the expression a6 z 4 .
Solution: Note that there are two variables under the radical sign. Factor the radical
expression to separate the two variables.
Factor the expression to separate the two variables in

a6 z 4 = a6 z4 the radicand.
Raise each factor to the 1/2 power.

z 4 = ( a6 ) (z4 )
1 1
a6 2 2
Multiply the exponents (6 1/2 = 6/2 = 3; 4 1/2 =

(a6 2 ) ( z 4 2 ) = a 3 z 2
1 1
4
/2 = 2). Answer: a3z2

Example: Simplify the expression 9a4 .
Solution: The radicand in this problem contains both a number and a variable. To sim-
plify, first factor the expression.
Factor the expression to separate the variable and the

9a4 = 9 a4 coefficient in the radicand.
You know that the number 9 is a perfect square, so

9 a4 = 3 a4 the first factor, 9 , is equal to 3.
4 4 1 Raise the second factor to the 1/2 power.

3 a = 3 (a ) 2
Multiply the exponents to simplify the second factor

) = 3 a2
1
3 (a4 2
(4 1/2 = 4/2 = 2). Answer: 3a2
Example: Simplify the expression 8x2 .
Factor the expression to separate the two parts of the

8x2 = 8 x2 radicand.
The first factor ( 8 ) can be simplified. The number 8

8 x2 = 4 2 x2 isnÊt a perfect square, so factor 8 and look for any
factors that are perfect squares. Try the factors 2 and 4
(2 4 = 8). The number 4 is a perfect square. Break the
factor 8 down into 4 2 .
You know that the number 4 is a perfect square, so

4 2 x2 = 2 2 x2 the factor 4 is equal to 2. The factor 2 canÊt be
simplified any further.
1
Raise the factor x2 to the 1/2 power.
2 2 x2 = 2 2 (x 2 ) 2
1 Multiply the exponents (2 1/2 = 2/2 = 1).

2 2 x2 2
= 2 2 x

2x 2 Rearrange the answer so that the whole number
2 and the variable x go in front of the remaining
radical. This is the standard way to write a radical
expression. The factor comes first, then the radical.
Answer: 2 x 2
Example: Simplify the expression 3k 5 .
Factor the expression to separate the two parts of the

3k 5 = 3 k5 radicand.
The first factor ( 3 ) canÊt be simplified. Factor k5 so

5 4
3 k = 3 k k that one of the factors contains a perfect square.
1
Raise the factor k4 to the 1/2 power.
3 k4 k = 3 (k 4 ) 2 k
1 Multiply the exponents (4 1/2 = 4/2 = 2).

3 (k 4 2
) k = 3 k2 k
Rearrange the answer so that the k2 moves to the

k2 3 k = k 2 3k
front of the radical. The terms 3 and k can be
combined together under the radical sign.
Answer: k 2 3 k
Fractional Exponents
YouÊve already seen that the fraction 1/2, when used as an exponent, indicates that
you need to find the square root of the base. The following equation illustrates this
relationship:
1
x 2
= x
This relationship is also true when the exponent is a fraction other than 1/2. For exam-
ple, look at the following exponential expression:
1 3
x 3
= x

1
The exponential expression x 3 can be translated to a radical expression with a
radicand of x and an index of 3. This expression is the cube root of x.
In fact, many exponential expressions can easily be translated to radical expressions.

To do this, follow these steps:
Step 1: Look at the fractional exponent in the expression.
Step 2: The base of the exponential expression becomes the radicand.
Step 3: The denominator of the fractional exponent becomes the index of the
radical.
Step 4: The numerator of the fractional exponent becomes the exponent on the
radicand.
1
So, for example, in the previous example x 3 , the fractional exponent is 1/3. The
denominator of this fraction is 3, and 3 becomes the index of the radical. The base x
becomes the radicand. The numerator of the fractional exponent is 1, so 1 is the
understood exponent on the radicand x.
1
Now, look at the expression 16 4 . What does this expression mean? Well, the frac-
tional exponent in this problem is 1/4. The denominator of the fraction is 4. The 4
becomes the index of the radical, and the base of the exponential expression (16)
becomes the radicand. The numerator of the fractional exponent is 1, so 1 becomes the
understood exponent on the radicand. The new radical expression is written like this:
4
16
LetÊs look at a slightly different type of problem. Suppose that the fractional exponent
2
in an expression has a numerator other than 1, such as in 5 3 . What does that mean?
Well, the denominator of the fractional exponent still becomes the index of the radical,
and the base still becomes the radicand. The numerator of the fractional exponent
2
becomes the exponent on the radicand. The exponential expression 5 3 is written as a
radical expression like this:
3
52

The concept illustrated in the examples above can be summed up by the following
algebraic rule.
Rule: An exponential expression that contains a fractional exponent can be

translated to a radical expression according to this formula:
n x n
a x
= a
Note: This rule is true as long as the variable x is a positive number. If x is equal to
zero or a negative number, the value of the expression will not be a real number.
Use the steps listed above to solve the following problems.

1
Example: Write the exponential expression 3 4
as a radical expression.
Solution: Follow the steps given earlier to convert the expression to a radical.
1 4 Write the exponential expression. The base of the
3 4
= 3
exponential expression (3) becomes the radicand. The
denominator of the fractional exponent (4) becomes
4
the index of the radical. Answer: 3
1
Solution: Follow the steps given earlier to convert this exponential expression to a
radical expression.
1 Write the problem. The base of the exponential
8 2
= 8
expression (8) becomes the radicand. The denomina-
tor of the fractional exponent (2) becomes the index
of the radical. The index 2 is understood, however;
you donÊt need to write it.
8 = 42 This radical can be simplified. The number 4 is a fac-

tor of 8 that is a perfect square (4 2 = 8). In the
radical, substitute 4 2 for 8.

42 = 4 2 Find the square root of each factor separately.
The square root of 4 is 2. 2 is in its simplest form.

4 2 = 2 2 = 2 2
Answer: 2 2
1
radical expression.
1 5 Write the problem. The base of the exponential

16 5
= 16
expression (16) becomes the radicand. The denomina-
5
of the radical. Answer: 16
1
Example: Write the exponential expression x 4
radical expression.

x 4
= x
expression (x) becomes the radicand. The denomina-
4
of the radical. Answer: x
3
radical expression.
3
4 Write the problem. The base of the exponential
6 4
= 63 expression (6) becomes the radicand. The denomina-
of the radical. The numerator of the fractional expo-
nent (3) becomes the exponent on the radicand.
4 4 This radical can be simplified. Multiply to simplify 63

3 4
6 = 216 (6 6 6 = 216). Answer: 216

2
Example: Write the exponential expression (xy) 5
radical expression.

(xy ) 5
= ( xy )2 expression (xy) becomes the radicand. The denomina-
of the radical. The numerator of the fractional
exponent (2) becomes the exponent on the radicand.
5 5 The expression can be simplified. Note that the

( xy )2 = x2 y2 exponent 2 applies to both of the terms x and y. To
simplify (xy)2, raise each term (x and y) to the second
5
power. The result is x2y2. Answer: x2 y2
2
Example: Write the exponential expression ( 2b ) 3
radical expression.

( 2b) 3
= (2b)2 expression (2b) becomes the radicand. The denomina-
of the radical. The numerator of the fractional
exponent (2) becomes the exponent on the radicand.
3 3 This expression can be simplified. Note that the

(2b )2 = 4b 2 exponent 2 applies to both of the terms 2 and b. To
simplify (2b), raise each of the terms (2 and b) to the
3
second power. The result is 4b2. Answer: 4b 2
Now, check your learning by completing Sharpen Your Skills Practice Exercise 4 on the
following page.

Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 4
1. Simplify each of the following square roots.
a. 100 c. 49
b. 64 d. 81
2. Simplify each of the following radicals.
a. 54 c. 22
b. 12 d. 32
3. Simplify each of the following radicals.
a. 16k 4 b. 15s 3 c. 20 x 2 y 4 z3
d. x2 e. y4 f. 4 b3
4. Simplify each of the following expressions.

