Biology: SB2

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1. SB2.1 Describe mitosis Interphase - grow and increase number of subcel-

as part of the cell cycle lular structures. Duplicates DNA (to form x-shaped
including the stages in- chromosomes)
terphase p mat c

2. SB2.1 Describe mitosis Prophase - Chromosomes get shorter and fatter.

as part of the cell cycle Membrane around them break down. chromosomes
including the stages i lie free in cytoplasm
prophase mat c

3. SB2.1 Describe mitosis Metaphase - Chromosomes line up at the centre of

as part of the cell cycle the cell
including the stages ip
metaphase at c

4. SB2.1 Describe mitosis Anaphase - spindle fibres pull chromosomes apart

as part of the cell cycle to opposite ends of the cell
including the stages ip
m anaphase t c

5. SB2.1 Describe mitosis Telophase - membrane forms around each set of

as part of the cell cycle chromosomes (form nucleus)
including the stages ip
ma telophase c

6. SB2.1 Describe mitosis Cytokinesis - cytoplasm and cell membrane divide

as part of the cell cycle to form two separate cells
including the stages ip
mat cytokinesis

7. SB2.2 Describe the im- Some organisms can reproduce using just one par-
portance of mitosis ent. This asexual reproduction produces offspring
in growth, repair and that are clones which means that their cells have
asexual reproduction same chromosomal

8. B2.3 Describe the divi-
sion of a cell by mito-
sis as the production
of two daughter cells,
each with identical sets
the division of a cell by mitosis is the production
of two daughter cells, each with identical sets of
chromosomes in the nucleus to the parent cell, and
that this results in the formation of two genetically
identical diploid body cells.
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of chromosomes in the
nucleus to the parent
cell, and that this re-
sults in the formation
of two genetically iden-
tical diploid body cells.

9. B2.4 Describe can-
cer as the result of
changes in cells that
lead to uncontrolled
cell division.
The rate at which cells divide by mitosis is controlled
by chemical instructions in DNA. If there is a change
in one of the genes that controls cell division, the cell
may start dividing uncontrollably - tumour develops
into cancer

10. B2.5 Describe growth Growth is an in size as a result of an increase in

in organisms includ- number or size of cells. The number of cells increas-
ing: (a) cell division es due to cell division by mitosis.
and differentiation in Cell differentiation is the process by which a cell
animals changes to become specialised for its job - efficient

11. Define differentiation The process by which a cell becomes specialised in

order to perform a specific function.

12. B2.6 Explain the im- Cell differentiation causes cells to become spe-
portance of cell differ- cialised for its job. Having specialised cells allows
entiation in the devel- multicellular organisms to work more efficiently
opment of specialised
cells.

13. B2.7 Demonstrate an
understanding of the
use of percentile
charts to monitor
growth.
Percentile charts are used to assess a child's growth
over time so that an overall pattern in development
can be seen and any problems highlighted
Baby's growth regularly monitored - length, mass,
head circumference

14. B2.5 Describe growth
in organisms, includ-
ing: (b) cell division,
elongation and differ-
entiation in plants.
In plants growth in height is mainly due to cell elon-
gation - cell division usually just happens in the tips
and roots and shoots (meristems). Plants often grow
continuously and continue to differentiate

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15. Stem Cells Undifferentiated cells are called stem cells. Depend-
ing on the instructions, stem cells can divide by
mitosis to become new cells which then differentiate

16. B2.8 Describe the func- Embryonic stem cells can produce any type of spe-
tion of embryonic stem cialised cell As the stem cells continue to divide the
cells embryo starts to develop different areas that will
become the different organs - important for growth
and development of organisms.

17. B2.8 Describe the func- By the time a young animal is fully developed, the
tion of stem cells in an- stem cells can usually only produce the type of
imals specialised cell that is around them - adult stem
cells. The adult stem cells allow tissue to grow and
to replace old or damaged cells

18. B2.8 Describe the func- Meristem tissue is found in areas of the plant that
tion of meristems in are growing (e.g. roots and shoots). Meristems pro-
plants. duce unspecialised cells that are able to divide and
form any cell type in the plant - for as long as plants
live.

