Material Balance Equation

PetE 410 – Reservoir Engineering 2
CHAPTER 3
Material Balance Equation
History
The material balance equation was first formulated by Schilthuis 1914 and
introduced in 1936. Until well into the 1950s it was the only means of determining the
production drive mechanism in oil and gas reservoirs, and of predicting their behaviour.
The equation, in its various forms, represents a very simple and intuitive statement of a
physical fact - the sum: (volume of reservoir occupied by hydrocarbons and interstitial
water) + (volume of water influx from the aquifer and/or injection from surface) +
(reduction in pore volume caused by the compaction of the reservoir rock induced by
reduction in reservoir pressure) remains constant throughout the life of the reservoir, and
is equal to the initial interconnected pore volume of the reservoir (Fig. 37), hence the
reference to "material balance".
The material balance equation describes the whole reservoir using global average
terms (mean pressure, total oil, gas and water volumes present above the initial oil/water
or gas/water contacts). It was the culmination of long series of theoretical and
experimental studies which began in 1914, when the Oil Division of the U.S. Bureau of
Mines (USBM) was founded in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. This marks the time when
"reservoir engineering" emerged from within petroleum engineering as a recognised
science in its own right.
Figure 37. Graphical representation of the material balance equation
Material Balance Equation
Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 1

The material balance equation (MBE) has long been recognized as one of the
basic tools of reservoir engineers for interpreting and predicting reservoir performance.
The MBE, when properly applied, can be used to:
• Estimate initial hydrocarbon volumes in place.
• Predict future reservoir performance.
• Predict ultimate hydrocarbon recovery under various types of primary driving

mechanisms
The general material balance equation is simply a volumetric balance, which states
that since the volume of a reservoir (as defined by its initial limits) is a constant, the
algebraic sum of the volume changes of the oil, free gas, water, and rock volumes in the
reservoir must be zero. For example, if both the oil and gas reservoir volumes decrease,
the sum of these two decreases must be balanced by changes of equal magnitude in the
water and rock volumes. If the assumption is made that complete equilibrium is attained
at all times in the reservoir between the oil and its solution gas, it is possible to write a
generalized material balance expression relating the quantities of oil, gas, and water
produced, the average reservoir pressure, the quantity of water that may have
encroached from the aquifer, and finally the initial oil and gas content of the reservoir.
In making these calculations the following production, reservoir, and laboratory data
are involved:
1. The initial reservoir pressure and the average reservoir pressure at successive
intervals after the start of production.
2. The stock tank barrels of oil produced, measured at 1 atm and 60°F, at any time or
during any production interval.
3. The total standard cubic feet of gas produced. When gas is injected into the reservoir,
this will be the difference between the total gas produced and that returned to the
reservoir.
4. The ratio of the initial gas cap volume to the initial oil volume, symbol m
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚= .
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
If this value can be determined with reasonable precision, there is only one unknown
(N) in the material balance on volumetric gas cap reservoirs, and two (N and We) in
water-drive reservoirs. The value of m is determined from log and core data and from
well completion data, which frequently helps to locate the gas-oil and water-oil
contacts. The ratio m is known in many instances much more accurately than the
absolute values of the gas cap and oil zone volumes. For example, when the rock in
the gas cap and that in the oil zone appear to be essentially the same, it may be taken as

the ratio of the net or even the gross volumes, without knowing the average connate
water or average porosity, or when gross volumes are used, the factors for reducing
gross to net productive volumes.
5. The gas and oil volume factors and the solution gas-oil ratios. These are obtained as
functions of pressure by laboratory measurements on bottom-hole samples by the
differential and flash liberation methods.
6. The quantity of water that has been produced.
7. The quantity of water that has been encroached into the reservoir from the aquifer.
For simplicity, the derivation is divided into the changes in the oil, gas water, and
rock volumes that occur between the start of production and any time t. The change in
the rock volume is expressed as a change in the void space volume, which is simply the
negative of the change in the rock volume. In the development of the general material
balance equation, the following terms are used:
Symbols Oilfield Units Units SI

Bg Gas formation volume factor bbl/SCF m3/SCM
Bo Oil formation volume factor bbl/STB m3/SCM
Bt Total formation volume factor bbl/STB m3/SCM
Bw Water formation volume factor bbl/STB m3/SCM
cf Pore compressibility vol/vol/psi vol/vol/Mpa
cw Water compressibility vol/vol/psi vol/vol/Mpa
G Initial gas-cap volume SCF SCM
Gp Cumulative gas produced = Gps + Gpc SCF SCM
Gps Cumulative solution gas produced SCF SCM
Gpc Cumulative gas cap produced SCF SCM
m Ratio initial reservoir free gas volume to
initial reservoir oil volume bbl/bbl m3/m3
N Stock tank oil initially in place STB STM3