3
a.
1
b. y 4
c. 2 2 1
2 d. ( m 3 n 2 )
1
2
9 2 (x y )
GRADING.

Adding and Subtracting Radicals
Occasionally in algebra, youÊll encounter problems in which youÊll need to add, sub-
tract, multiply, and divide radical expressions. In these problems, you must first be
sure that all terms are simplified as much as possible. Then, you can combine like
terms as necessary to solve the problem.
LetÊs look at the operation of addition first. A typical addition problem containing
radical expressions is 3 5 + 4 5 . How can these two radical expressions be added?
Well, just as you combine variable expressions by adding coefficients (3x + 4x = 7x),
you add radical expressions by adding the coefficients (the numbers in front of the
radical signs). So, in the problem 3 5 + 4 5 , simply add the 3 and the 4. The radical
expression remains the same.
3 5 + 4 5 = 7 5 Add the coefficients (3 + 4 = 7). The radical

expression remains the same ( 5 ). Answer: 7 5
In order to add two radicals together, they must contain like radical terms. This means
that both radicals in the addition problem must have the same index and the same
radicand. The two terms in the problem above are like radicals because the radicands
are the same in each term (5) and the index is the same (understood to be 2). The fol-
lowing rule applies to the addition of radicals.
Rule: To add like radicals, add the coefficients.
a x + b x = ( a + b) x
Now, look at the problem 2 5 + 2 3 . Can these radicals be added? The answer is
no, because the radicals in the two terms are not like ( 5 and 3 ). Another example
is the following problem:
3 2
x + x
Can these radicals be added? No, they canÊt, because the two radicals have two differ-
ent indexes (3 and 2)

Rule: Expressions that contain like radicals can be subtracted according to this formula:
a x b x = ( a b) x
Some addition and subtraction problems will contain terms that need to be simplified.
Always simplify terms as much as possible before adding or subtracting them, and
simplify your answer, too.
Now, letÊs use these rules to solve a few example problems.
Example: Solve the addition expression 3 2 + 2.
Solution: Since the two terms contain like radicals, they can be added. Remember that
the term 2 has an understood coefficient of 1.
3 2 + 2 =? Write the problem.
3 2 + 2 =4 2 To add the terms, add the coefficients (3 + 1 = 4).

Answer: 4 2
Example: Solve the addition expression 6 x + 4 x + 3 x .
Solution: This problem contains three terms with like radicals, so they can be added.
Add the coefficients in order from left to right.
6 x +4 x +3 x =? Write the problem.
6 x + 4 x + 3 x = 13 x To add the terms, add the coefficients (6 + 4 + 3 = 13).

Answer: 13 x
Example: Solve the subtraction expression 10 y – 4 y .
Solution: Since the terms contain like radicals, they can be subtracted. Subtract the
coefficients to solve the problem.
10 y – 4 y = ? Write the problem.
10 y – 4 y = 6 y To subtract the terms, subtract the coefficients

(10 – 4 = 6). Answer: 6 y

Example: Solve the subtraction expression 18 7 – 15 7 – 3 7 .
Solution: This problem contains three terms with like radicals, so they can be sub-
tracted. Subtract the coefficients in order from left to right.
18 7 – 15 7 – 3 7 = ? Write the problem.
18 7 – 15 7 – 3 7 = 0 7 To subtract the terms, subtract the coefficients
0 7 =0 (18 – 15 = 3; 3 – 3 = 0). Answer: The result of subtrac-

tion is a coefficient of 0, so your answer is just 0
(any number times 0 = 0).
Example: Solve the expression 4 2 – 8 2 + 2 2 .
Solution: This problem contains three terms with like radicals, so they can be com-
bined. Note that the problem contains an addition operation and a subtraction
operation. Solve the operations in order from left to right.
4 2 –8 2 +2 2 =? Write the problem.
4 2 – 8 2 = –4 2 Subtract the coefficients (4 – 8 = –4).
–4 2 + 2 2 = –2 2 Add the coefficients. Answer: –2 2
Example: Solve the addition expression 6 + 24 .
Solution: The term must be simplified before adding.

6 + 24 = ? Write the problem.
24 = 46 Simplify the term 24. The number 24 has a factor that
is a perfect square (4). Factor the number 24 (4 6)
46 = 4 6 Find the square root of each term separately. The
4 6 = 2 6 square root of 4 is 2. The radical 6 is in its simplest
form.
6 + 2 6 = ? After simplifying 24 , this is your addition problem.
6 + 2 6 = 3 6 Add the coefficients (1 + 2 = 3). Answer: 3 6

Example: Solve the expression 4 5 + 9 – 2 5.
Solution: Simplify the term 9 before adding.
4 5 + 9 –2 5 =? Write the problem.

9 =3 The expression 9 can be simplified. The square root
of 9 is 3.
4 5 +3–2 5 =? After simplifying, this is your addition problem.
4 5 +3–2 5 =2 5 +3 Note that only two of the terms (4 5 and 2 5 ) con-

tain like radicals. Subtract the coefficients of the like
radicals (4 – 2 = 2). The expression canÊt be simplified
any further. Answer: 2 5 + 3
Multiplying Radicals
To multiply two radicals together, you simply multiply the radicands. For example,
look at the problem 2 3 . To multiply these two radical expressions together, mul-
tiply the radicands (2 and 3).
2 3 = 23 = 6 Multiply the radicands together.
Note that in the multiplication of radicals, the radicals must have the same index, but
they can have different radicands. For example, you can multiply 2 and 5
together. Even though the two radicals have different radicands (2 and 5), they both
3
have the same index (2). However, you canÊt multiply 3 and 2 together, because
the radicals have different indexes (2 and 3). The following general rule applies to the
multiplication of radicals.
Rule: Expressions that contain radicals can be multiplied according to this formula:
a b = ab
Just as with addition and subtraction, you must simplify any terms that you can before multi-
plying. After multiplying, simplify the answer if possible. If any of the radical expressions

contain coefficients, multiply these first. Follow these steps to complete a multiplication
problem:
Step 1: Simplify each radical term.
Step 2: Multiply the coefficients of the radicals (if any are present).
Step 3: Multiply the radicands.
Step 4: Simplify the answer.
Now, letÊs solve a few example multiplication problems using these steps.
Example: Solve the multiplication expression 5 7.

Solution: Follow the steps given earlier to multiply this radical expression.
5 7 =? Write the problem.
5 7 = 35 Neither of these terms can be simplified, so multiply

the radicands (5 7 = 35). Answer: 35
Example: Solve the multiplication expression x y.
x y =? Write the problem.
x y = xy Neither term can be simplified, so multiply the
radicands (x y = xy). Answer: xy
Example: Solve the multiplication expression 6 15 .
6 15 = ? Write the problem.
6 15 = 90 Since neither term can be simplified, multiply the
radicands (6 15 = 90).
90 = 9 10 The radical 90 can be simplified. Factor 90 into
9 10.

9 10 = 9 10 Take the square root of each term separately.
9 10 = 3 10 The square root of 9 is 3. The term 10 is in its
3 10 = 3 10 simplest form. Answer: 3 10
Example: Solve the multiplication expression 2 3 3 5 .
2 3 3 5 =? Write the problem.
2 3 3 5 =? Neither radical term can be simplified. Multiply the

23=6 coefficients first (2 3 = 6).
3 5 = 15 Multiply the radicands (3 5 = 15).
6 15 The complete answer is 6 15 . Answer: 6 15
Example: Solve the multiplication expression 9 27 .
9 27 = ? Write the problem.
9 =3 Both terms can be simplified. The first term, 9 , can
be simplified to 3 (3 3 = 9).
27 = 93 In the second term, two factors of 27 are 9 and 3.
Replace 27 with 9 3.
93 = 9 3 Take the square root of each term separately.
9 3 = 3 3 The square root of 9 is 3. The term 3 is in its
3 3 = 3 3 simplest form.