19. B2.9 Discuss the po-
tential benefits and
risks associated with
the use of stem cells
in medicine - potential
benefits
Adult stem cells are used by doctors to cure some
diseases e.g. sickle cell anaemia by bone marrow
transplant.
Extracting stem cells from very early human em-
bryos and growing them. Under certain conditions
the stem cells can be stimulated to differentiate into
specialised cells.
Possible to use stem cells to replace damaged tis-
sue - potential for new cures is the reason for the
huge scientific interest in stem cells

20. B2.9 Discuss the po-
tential benefits and
risks associated with
the use of stem cells
in medicine - potential
risks
-Tumour development: stem cells divide very quick-
ly. If they're unable to control rate at which trans-
planted cells divide, tumour develop
-Disease transmission: Viruses live inside cells. If a
donor cells are infected with virus and isn't picked
up, virus passed on, recipient become sicker
-Rejection: body may recognise cells as foreign and
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21. B2.9 Discuss the po-
tential benefits and
risks associated with
the use of stem cells in
medicine - ethics
22. B2.10B Describe the At the base of the brain. Divided into two halves and
structures and func- controls balance and muscle coordination
tions of the brain in-
cluding the cerebellum
23. B2.10B Describe the
structures and func-
tions of the brain in-
cluding the cerebral
hemispheres
24. B2.10B Describe the
structures and func-
tions of the brain in-
cluding the medulla ob-
longata.
25. Brain Scanning
26. B2.11B H Explain how
the difficulties of ac-
cessing brain tissue
inside the skull can
be overcome by using
CT scanning and PET
trigger an immune response to try to get rid if them,
drugs taken to suppress this response but makes
susceptible to diseases
Research using embryonic stem cells raises ethical
issues.
Some argue that human embryos shouldn't be used
for experiments - potential for human life.
Others think curing patients suffering is more impor-
tant than potential for life.
The largest part of the brain. Divided into two halves
called cerebral hemispheres. The right side commu-
nicates with the left side of the body and vice versa.
Responsible for movement, intelligence, memory
and vision
Controls heart rate and breathing rate. It is also
responsible for reflexes like vomiting, sneezing and
swallowing.
Made up from a mass of neurons which connect to
spinal cord
Brain scanning allows scientists to look deeper into
the brain than surgery does. It allows the study of
a healthy individual without the risk of harming the
brain
A CT scan uses x-rays to produce an image of
the brain. It shows the main structures but not their
functions. If CT scan shows damaged or diseased
part of the brain the function can be worked out.
PET scanners use radioactive chemicals to show
which parts of the brain are active when person is
in the scanner. PET scanners are very detailed and
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scanning to investigate can be used to investigate structure and function in
brain function. real time. PET scanners can show if areas in the
brain are usually inactive or active so they're useful
in studying disorders

27. B2.12B H Explain some
of the limitations in
treating damage and
disease in the brain
and other parts of
the nervous system, in-
cluding spinal injuries
and brain tumours
It is hard to repair damage to the nervous system
- neurons in the CNS don' readily repair and sci-
entists haven't developed a way to repair nervous
tissue.
If a problem occurs in a part of the nervous system
that is not easy to access it can be hard to treat. e.g.
not possible to remove tumours in some parts of the
brain.
Treatments may lead to permanent damage. Some
surgeries can potentially lead to further damage
leading to permanent damage

28. The CNS coordination The body has lots of sensory receptors - groups of
response cells that detect a change in your environment (a
stimulus). Different receptors detect different stim-
uli. When a stimulus is detected by receptors, the
information is converted to a nervous (electrical)
impulse and sent along sensory neurons to the
CNS. The CNS coordinates the response. Impulses
travel through the CNS along relay neurons. The
CNS sends information to an effector (muscle or
gland) along a motor neuron - the effector responds
accordingly

29. B2.13 Explain the Sensory receptors detect stimulus.

structure and function
of sensory receptors,
sensory neurons, relay
neurons in the CNS,
Impulses from receptors travel to the CNS through
sensory neurons - one long dendron from receptor
cells to cell body, and one short axon which sends
nerve impulses from the cell body to CNS
Relay neurons link with sensory, motor and other
relay neurons - impulses travel through CNS along
relay neurons . Many short dendrites carry nerve
impulses from sensory neurons to cell body, An