Np Cumulative tank oil produced STB STM3
p Average reservoir pressure psi MPa
pi Initial reservoir pressure psi MPa
R Cumulative gas/oil ratio SCF/STB SCM/STM3
Rs Solution gas/oil ratio SCF/STB SCM/STM3
Sw Average connate water saturation fraction fraction
We Cumulative water influx bbl or STB m3 or STM3
Wp Cumulative water production bbl or STB m3 or STM3
Other subscripts

i at initial conditions
b at bubble point
Change in the Oil Volume:
Initial reservoir oil volume = NBoi
Oil volume at time t and pressure p = ( N – N p ) B o
Change in oil volume = NBoi - (N - Np)Bo
Change in Free Gas Volume:
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐺𝐵𝑔𝑖

� �=𝑚=
𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖
Initial free gas volume = GBgi = NmBoi
𝑆𝐶𝐹 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝐶𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠, 𝑆𝐶𝐹 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑆𝐶𝐹 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔

� �=� �−� �−� �
𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖
𝐺𝑓 = � + 𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 � − �𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑝 � − ��𝑁 − 𝑁𝑝 �𝑅𝑠𝑜 �
𝐵𝑔𝑖
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖

� �=� + 𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑝 − �𝑁 − 𝑁𝑝 �𝑅𝑠𝑜 � 𝐵𝑔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝐵𝑔𝑖
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖

� � = 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 − � + 𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑝 − �𝑁 − 𝑁𝑝 �𝑅𝑠𝑜 � 𝐵𝑔
𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐵𝑔𝑖
Change in water volume
Initial reservoir water volume = W
Cumulative water produced at t = Wp
Reservoir volume of cumulative produced water = BwWp
Volume of water encroached at time t = We

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛
� � = 𝑊 − (𝑊 + 𝑊𝑒 − 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 + 𝑊𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑝̅ = −𝑊𝑒 + 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 − 𝑊𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑝̅
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Change in the Void Space Volume
Initial void space volume = Vf
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑
� � = 𝑉𝑓 − �𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑓 𝑐𝑓 ��
∆𝑝� = 𝑉𝑓 𝑐𝑓 ��
∆𝑝
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘
� � = −𝑉𝑓 𝑐𝑓 ��
∆𝑝
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Combining the changes in water and rock volumes into single term yields the following:
= −𝑊𝑒 + 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 − 𝑊𝑐𝑤 ��

∆𝑝 − 𝑉𝑓 𝑐𝑓 ��
∆𝑝
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 +𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖
Recognizing that 𝑊 = 𝑉𝑓 𝑆𝑤𝑖 and that 𝑉𝑓 = and substituting, the following is
1−𝑆𝑤𝑖
obtained:
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖

= −𝑊𝑒 + 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 − � � 𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 ��
∆𝑝 − � � 𝑐𝑓 ��
∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖 1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
Factoring out ��will give
and ∆𝑝
1−𝑆𝑤𝑖
= −𝑊𝑒 + 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 − � ��
� (𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓 )∆𝑝
1−𝑆𝑤𝑖
or
(𝑆𝑤𝑖 𝑐𝑤 + 𝑐𝑓 )
= −𝑊𝑒 + 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 − (1 + 𝑚)𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 � � ��
∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
Equating the changes in the oil and free gas volumes to the negative of the changes in the
water and rock volumes
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 − �𝑁 − 𝑁𝑝 �𝐵𝑜 + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 − � + 𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑝 − �𝑁 − 𝑁𝑝 �𝑅𝑠𝑜 � 𝐵𝑔
𝐵𝑔𝑖
= 𝑊𝑒 − 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 + (1 + 𝑚)𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 � � ��
∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖

Expanding all terms
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 − 𝑁𝐵𝑜 + 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 − 𝐵𝑔 − 𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 𝐵𝑔 + 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑝 𝐵𝑔 + 𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔
𝐵𝑔𝑖
− 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 = 𝑊𝑒 − 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 + (1 + 𝑚)𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 � ��
� ∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
Now, adding and subtracting the term 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑔 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 − 𝑁𝐵𝑜 + 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑜 + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 − 𝐵𝑔 − 𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 𝐵𝑔 + 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑝 𝐵𝑔 + 𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔
𝐵𝑔𝑖
− 𝑁𝑝 𝑅𝑠𝑜 𝐵𝑔 − 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑔 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 + 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑔 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖
= 𝑊𝑒 − 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 + (1 + 𝑚)𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 � � ��
∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
Then grouping like terms
𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 − 𝑁�𝐵𝑜 + (𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 )𝐵𝑔 � + 𝑁𝑝 �𝐵𝑜 + (𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 )𝐵𝑔 �
+ �𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 �𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑔 − 𝐵𝑔
𝐵𝑔𝑖
= 𝑊𝑒 − 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 + (1 + 𝑚)𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 � ��
� ∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
Now, writing 𝐵𝑜𝑖 = 𝐵𝑡𝑖 and �𝐵𝑜 + (𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 )𝐵𝑔 � = 𝐵𝑡 , where Bt is the two-phase
formation volume factor:
𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖
𝑁(𝐵𝑡𝑖 − 𝐵𝑡 ) + 𝑁𝑝 �𝐵𝑡 + �𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 �𝐵𝑔 � + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖 − 𝐵
𝐵𝑔𝑖 𝑔
= 𝑊𝑒 − 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 + (1 + 𝑚)𝑁𝐵𝑡𝑖 � � ��
∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
Factoring NmBti
𝐵𝑔
𝑁(𝐵𝑡𝑖 − 𝐵𝑡 ) + 𝑁𝑝 �𝐵𝑡 + �𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 �𝐵𝑔 � + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖 �1 − �
𝐵𝑔𝑖
= 𝑊𝑒 − 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 + (1 + 𝑚)𝑁𝐵𝑡𝑖 � � ��
∆𝑝
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
This is the general volumetric material balance equation. It can be rearranged into the
following form that is useful for discussion purposes.

𝐵𝑔 (𝑆𝑤𝑖𝑐𝑤 +𝑐𝑓 )
𝑁(𝐵𝑡 − 𝐵𝑡𝑖 ) + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖 �𝐵 − 1� + (1 + 𝑚)𝑁𝐵𝑡𝑖 � � ��
∆𝑝 + 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑁𝑝 �𝐵𝑡 +
𝑔𝑖 1−𝑆𝑤𝑖
�𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 �𝐵𝑔 � + 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 - GENERAL MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION
Material Balance for Gas Reservoirs
The simplest material balance equation is that applied to gas reservoirs. The
compressibility of gas is a very significant drive mechanism in gas reservoirs. Its
compressibility compared to that of the reservoir pore volume is considerable. If there is
no water drive and change in pore volume with pressure is negligible (which is the case
for a gas reservoir), we can write an equation for the volume of gas in the reservoir which
remains constant as a function of the reservoir pressure p, the volume of gas produced
SCF, the original volume of gas, SCF, and the gas formation volume factor.
A representation of the equation for a gas drive reservoir with no water drive is
given
below.
For a dry gas reservoir - no water drive:
Figure 38
GBgi = (G-Gp) Bg
Bgi - based on zi, pi, Ti
Bg - based on z, p, T
Figure 38. Material Balance for a Dry Gas Reservoirs no Water Drive
If the gas reservoir is supported by water drive then as gas is produced water will
encroach into the gas pore space, and some of this water may be also be produced.
Figure 39 below illustrates the contact with a supporting aquifer. Because the
mobility of gas is far greater than water, evidence in the form of produced water may be
delayed as the water keeps to the gas water contact. The support from the water would be
evidenced however by the pressure support given to the reservoir. In earlier years this
may not be so easy to detect.

For a dry gas reservoir with water drive
With water drive water will enter pore volume originally occupied by gas and
some water may be produced. See Figure 39.
Figure 39. Material Balance for a Dry Gas with Water Drive
𝐺𝐵𝑔𝑖 = �𝐺 − 𝐺𝑝 �𝐵𝑔 + 𝑊𝑒 − 𝑊𝑝
Exercise 1.
A gas reservoir without water drive contains 500 million standard cubic feet of
gas at an original pressure of 3,000psia. How much gas has been produced when the
reservoir pressure has declined to 2,900 psia. Use Bgi and Bg for the initial and 2,900psia
pressure as 0.0010 and 0.0011 bbl/scf.
Graphical Material Balance
One can use a graphical form of the material balance equation to analyse a gas
reservoir and predict its behaviour especially if no water drive is present.
GBgi = (G-Gp) Bg
where
0.00504𝑧𝑖 𝑇
𝐵𝑔 = , bbl/SCF
𝑝
0.02829𝑧𝑖 𝑇
𝐵𝑔 = , ft3/SCF
𝑝
Combining two equations
0.00504𝑧𝑖 𝑇 0.00504𝑧𝑇
𝐺� � = �𝐺 − 𝐺𝑝 � � �
𝑝𝑖 𝑝
Simplifying
𝑧𝑖 𝑧
𝐺 � � = �𝐺 − 𝐺𝑝 � � �
𝑝𝑖 𝑝