3⋅3 3 After simplifying the terms, the multiplication looks
like this.
33 3 = 9 3 Multiply the coefficients (3 3 = 9). Answer: 9 3
Example: Solve the multiplication expression ab 2 a 2 .

ab 2 a 2 = ? Write the problem.
ab 2 a b 2 The first term can be simplified. Factor the term.
a b2 a b Take the square root of each term separately. The term

a is in its simplest form. The square root of b2 is b.
a bb a You can rearrange the resulting terms so that b
becomes the coefficient on a .
a2 a The second term can also be simplified. The square
root of a 2 is a.
b a a=? After simplifying, your multiplication problem looks
like this.
b a a = ab a Multiply the coefficients (a b = ab). Answer: ab a
Example: Solve the multiplication expression 2 3 x 5 .
2 3 x 5 =? Write the problem.
2 3 x 5 =? Neither term can be simplified, so multiply

2 x = 2x the coefficients first (2 x = 2x).
3 5 = 15 Multiply the radicands (3 5 = 15).
2x 15 Your complete answer is 2x 15 . Answer: 2x 15

Dividing Radicals
Some problems require you to divide one radical expression by another. You may see
a radical division problem written in either one of two ways: horizontally, or as a frac-
tion. For example, suppose youÊre asked to divide 3 by 7 . The problem may be
written either of these ways:
3
3 7 or
7
To solve such a problem, you must combine the two radicals into one radical expres-
sion. The following rule applies to the division of radicals.
Rule: Expressions that contain radicals can be divided according to this formula:
a a
a b = =
b b
The reverse is also true:

a a
=
b b
Note: This rule is true as long as the variable b isnÊt equal to zero. As youÊll remember,
itÊs impossible to divide by zero.
When youÊre solving division problems that contain radicals, you must always sim-
plify terms before dividing, and simplify the answer if possible.
Now, letÊs look at a few example division problems.
Example: Solve the division expression 30 6.
Solution: To divide, combine the two radical terms into one radical expression.
30 Write the problem as a fraction.

6

30 30 Combine the terms into one radical expression.
=
6 6
30 Simplify the fraction under the radical sign. Divide 30

= 5 by 6 (30 6 = 5). Answer: 5
6
Example: Solve the division expression x2 x.

x2
x
Combine the terms into one radical expression.
x2 x2
=
x x
2
Simplify the fraction under the radical sign. Divide x2
x
= x by x (x2 x = x). Answer: x
x
Example: Solve the division expression 100 10 .
100 Write the problem as a fraction.

10
100 100 Combine the terms into one radical expression.

=
10 10
100 Simplify the fraction under the radical sign. Divide

= 10 100 by 10 (100 10 = 10). Answer: 10
10

Example: Find the square root of the fraction 16/25.
Solution: This problem is a little different from the ones you solved earlier. However,
the same rule about dividing radicals applies.
16 Write the problem.

25
16 16 According to the division rule, you can change the

= radical expression as shown here.
25 25
16 4 Simplify the expression. The square root of 16 is 4.
= The square root of 25 is 5. Answer: 4/5
25 5
Simplifying Fractions Containing Radicals

Sometimes, a fractional expression will contain one or more radicals. Many of these
fractional expressions can be simplified. Remember, you must always simplify terms
when youÊre dividing radicals. ItÊs okay to leave a radical in the numerator if it canÊt
be simplified further, but itÊs never acceptable to leave a radical in the denominator.
ItÊs also unacceptable to have a fractional radicand. In either of these situations, the
radical expression isnÊt completely simplified.
The Cancellation Method

One way to simplify radical expressions is to use the cancellation method wherever
possible. If the same radical appears in both the numerator and denominator of a
fraction, theyÊll cancel each other out. Look at the following example.
2
=1
2

In this fraction, the radical 2 appears in both the numerator and denominator, so it
can be cancelled out.
Follow these steps to simplify a fraction by using the cancellation method.
Step 1: First, try to reduce the fraction or simplify individual terms as much as
possible.
Step 2: If the fraction appears under a radical sign, change the expression so that a
radical appears in both the numerator and the denominator:
a a
=
b b
Step 3: If the same radical appears in both the numerator and denominator, it can
be cancelled out.
Step 4: Reduce any remaining fractions.
Example: Solve the division expression 3 2 2.
Solution: Use the cancellation method to simplify the expression.
3 2 Write the problem as a fraction.

=?
2
3 2 3 2 This expression has the same radical in both the

= =3 numerator and denominator ( 2 ). The two 2 Ês will
2 2
cancel each other out ( 2 2 = 1). After can-
celling, youÊre left with 3. Answer: 3
Example: Solve the division expression 4 7 2 7 .
Solution: Use the cancellation method to simplify the expression.
4 7 Write the problem as a fraction.

=?
2 7
4 7 4 7 4 This expression has the same radical in both the

= = numerator and denominator ( 7 ). The two 7 Ês will
2 7 2 7 2
cancel each other out ( 7 7 = 1). After cancelling,
youÊre left with the fraction 4/2.

4 To reduce the fraction, divide the numerator by the
=2 denominator (4 2 = 2). Answer: 2
2
Example: Simplify the expression 4a .

a
Solution: Use the cancellation method to solve the problem.
4a Write the problem.

=?
a
4a 4a 4 a Factor the term in the numerator.

= =
a a a
4 a 2 a The expression 4 is equal to 2.

=
a a
2 a The terms a appears in both the numerator and

= 2
a denominator. The two a Ês will cancel each other
out. YouÊre left with 2. Answer: 2
Rationalizing the Denominator

In some fractions, youÊll need to use another method to remove a radical from the
denominator. This method is called rationalizing the denominator. In this method, the
fraction is manipulated in such a way that the radical is removed from the denomina-
tor without changing the value of the fraction. To do that, you multiply both the
numerator and the denominator of the fraction by a radical expression that will make
the denominator a perfect square.
Follow these steps to simplify a fraction by rationalizing the denominator.
Step 1: First, try to reduce the fraction or simplify individual terms as much as
possible.
Step 2: If the fraction appears under a radical sign, change the expression so that a
radical appears in both the numerator and the denominator:
a a
=
b b

Step 3: Identify the radical in the denominator that you want to eliminate.
Step 4: Multiply both the numerator and denominator of the fraction by a radical
expression that will make the denominator a perfect square. This
multiplication will eliminate the radical from the denominator.
Step 5: Reduce any remaining fractions.
LetÊs look at an example that will illustrate how to rationalize the denominator.
2
Suppose youÊre asked to simplify the expression .
7
2 Write the problem. This expression has the expression

=? 7 in the denominator.
7
2
2 7 2 7 To simplify, multiply by the expression 7 .
= 7 7
7 7 7 7 (The expression 7 has a value of 1, and when you
7
multiply by 1, you donÊt change the value of the orig-
inal expression.)
2 7 2 7 Remember, to multiply two fractions together, you

= multiply numerator times numerator and denomina-
7 7 49
tor times denominator. Multiply in the numerator.
You get 2 7 . In the denominator, multiply the radi-
cands (7 7 = 49).
2 7 2 7 Now, simplify the radical in the denominator. The

=
49 7 square root of 49 is 7. The result, 2 7 , is in simplest
7
form. Answer: 2 7
7
Note that when you multiply the numerator and denominator of a fraction by the
same number, itÊs the same as multiplying the whole fraction by 1. So, this manipula-
tion doesnÊt change the overall value of the fraction.

2
Example: Solve the division expression .
5
Solution: Follow the steps given to rationalize the denominator.

= ?
5
2 5 The radical in the denominator of this problem is 5 .

Multiply both the numerator and denominator of the
5 5
fraction by 5 .
2 5 2 5 Multiply in the numerator (2 5 = 2 5 ).

=
5 5 25 Multiply in the denominator ( 5 5 = 25 ).
2 5 2 5 Simplify the term in the denominator. The square

=
25 5 root of 25 is 5. Answer: 2 5
5
Example: Simplify the expression 5.
3
Solution: Follow the steps given to rationalize the denominator.

=?
3
Change the expression to 5 to 5.

5 5
= 3 3
3 3
5 3 The radical in the denominator of this problem is 3 .

=? Multiply both the numerator and denominator of the
3 3
fraction by 3 .
5 3 15 Multiply in the numerator ( 5 3 = 15 ).