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axon carries nerve impulses from cell body to motor
neurons

30. B2.13 Explain the
structure and function
of motor neurons and
synapses in the trans-
mission of electrical
impulses
motor neurons send impulses to effectors to trig-
ger a response - many short dendrites carry nerve
impulses to cell body. One long axon sends nerve
impulses from cell body to effector cells.
The connection between two neurons is called a
synapse. The nerve signal is transferred by chem-
icals called neurotransmitters which diffuse across
the gap. The neurotransmitters then set off a new
electrical signal in the next neuron. The transmis-
sion of neuron impulses is very fast but slowed down
a bit because of the diffusion

31. Reflexes help prevent

injury

32. B2.13 Explain the
structure and function
of the axon, dendron,
myelin sheath and the
role of neurotransmit-
ters.
Dendrons and axons are frequently long to allow
fast neurotransmission over long distances.
A myelin sheath is a fatty layer surrounding these
parts which electrically insulate a neuron from
neighbouring neurons, stopping the signals losing
energy.
Nerve signals are transferred by chemical called
neurotransmitters. These set off a new electrical
signal in the next neuron

33. Reflexes prevent injury reflexes are an automatic, rapid response to stimuli.
The passage of information in a reflex (from recep-
tor to effector is called a reflex arc.
see page 29 in revision guide

34. B2.15B Explain the
structure and function
of the eye as a sensory
receptor including the
role of:
a the cornea and lens
The cornea refracts light into the eye. The lens also
refracts light, focusing it on the retina
The lens can be pulled tight or made more rounded
depending on how much the suspension ligaments
are tightened or slackened by ciliary muscles
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35. B2.15B Explain the The iris controls how much light enters the pupil (the
structure and function hole in the middle)
of the eye as a sensory
receptor including the
role of:
b the iris ·

36. B2.15B Explain the Rods are more sensitive to dim light but can't sense
structure and function colour. Cones are sensitive to different colours but
of the eye as a sensory are not so good with dim light
receptor including the
role of:
c rod and cone cells in
the retina.

37. B2.16B Describe de-
fects of the
eye including
cataracts, long-sight-
edness, short-sighted-
ness and colour blind-
ness.
Long-sighted people are unable to focus on near ob-
jects as they have wrong shaped lenses and doesn't
bend light enough or the eyeball is too short.
Short-sighted people are unable to focus on distant
objects. This occurs when the lens is the wrong
shape and bends light too much or the eyeball is too
long.
A cataract is a cloudy patch on the lens which stops
light entering the eye normally - blurred vision
Colour blind people can't tell the differences be-
tween certain colours - the most common is
red-green colour blindness - cones in the retina are
not working properly. No cure

38. B2.17B Explain Cataract can be corrected by replacing the faulty

how cataracts,
long-sightedness and
short-sightedness can
be corrected.
lens with an artificial one.
Glasses and contact-lenses with a convex (converg-
ing) lens can correct long-sightedness
Glasses and contact-lenses with a concave (diverg-
ing) lens can correct short-sightedness

39. B2.13 Explain the

structure and function
of motor neurones and
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synapses in the trans-
mission of electrical
impulses including the
axon, dendron, myelin
sheath and the role of
neurotransmitters.
40. B2.14 Explain the
structure and function
of a reflex arc including
sensory, relay and mo-
tor neurones
Reflex reactions in humans are controlled by the
reflex arc.
When the safety of an organism demands a very
quick response, the signals may be passed directly
from a sensory neuron, via a relay neurone, to a
motor neurone for instant, unthinking action. This is
a reflex action.
A reflex arc is the nerve pathway which makes such
a fast, automatic response possible. It does not
matter how brainy you are - you will always pull your
hand away from a flame without thinking about it. It
is in-built, or innate, behaviour, and we all behave
in the same way. The animation allows you to go
through the stages of the reflex arc one by one:
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