=
3 3 9
Multiply in the denominator ( 3 3 = 9 ).

15 15 Simplify the term in the denominator. The square
In the winter, we = 15
tend to feel colder 9 3 root of 9 is 3. Answer:
when the wind is 3
blowing than when
the air is still.
When itÊs very cold 5
Example: Simplify the expression .
outside, weather 18
forecasters will tell
you the actual temperature and Solution: Follow the steps given to rationalize the denominator.
also the wind chill factor, which is
how cold it „feels‰ to us outside Write the problem.
when the wind is blowing. The 5
=?
following formula can be used to 18
determine the wind chill factor on
a wintry day: 5 2 Multiply the numerator and denominator by a radical
=? expression that will make the denominator a perfect
18 2
(10.45 + 6.68 s 0.447 s)(457 5 t ) square. In this expression, weÊll multiply the numera-
91.4
110 tor and denominator by 2 .
5 2 10 Multiply in the numerator ( 5 2 = 10 ).

In this formula, s stands for the
=
speed of the wind (in miles per 18 2 36
hour). The letter t stands for the Multiply in the denominator ( 18 2 = 36 ).
actual temperature as indicated by
a thermometer (in degrees 10 10 Simplify the term in the denominator. The square
Fahrenheit). =
36 6 root of 36 is 6. Answer: 10
Now, suppose that youÊre a
6
weather forecaster preparing your
broadcast for the day. Your instru-
ments tell you that the actual As youÊve seen repeatedly in algebra, there are many ways to solve a problem and
temperature is 10 degrees arrive at the correct answer. Perhaps you found another way to solve a problem in
Fahrenheit and the wind speed is
36 miles per hour. What is the
this section. ThatÊs okay as long as you end up with the same answer and your proce-
wind chill factor? dure is correct.
Solution on page 115.

Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 5
a. 5 +5 5 =? b. 4 2 –2 2 =? c. 2 x – x +4 x =?
d. ab + 5 ab = ? e. 3 12 – 2 27 + 3 =? f. 27 – 2 32 + 16 = ?
a. 5 3 =? b. 3 12 = ? c. 4 5 =?
d. 3 2 2 50 = ? e. a c =? f. 2 x 4 x =?
a. 45 5 =? b. 18 6 =? c. 24 6 =? d. 10 2 =?
4. Simplify each of the following fractions.
9 25 6x
a. =? b. =? c. =?
16 81 2x
7 13 x2
d. =? e. =? f. =?
64 9 x 2y
(Continued)

Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 5
5. Reduce each of the following expressions to their simplest form.
7 6 6
a. =? b. =? c. =?
6 8 7
16 40 3
d. =? e. =? f. =?
20 60 3
GRADING.

Using Square Roots to Solve Equations
The operation of finding the square root is sometimes useful for solving equations.
For example, if an equation contains a squared variable such as x2 or y2, you can take
the square root of both sides of the equation to isolate the variable.
LetÊs look at an example equation: x2 = 64. Find the value of x. To do this, take the
square root of both sides of the equation.
x2 = 64 Write the equation.
x2 = 64 Take the square root of both sides of the equation.
x 2 = 64 Simplify the expression. On the left side, the square

x=8 root of x2 is x (x x = x2). On the right side, the
square root of 64 is either +8 (8 8 = 64) or –8 (–8 –8
= 64). Answer: The value of x is 8.
Example: Solve the equation z2 = 16.
Solution: Take the square root of both sides of the equation to isolate the variable.
z2 = 16 Write the equation.
z2 = 16 Take the square root of both sides of the equation.
z=4 Simplify the expression. On the left side, the square

root of z2 is z. On the right side, the square root of 16
is either 4 (4 4 = 16) or –4 (–4 –4 = 16). Answer: The
value of z is 4.
Example: Solve the equation m2 = 5.
Solution: Take the square root of both sides of the equation in order to isolate the
variable.
m2 = 5 Write the equation.
m2 = 5 Take the square root of both sides.

m2 = 5 Simplify the expression. On the left side, the square
root of m2 is m. On the right side, the square root of 5
m= 5 is 5 . The radical 5 canÊt be simplified any further.
Either the positive or the negative form of the radical
5 will solve this equation. Answer: The value of
m is 5 .
Example: Solve the equation x2 – 100 = 0.

Solution: Isolate the variable term first by using addition.
x2 – 100 = 0 Write the equation.
x2 – 100 + 100 = 0 + 100 Add 100 to both sides of the equation. On the left
x2 = 100 side, the –100 and +100 cancel each other out
(–100 + 100 = 0). On the right, you get 100
(0 + 100 = 100).
x 2 = 100 Simplify the expression. On the left side, the square

x = 10 root of x2 is x. On the right side, the square root of
100 is either 10 (10 10 = 100) or –10 (–10 –10 = 100).
Answer: The value of x is 10.
Example: Solve the equation 2x2 – 9 = x2.
Solution: Simplify the equation first to isolate the variable.
2x2 – 9 = x2 Write the equation.
2x2 – 9 + 9 = x2 + 9
2x2 = x2 + 9 Add 9 to both sides of the equation. On the left side,
the –9 and +9 cancel each other out (–9 + 9 = 0). On
the right side, you get x2 + 9.
2x2 – x2 = x2 – x2 + 9 Subtract x2 from both sides of the equation. On the

x2 = 9 left side, you get x2 (2x2 – x2 = x2). On the right side,
the +x2 and the –x2 cancel each other out (x2 – x2 = 0).

x2 = 9 Simplify the expression. On the right side, the square
x=3 root of x2 is x. On the right side, the square root of 9 is
either 3 (3 3 = 9) or –3 (–3 –3 = 9). Answer: 3
Example: Solve the equation 21 = 3y2.
Solution: Divide first to isolate the variable.
21 = 3y2 Write the equation.
21 3 y 2 Divide both sides of the equation by 3. On the left

= side, you get 7 (21 3 = 7). On the right side, you get
3 3
y2 (3y2 3 = y2).
7 = y2
Take the square root of both sides of the equation.
7 = y2
On the left side, the square root of 7 is 7 .

7 = y2
This radical canÊt be simplified any further. On the
right side, the square root of y2 is y. Note that the
7 =y answer can be either the positive or negative root
of 7. Answer: 7
Example: Find the length of the side of a square whose area is 36 square feet.
(Remember, to find the area of a square, you square the length of one of the sides.)
Solution: All the sides of a square are the same length. We can use s to represent the
length of a side. The area of the square is then equal to s2.
s = length of one side You know that s2 stands for the area of the square,
s2 = area of the square and youÊre told in the problem that the area of the
square is 36 square feet.
s2 = 36 Set up an equation and let s2 equal 36.

s2 = 36

Simplify the equation. On the left side, the square
s2 = 36
root of s2 is s. On the right side, the square root of 36
s=6 is 6 (6 6 = 36). Answer: The length of one side of the
square is 6 feet.
Notice that the negative square root isnÊt a possible answer. This is because the
problem asks you to find the length of one side of a square, and thereÊs no such thing
as a negative length. Thus, only the positive root makes sense in the context of the
problem.
Radical Equations
A radical equation is an equation in which the variable is located under a radical sign.
To isolate the variable in such an equation, we must eliminate the radical sign. We can
eliminate the radical sign by squaring both sides of the equation.
The following rule applies to radical equations.
Rule: If an equation a = b is true, then the equation a2 = b2 is also true.
Now, look at the example equation x = 7. In this equation, youÊre being asked to
find the value of the variable x. To isolate x, you need to eliminate the radical on the
left side of the equation. To do this, simply square both sides of the equation. You must
square all of the terms on both sides of the equation.
x =7 Write the equation.
( x )2 = 72 Square both sides of the equation. On the left side,
you get x ( x x = x2 = x). On the right side,

x = 49
you get 49 (7 7 = 49). Answer: The value of x is 49.
Check: Check your answer by substituting 49 for x in the original equation.

x =7 Write the original equation.
49 = 7 Substitute 49 for x in the equation.

7=7 Simplify. You get the same number on both sides of
the equal sign, so the answer is correct. Answer: The
value of x is 49.
Notice that the answer was checked after we finished solving the problem. ItÊs very
important to always check your answer whenever you square both sides of an equa-
tion. This is because using the squaring method sometimes produces „false‰ answers
called extraneous roots.
For example, consider the equation x = 1. Now, letÊs square both sides of this
equation.
x=1 Square both sides of the equation.

x = 12
2
x2 = 1 The value of 12 is 1.
Do you see what happened? You squared both sides of the equation, and you got a result of
x2 = 1. However, you know that the value of x in that equation could actually be either +1 or –1.
Therefore, the answer x2 = 1 isnÊt complete. The „extra‰ answer –1 is called an extraneous root.
In summary, you sometimes need to square both sides of an equation to eliminate a

radical sign and isolate a variable. However, squaring both sides of an equation doesnÊt
necessarily produce an equation thatÊs equivalent to the original equation. ThatÊs why
you must always check your answer when you square both sides of an equation.
Now, letÊs look at some more example problems that illustrate the squaring method.
Example: Solve the equation 3y = 6. The radicand is 3y.
Solution: The variable y is located under the radical sign. Use the squaring method to
eliminate the radical sign.
3y = 6 Write the equation.
( 3y )2 = 62 Square both sides of the equation. On the left side,

2
you get 3y ( 3y 3y = 9 y = 3y).

3y = 36 On the right side, you get 36 (6 6 = 36).
3y 36 Simplify the equation. Divide both sides by 3.

=
3 3
3y On the left side, the two 3Ês cancel each other out. On
= 12
3 the right side, you get 12 (36 3 = 12). Answer: The
y = 12 value of y is 12.
Check: Check your answer by substituting 12 for y in the original equation.

3y = 6 Write the original equation.
3 12 = 6 Substitute 12 for y in the equation.
3 12 = 6 Simplify. You get the same number on both sides of

36 = 6 value of y is 6.
6=6
Example: Solve the equation a + 7 = 9.
Solution: The variable a is located under the radical sign. First, isolate the radical on
the left side on the equation. Then, use the squaring method to eliminate the radical
sign.
a +7=9 Write the equation.
a +7–7=9–7 Subtract 7 from both sides of the equation. On the left
side, the +7 and –7 cancel each other out. On the right
a =2 side, you get 2 (9 – 7 = 2).
( a )2 = 22 Square both sides of the equation. On the left side,

a=4 you get a ( a a = a). On the right side, you get 4
(2 2 = 4). Answer: The value of a is 4.

Check: Check your answer by substituting 4 for a in the original equation.
a +7=9 Write the original equation.
4 +7=9 Substitute 4 for a in the equation.
a +7=9 Simplify. You get the same number on both sides of
2+7=9 the equal sign, so the answer is correct. Answer: The
9=9 value of a is 4.
Example: Solve the equation 3 x 2 8 = x.

Solution: The variable x is located under the radical sign. Use the squaring method to
3x2 8 = x Write the equation.
2 Square both sides of the equation. On the left side,

⎛ 2 ⎞ 2
⎜ 3x 8 ⎟ = x you get 3x2 – 8. Note that you donÊt have to actually
⎝ ⎠
square the expression 3 x 2 8 ; you can simply
remove the radical sign.
3x2 – 8 = x2 On the right side, you get x2.
3x2 – 8 + 8 = x2 + 8 Simplify the equation. Add 8 to both sides. On the

3x2 = x2 + 8 left side, the –8 and +8 cancel each other out. On the
right side, you get x2 + 8.
3x2 – x2 = x2 – x2 + 8 Subtract x2 from both sides. On the left side, you get
2x2 = 8 2x2 (3x2 – x2 = 2x2). On the right side, the +x2 and –x2
cancel each other out.
Divide both sides of the equation by 2. On the left

2x2 8
= side, the two 2Ês cancel each other out. On the right
2 2
side, you get 4 (8 2 = 4).
x2 = 4
x2 = 4 Now, you must take the square root of both sides of

the equation to isolate x.

x2 = 4 On the left side, the square root of x2 is x. On the right
x=2 side, the square root of 4 is 2. Answer: The value of
x is 2.
Check: Check your answer by substituting either 2 or –2 for x in the original equa-
tion. (Note that one used +2 in our check below. However, you can try –2 also for
practice.)
3x2 8 = x Write the original equation.
3 22 8 = 2 Substitute 2 for x in the equation.
348 =2 Simplify. You get the same number on both sides of

4 =2 value of x is 2.
2=2
Example: Solve the equation 2 2 p 1 + 6 = 10 .
Solution: The variable p is located under the radical sign. Isolate the radical on the left
side of the equation. Then, use the squaring method to eliminate the radical sign.
2 2 p 1 + 6 = 10 Write the equation.
2 2 p 1 + 6 – 6 = 10 – 6 Subtract 6 from both sides of the equation. On the left

side, the +6 and –6 cancel each other out. On the
2 2p 1 = 4 right side, you get 4 (10 – 6 = 4).
2 2p 1 4 Now, note that the radical term on the left side has a
= coefficient in front of it. Divide both sides of the
2 2
equation by the coefficient (2). On the left side, the
2p 1 = 2 two 2Ês cancel each other out. On the right side, you
get 2 (4 2 = 2).
( ) 2 Square both sides of the equation. On the left side,

2p 1 = 22
you get 2p – 1 . On the right side, you get 4
2p – 1 = 4 (2 2 = 4).

2p – 1 + 1 = 4 + 1 Simplify the equation. Add 1 to both sides. On the
2p = 5 left side, the +1 and –1 cancel each other out. On the
right side, you get 5 (4 + 1 = 5).
2p 5 Divide both sides of the equation by 2.

=
2 2
p = 21 On the left side, the two 2Ês cancel each other out. On
2
the right side, you get 2.5 (5 2 = 2.5). Answer: The
value of p is 2 1 or 2.5.
2
Check: Check your answer by substituting 2.5 for p in the original equation.
2 2 p 1 + 6 = 10 Write the original equation.
2 2 2.5 1 + 6 = 10 Substitute 2.5 for p in the equation.
2 5 1 + 6 = 10
2 4 + 6 = 10 Simplify. You get the same number on both sides of

2 2 + 6 = 10 the equal sign, so the answer is correct. Answer: The
4 + 6 = 10 value of p is 2.5.
10 = 10
The next example problems are a little bit different from the ones youÊve solved so far.
This is because the following problems contain a radical on both sides of the equation.
Watch closely to see how these problems are solved.
Example: Solve the equation 4 k – 3 + 5 = 7 k – 14 + 1.
Solution: The variable k is located under the radical sign. A radical term appears on
each side of the equation. However, because these radicals are like, you can simplify
the equation. Isolate the radical on one side of the equation. Then, use the squaring
method to eliminate the radical sign.
4 k – 3 + 5 = 7 k – 14 + 1 Write the original equation.

4 k – 4 k – 3 + 5 = 7 k – 4 k – 14 + 1 Simplify the equation. Subtract 4 k from both
sides of the equation. On the left side, the +4 k
–3 + 5 = 3 k – 14 + 1
and –4 k cancel each other out. On the right
side, subtract 4 k from 7 k to get 3 k .
–3 + 5 = 3 k – 14 + 1 Now, combine the constants. On the left side, you get

(–3 + 5 = 2). On the right side, you get
2 = 3 k – 13 (–14 + 1 = –13).
2 + 13 = 3 k – 13 + 13 Add 13 to both sides. On the left side, you get 15

(2 + 13 = 15). On the right side, the –13 and +13
15 = 3 k cancel each other out.
15 3 k Divide both sides of the equation by 3. On the left

= side, you get 5 (15 3 = 5). On the right side, the
3 3
two 3Ês cancel each other out.
5= k
(5)2 = ( k )2 Square both sides of the equation. On the left side,

25 = k you get 25 (5 5 = 25). On the right side, you get k.
Answer: The value of k is 25.
Check: Check your answer by substituting 25 for k in the original equation.
4 k – 3 + 5 = 7 k – 14 + 1 Write the original equation.
4 25 – 3 + 5 = 7 25 – 14 + 1 Substitute 25 for k in the equation.
4 25 – 3 + 5 = 7 25 – 14 + 1 Simplify. You get the same number on both sides of

4 5 – 3 + 5 = 7 5 – 14 + 1 the equal sign, so the answer is correct. Answer: The
20 – 3 + 5 = 35 – 14 + 1 value of k is 25.
17 + 5 = 21 + 1
22 = 22
Example: Solve the equation c + 3 = 2c 1 .
Solution: In this problem, the variable c is under the radical sign. A radical term appears on
both sides of the equation. Because these two radical terms arenÊt like, we canÊt simplify

the equation by combining them. Therefore, square both sides of the equation to elim-
inate the radical signs.
c+3 = 2c 1 Write the equation.
Square both sides of the equation. On the left side,

( ) ( )
2 2
c+3 = 2c 1 you get c + 3 . On the right side, you get 2c – 1.
c + 3 = 2c – 1
c + 3 + 1 = 2c – 1 + 1 Simplify the equation. Add 1 to both sides. On the

c + 4 = 2c left side, add 3 and 1 to get 4. On the right side, the
–1 and +1 cancel each other out.
c – c + 4 = 2c – c Subtract c from both sides of the equation. On the left

4=c side, the +c and –c cancel each other out. On the right
side, you get c (2c – c = c). Answer: The value of c is 4.
Check: Check your answer by substituting 4 for c in the original equation.
c+3 = 2c 1 Write the original equation.
4+3 = 241 Substitute 4 for c in the equation.
4+3 = 241 Simplify.
7 = 81
7 = 7 You get the same number on both sides of the equal

sign, so the answer is correct. Answer: The value of c
is 4.
Example: Solve the equation b + 2 = b + 8 .
Solution: In this problem, the variable b is under the radical sign. A radical term
appears on both sides of the equation. Because these two radical terms arenÊt like,
we canÊt simplify the equation by combining them. Therefore, square both sides of
the equation to eliminate the radical signs.
b +2= b + 8 Write the equation.

( b + 2)2 = ( b + 8 )2 Square both sides of the equation. On the right side,
( b + 2)2 = b + 8 you get b + 8.
( b + 2)2 = b + 8 Square the binomial ( b + 2) on the left side of the

( b + 2) ( b + 2) = b + 8 equation.
( b + 2) ( b + 2) = b + 8 Since ( b + 2) is a binomial, we can use the FOIL

b+2 b +2 b +4=b+8 method to square it. Multiply the first terms
( b b = b). Multiply the outer terms
( b 2 = 2 b ). Multiply the inner terms
(2 b = 2 b ). Multiply the last terms
(2 2 = 4).
b+2 b +2 b +4=b+8 Simplify the equation by adding the like terms on the
b+4 b +4=b+8 left side (2 b + 2 b = 4 b ).
b–b+4 b +4=b–b+8 Simplify the equation to isolate the radical term.

4 b +4=8 Subtract b from both sides of the equation. On both
the left and right sides, the +b and –b cancel each
other out.
4 b +4–4=8–4 Subtract 4 from both sides. On the left side, the +4

4=4 and –4 cancel each other out. On the right side, you
get 4 (8 – 4 = 4).
4 b 4 Divide both sides of the equation by 4. On the left

= side, the two 4Ês cancel each other out. On the right
4 4
side, you get 1 (4 4 = 1).
b =1
( b )2 = 12 Square both sides of the equation to eliminate the

b=1 remaining radical sign. On the left side, you get b .
On the right side, you get 1 (1 1 = 1). Answer: The
value of b is 1.
Check: Check your answer by substituting 1 for b in the original equation.

b +2= b + 8 Write the original equation.
1 +2= 1+ 8 Substitute 1 for b in the equation.

1 +2= 1+ 8 Simplify. You get the same number on both sides of
1+2= 9 value of b is 1.
3=3
The final example problems in this section are problems that contain extraneous roots.
Example: Solve the equation x = –3.
Solution: The variable x is located under the radical sign. Use the squaring method to
x = –3 Write the equation.
( x )2 = (–3)2 Square both sides of the equation. On the left side,

x=9 you get x. On the right side, you get 9 (–3 –3 = 9).
Answer: The value of x appears to be 9.
Check: Check your answer by substituting 9 for x in the original equation.

x = –3 Write the original equation.
9 = –3 Substitute 9 for x in the equation.
9 = –3 Simplify. You donÊt get the same value on both sides
3 = –3 of the equation. The primary square root of 9 is posi-
tive 3, not negative 3. So, the apparent solution, 9, is an
extraneous root introduced by the process of squaring
both sides of the equation. Answer: There is no solution
to the equation x = –3.
Example: Solve the equation a + 1 + 8 = 4.
Solution: The variable a is located under the radical sign. Use the squaring method to
a +1 +8=4 Write the equation.

a +1 +8–8=4–8 Isolate the radical term. Subtract 8 from both sides of
the equation. On the left side, the +8 and –8 cancel
a + 1 = –4 each other out. On the right side, you get –4
(4 – 8 = –4).
( a+1 )2 = (–4)2 Square both sides of the equation. On the left side,
a + 1 = 16 you get a + 1 . On the right side, you get 16
( –4 –4 = 16).
a + 1 – 1 = 16 – 1 Simplify. Subtract 1 from both sides of the equation.

a = 15 On the left side, the +1 and –1 cancel each other out.
On the right side, you get 15 (16 – 1 = 15). Answer:
The value of a appears to be 15.
Check: Check your answer by substituting 15 for a in the original equation.

a +1 +8=4 Write the original equation.
15 + 1 + 8 = 4 Substitute 15 for a in the equation.
15 + 1 + 8 = 4 Simplify. You donÊt get the same number on both

sides of the equation, so the solution doesnÊt check.
16 + 8 = 4 Therefore, the answer 15 is an extraneous root.
4+8=4 Answer: This equation has no solution.
12 = 4

Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 6
1. Solve each of the following equations.
a. 2y = 4
b. 3a = 9
c. 4w = 32
a. x + 2 10 = 6
b. 2s 2 + 1 12 = 29
c. c 4 2 c 8 = 16
a. a + 2 = 2a 6
b. t +7 = t +1
c. x +3= x + 21
GRADING.

THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
Definition of the Theorem

In algebra, a theorem is a formal rule. ItÊs an idea or theory about something that has
been proven to be true. The Pythagorean theorem is a very useful rule that has been
proven to be true in many different ways.
Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician who lived during the sixth century B.C. He
founded a secret brotherhood of scholars on the island of Croton, off the tip of Italy.
The scholars were called Pythagoreans, and they believed that „knowledge was the
greatest purification.‰ Their lifeÊs pursuit was to gain knowledge, especially in the
field of mathematics.
Pythagoras was one of the first scholars to suggest that the earth, moon, and sun were
all round. He believed that the earth traveled around the sun. However, he is more
famous for inventing the Pythagorean theorem.
The Pythagorean theorem is used to find the lengths of the sides of a right triangle.
A right triangle is a three–sided figure in which two sides form a right angle (an angle
that measures 90 degrees). The following illustration shows a right triangle. Note that
the small „box‰ in the corner of the triangle indicates the position of the right angle.
hypotenuse
leg
leg
In a right triangle, the side of the triangle that lies opposite the right angle is called
the hypotenuse. The other two sides are called the legs of the triangle. Note that this is
true only for a right triangle.

Pythagoras discovered that if you square the lengths of the three sides of a right trian-
gle, the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two legs of the triangle will equal the
square of the length of the hypotenuse. This sounds more complicated than it actually
is. Look at the following illustration:
c
b
In this drawing, the letters a and b stand for the lengths of the legs of the right
triangle. The letter c stands for the length of the hypotenuse.
The Pythagorean theorem states that
a2 + b2 = c2
Pythagorean Theorem Problems

The Pythagorean theorem is very useful in solving a variety of algebra problems.
Consider the right triangle illustrated below. The legs of the triangle measure 4 inches
and 3 inches. What is the length of the hypotenuse?
3 in. c
4 in.

To determine the length of the hypotenuse, substitute the known values (a and b) into
the Pythagorean theorem and solve for c.
a2 + b2 = c2 Write the formula for the Pythagorean theorem.
32 + 42 = c2 Substitute the given lengths of the legs for a and b. It

doesnÊt matter which value is substituted for a and
which for b. (However, you must be careful to always
substitute the length of the hypotenuse for c.)
32 + 42 = c2 Square the numbers (3 3 = 9; 4 4 = 16).

9 + 16 = c2
25 = c2 Combine the resulting numbers ( 9 + 16 = 25).

25 = c2
The square root of c2 is c. The square root of 25 may
5=c be either +5 or –5. However, since weÊre looking for a
length in this problem and thereÊs no such thing as a
negative length, we know that the answer is +5.
Answer: The length of the hypotenuse is 5 inches.
Example: The hypotenuse of a right triangle measures 13 centimeters, and one leg of
the triangle measures 5 centimeters. What is the length of the other leg?
Solution: Use the Pythagorean theorem to solve the problem.
a2 + b2 = c2 Write the Pythagorean theorem.
52 + b2 = 132 Substitute 13 centimeters for c and 5 centimeters for a.
52 + b2 = 132
25 + b2 = 169 Square the numbers (5 5 = 25; 13 13 = 169).
25 – 25 + b2 = 169 – 25 Solve for b. Subtract 25 from both sides of the

equation.
25 – 25 + b2 = 169 – 25 On the left side, the +25 and –25 cancel each other
b2 = 144 out. On the right side, you get 144 (169 – 25 = 144).

Take the square root of both sides.
b2 = 144
b = 12 Simplify the equation. On the left side, the square

root of b2 is b. On the right side, the square root of 144
is 12. Answer: The length of the unknown side of the
triangle is 12 centimeters.
Example: The length of one leg of a right triangle is 6 inches and the length of the
hypotenuse is 10 inches. What is the length of the other leg of the triangle?
62 + b2 = 102 Substitute 6 inches for a and 10 inches for c.
62 + b2 = 102
36 – 36 + b2 = 100 – 36 Solve for b. Subtract 36 from both sides of the

equation.
36 – 36 + b2 = 100 – 36 On the left side, the +36 and –36 cancel each other
b2 = 64 out. On the right, you get 64 (100 – 36 = 64).

b2 = 64
b=8 Simplify the equation. On the left side, the square

root of b2 is b. On the right side, the square root of 64
is 8. Answer: The length of the unknown side of the
triangle is 8 inches.
In the previous three example problems, the lengths of all the sides of the triangles
were whole numbers. When the measures of all three sides of a right triangle are
whole numbers, the numbers are called Pythagorean triples. Some Pythagorean triples
are 3, 4, and 5; 6, 8, and 10; and 5, 12, and 13.
Few right triangles have measures that are Pythagorean triples. Often, youÊll find that one
or more of the triangleÊs sides have measures like 2.5 inches, 161/3 feet, or 29.165 meters.

Usually, when a Pythagorean theorem problem doesnÊt work out evenly, you simply
leave the answer in the radical form (such as 5 feet).
The following problems are examples that donÊt work out evenly.
Example: If each leg of a right triangle has a length of 1 foot, what is the length of the
hypotenuse?
12 + 12 = c2 Substitute 1 foot for a and 1 foot for b.
12 + 12 = c2
1 + 1 = c2 Square the numbers (1 1 = 1).
1 + 1 = c2 Add on the left side of the equation (1 + 1 = 2).

2 = c2

2 = c2
2 =c The square root of 2 is 2 . The square root of c2 is c.

The expression 2 canÊt be simplified further.
However, if you wish to use a calculator, you can
determine the approximate value of 2 . Answer: The
length of the hypotenuse is 2 (approximately
1.4 feet).
Example: If one leg of a right triangle has a length of 5 inches and the length of the
hypotenuse is 7 inches, what is the length of the other leg?
52 + b2 = 72 Substitute 5 inches for a and 7 inches for c.

25 + b2 = 49
25 – 25 + b2 = 49 – 25 Simplify the equation. Subtract 25 from both sides.
b2 = 24 On the left side, the +25 and –25 cancel each other
out. On the right, you get 24 (49 – 25 = 24).

b2 = 24
b = 24 The square root of b2 is b. The square root of 24 is

24 . The expression 24 can be simplified further,
however.
24 = 46 =2 6 Simplify. The expression 24 can be simplified to

2 6 . Answer: The length of the leg of the triangle is
equal to 2 6 inches (approximately 4.9 inches).
Example: The floor of a rectangular room has a length of 16 feet and a width of
12 feet. What is the measure of the diagonal of the room?
Solution: The figure below illustrates this problem. The problem is actually asking
you to find the hypotenuse of a right triangle.
c
12 ft.
16 ft.
122 + 162 = c2 Note that the dimensions of the room are the lengths
of the legs of the right triangle. Substitute 12 feet for a
and 16 feet for b.

144 + 256 = c2
144 + 256 = c2 Simplify the equation. Add on the left side

400 = c2 (144 + 256 = 400).

400 = c2
20 = c The square root of 400 is 20. The square root of c2 is c.

Answer: The length of the diagonal of the room is
20 feet.
Example: Vic is buying a new sail for his sailboat. The mast is 15 feet high and the
bottom of the sail is 8 feet long. What is the length of the third side of the sail?
Solution: The figure below illustrates this problem. Note that the shape of the sail is a
right triangle. The problem is actually asking you to find the hypotenuse of a right
triangle.
152 + 82 = c2 Substitute 15 inches for a and 8 inches for b.

225 + 64 = c2
225 + 64 = c2 Simplify the equation. Add on the left side

289 = c2 (225 + 64 = 289).

289 = c2

17 = c The square root of 289 is 17. The square root of c2 is c.
Answer: The length of the hypotenuse of the triangle
is 17 feet.
The Pythagorean theorem is also useful to test whether a triangle is a right triangle. If
a triangle is a right triangle, the measures of the three sides can be substituted in the
Pythagorean theorem and result in a statement of equality. If the numbers donÊt make
a true equation, the triangle isnÊt a right triangle. (Note: Be sure to substitute the
longest measure for c, the hypotenuse.)
For example, suppose you know that the measures of the three sides of a triangle are
3 inches, 4 inches, and 5 inches. Is the triangle a right triangle?
32 + 42 = 52 Substitute 3, 4, and 5 for a, b, and c in the

Pythagorean theorem. Note that the longest measure,
5 inches, was substituted for c.
32 + 42 = 52 Square the numbers (3 3 = 9; 4 4 = 16; 5 5 = 25).

9 + 16 = 25
9 + 16 = 25 Add on the left side (9 + 16 = 25). You end up with

25 = 25 the same number (25) on both sides of the equation.
Therefore, the triangle is a right triangle.
Example: A triangle has three sides measuring 18 feet, 12 feet, and 24 feet. Is the
triangle a right triangle?
Solution: Use the Pythagorean theorem to determine whether the triangle is a right
triangle.
182 + 122 = 242 Substitute 18, 12, and 24 feet for a, b, and c in the
24 feet, was substituted for c.

182 + 122 = 242 Square the numbers (18 18 = 324; 12 12 = 144;
324 + 144 = 576 24 24 = 576).
324 + 144 = 576 Add on the left side of the equation (324 + 144 = 468).
468 = 576 You end up with different numbers on each side of
the equation. Answer: The triangle isnÊt a right
triangle.
Example: The sides of a triangle measure 2 centimeters, 7 centimeters, and 11 cen-

timeters. Is the triangle a right triangle?
Solution: Use the Pythagorean theorem to determine whether the triangle is a right
triangle.
22 + 72 = 112 Substitute 2, 7, and 1 centimeters for a, b, and c in the

11 centimeters, was substituted for c.
22 + 72 = 112 Square the numbers (2 2 = 4; 7 7 = 49;

4 + 49 = 121 11 11 = 121).
4 + 49 = 121 Add on the left side of the equation (4 + 49 = 53). You

53 = 121 end up with different numbers on each side of the
equation. Answer: The triangle isnÊt a right triangle.

Sharpen Your Skills
Practice Exercise 7
1. The two legs of a right triangle measure 3 feet and 2 feet. What is the length of the hypotenuse?
2. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 17 inches long, and one leg is 15 inches long. What is the measure of the other leg?
3. Use the Pythagorean theorem to determine whether each of the following triangles is a right triangle.
a. A triangle with legs measuring 8 feet and 10 feet,

and a hypotenuse measuring 12 feet.
b. A triangle with legs measuring 12 feet and 16 feet,
c. A triangle with legs measuring 7 feet and 9 feet,
GRADING.

NOTES

SUMMARY
YouÊve worked hard throughout this study unit, concentrating on learning new mate-
rial. Did you realize how often you used skills you had acquired earlier? Combining
like terms, factoring whole numbers, and solving linear equations may have seemed
difficult at first, but now youÊre using these concepts all the time!
If you ever begin to get discouraged about your studies, stop and think of all the con-
cepts youÊve already mastered. You know a great deal more about algebra now than
you did at the beginning of this course. Keep up the good work!

NOTES

Mind Teaser Answers
Mind Teaser 1 wind chill = 91.4
(10.45 + 6.68 36 0.447 36)(457 5 10)
110
Page 61 Substitute 10 degrees for t and 36 miles per hour for s, and
Write the formula. Let L stand for solve.
speed = 2 5L
the length of the skid marks. (10.45 + 6.68 6 0.447 36)(457 5 10)
wind chill = 91.4
110
speed = 2 5 20
(10.45 + 40.08 16.092)(457 50)

wind chill = 91.4
Simplify the expression. The 110
speed = 2 100
square root of 100 is 10. Answer:
speed = 2 10 The car was going 20 miles per (34.438)(407)
wind chill = 91.4
speed = 20 mph hour when the driver stepped on 110
the brakes.
14016.266
wind chill = 91.4
110
Mind Teaser 2 wind chill = 91.4 – 127.4206
wind chill = –36.0206

Page 84
Answer: The wind chill factor would be –36.0206 degrees
(10.45 + 6.68 s 0.447 s)(457 5t ) Fahrenheit.
wind chill = 91.4
110
Write the formula. Remember that s stands for the speed of
the wind and t stands for the actual temperature.
115
NOTES
116 Mind Teaser Answers

Glossar y
base The number thatÊs to be raised to a given power. In the monomial An expression that can be a constant, a variable, or the
expression a3, a is the base. product of a constant and one or more variables.
binomial An expression made up of two terms connected by perfect square A number that has a whole number for a square
addition or subtraction. The expression x + y is a binomial. root. For example, the number 25 is a perfect square because its
square root is 5.
exponent The number that tells you how many times a base is to
be used as a factor. In the expression a3, the number 3 is the principal square root The positive square root of a number. For
exponent. example, the square root of 36 can be +6 or –6 since both 6 6
and (–6) . (–6) equal 36. However, the number +6 is the primary
extraneous roots Extra answers that are the result of squaring
square root.
both sides of a radical equation. Extraneous roots wonÊt check in
the original equation. Pythagorean theorem A theorem that demonstrates a relationship
between the lengths of the sides in a right triangle. In a right
hypotenuse The side of a right triangle opposite the right angle.
triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
index The number used to indicate the root. In the following squares of the legs (a2 + b2 = c2).
expression the number 3 is the index. The index 3 indicates that
radical A root of a number. The symbol is called the radical
the cube root is to be found.
sign.
3
x radical equation An equation in which the variable is under a
radical sign.
irrational numbers Numbers that canÊt be written as fractions
radicand The number under the radical sign. In the expression
with integers as the numerator and denominator. The number
5 , 5 is the radicand.
3 is an irrational number.
rational number Any number that can be expressed as a fraction
legs The two sides of a right triangle that join to form a right
a where a and b are integers and b ⬆ 0. The numbers 7/ , 9, 1/
angle. 8 10
b
like radicals Radicals that have the same radicand and the same are all rational numbers.
index. For example, the terms 3 xy and xy are like radicals;
each has an understood index of 2 and a radicand of xy.
117
rationalizing the denominator The process used to remove a scientific notation A „shorthand‰ method of writing very large or
radical from the denominator of a fraction. For example, to very small numbers. For example, the number 0.000032 would
rationalize the denominator in the expression
2
, you would be written 3.2 10 –5 in scientific notation.
3 3
multiply by . square root A number that, when multiplied by itself, produces a
3 given number. For example, 3 is the square root of 9 because
3 3 = 9.
right triangle A triangle that contains a right angle (a 90-degree
angle).
root A quantity thatÊs multiplied by itself a given number of times,

to produce a given quantity. For example, the number 5 is the
square root of 25 because 5 5 = 25. The number 2 is the cube
root of 8 because 2 2 2 = 8.
118 Glossary

Exponent and Roots

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Exponent and Roots

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Study Unit

Exponents and Roots

■ Define the terms exponent, base, and root

■ Perform operations involving monomials and polynomials with exponents

■ Explain the meaning of negative, zero, and fractional exponents

■ Perform operations involving square roots

■ Define the terms rational number and irrational number

■ Solve equations containing radicals

■ Apply the Pythagorean theorem

THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM 102

MIND TEASER ANSWERS 115

The exponent 0 indicates that the base is to be multiplied by its reciprocal.

Positive and Negative Bases

+34 = (+3)(+3)(+3)(+3) = +81

2 Exponents and Roots

(–3) (–3) (–3) = –27

Exponents and Roots 3

3 3 3 3 3 = 243 Perform the multiplication.

–243 Since the exponent (5) is an odd number, the answer

Example: Solve the exponential expression (–5)2.

(–5)2 = –5 –5 Write out the multiplication problem.

5 5 = 25 Drop the negative signs and perform the

+25 Since the exponent (2) is an even number, the answer

Example: Solve the exponential expression (–1)7.

(–1)7 = –1 –1 –1 – 1 – 1 –1 –1 Write out the multiplication problem.

1111111=1 Drop the negative signs and perform the

–1 Since the exponent (7) is an odd number, the answer

4 Exponents and Roots

(–5)2 = (–5) (–5) = +25

–52 = –(5)(5) = –25

The rule to remember in this situation is as follows:

Rule: If a negative sign appears in front of an exponential expression, the negative

Exponents and Roots 5

Example: Find the value of each power of ten.

Power of Ten Number of Zeros Value

Variables in Exponential Expressions

A number or letter by itself with no exponent is understood to have an exponent of 1.

In an exponential expression, if the base is a variable, the exponent applies only to

6 Exponents and Roots

Adding and Subtracting Exponential Expressions

Exponents and Roots 7

Example: Simplify the following exponential expressions by adding or subtracting

Expression Add or Subtract Answer

4x2 + 7x2 = ? 4 + 7 = 11 4x2 + 7x2 = 11x2

3a3 + 2a3 + a3 = ? 3+2+1=6 3a3 + 2a3 + a3 = 6a3

6x4 – 3x4 = ? 6–3=3 6x4 – 3x4 = 3x4

8 Exponents and Roots

3x2 + 2x2 = ? Write the problem.

Example: Solve the expression 5t4 – t4.

5t4 – t4 = ? Write the problem.

5t4 – t4 = 4t4 Subtract the coefficients (5 – 1 = 4). Remember that –t4

Example: Solve the expression 2x3 + 7x2 – 2x2.

2x3 + 7x2 – 2x2 = ? Write the problem.

Multiplying Exponential Expressions

Exponents and Roots 9

x2 x3 = ? Write out the multiplication problem.

xxxxx=? The exponent 2 in the first term indicates that the

x5 There are five x factors in all. We represent the five x

Example: Multiply a2 times a2.

a2 a2 = ? Write the problem.

a2 a2 = a2 + 2 = a4 Multiply the two terms together. Add the exponents

Example: Multiply y3 times y.

y3 y = ? Write the problem.