Therefore Gp can be expressed as
𝑝 𝐺𝑧𝑖
𝐺𝑝 = 𝐺 − � � � �
𝑧 𝑝𝑖
Hence, the plot of Gp vs p/z should give a straight line
Figure 40. Gp vs p/z
If gas was ideal a plot of Gp vs p would be a straight line. It is often practice to do this
and get a relatively straight line, but caution has to be taken, since deviation from a
straight line could indicate additional energy support.
- when p/z = 0 Gp = G (the original gas in place)

- when Gp = 0 p/z = pi/zi
This procedure is often used in predicting gas reserves. Often the influence of water drive
is ignored resulting in a serious error in reserves. This simple analysis method for gas
reservoirs has gained wide acceptance in the industry as a history matching tool, to
determine for example an estimate of initial gas reserves based on production data.
Example
A dry gas reservoir has produced as follows:

Data:
Reservoir Temperature T = 100°F
Gas Gravity SG =
1. Determine the original pressure and the original gas in place

2. What will be the average reservoir pressure at the completion of a contract
calling for a delivery of 20 MMSCFD for 5 days (in addition to the
MMSCF produced to Jan 11, 1969?
Solution:

Drive Mechanism Index in Material Balance
In the study of reservoirs that are produced simultaneously by the three major
mechanisms of depletion drive, gas cap drive, and water drive, it is of practical interest
to determine the relative magnitude of each of these mechanisms that contribute to the
production. Pinson rearranged the material balance equation as follows to obtain three
fractions, whose sum is one, which he called the depletion drive index (DDI), the
segregation (gas cap) index (SDI), and the water-drive index (WDI).
𝐵𝑔
𝑁(𝐵𝑡 − 𝐵𝑡𝑖 ) + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑡𝑖 � − 1� + (𝑊𝑒 − 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 ) = 𝑁𝑝 �𝐵𝑡 + �𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 �𝐵𝑔 �
𝐵𝑔𝑖
Dividing both sides by 𝑁𝑝 �𝐵𝑡 + �𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 �𝐵𝑔 �
𝑩𝒈
⎡ 𝑵𝒎𝑩𝒕𝒊 � − 𝟏� ⎤
𝑵(𝑩𝒕 − 𝑩𝒕𝒊 ) 𝑩𝒈𝒊 (𝑾𝒆 − 𝑩𝒘 𝑾𝒑 )
� �+⎢ ⎥+� �=𝟏
𝑵𝒑 �𝑩𝒕 + �𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔𝒐𝒊 �𝑩𝒈 � ⎢𝑵𝒑 �𝑩𝒕 + �𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔𝒐𝒊 �𝑩𝒈 �⎥ 𝑵𝒑 �𝑩𝒕 + �𝑹𝒑 − 𝑹𝒔𝒐𝒊 �𝑩𝒈 �
⎣ ⎦
When all three drive mechanisms are contributing to the production of oil and gas
from the reservoir, the compressibility term in equation is negligible and can be
ignored.
DDI +SDI +WDI = 1
Linear form of MBE
The material balance equation in itself is not a difficult concept to understand, the
difficulties lie in the application of the equation to real reservoir problems. The problem
which generally faces the engineer is the inadequate understanding of the reservoir
preventing knowing the extent of the driving mechanism or mechanisms.
In 1963 Havlena and Odeh presented a paper aimed at reducing the above
problem. Their method consists of re-arranging the material balance equation to result in
an equation of a straight line. The method requires the plotting of a variable group versus
another variable group with the variable group selection depending on the drive
mechanism.
Their technique is useful in that if a linear relationship does not exist for a
particular interpretation of the reservoir, then this deviation from linearity suggests that
the reservoir itself is not performing as anticipated and other mechanisms are involved.

Once linearity has been achieved, based on matching pressure and production data
then a mathematical model has been produced. This technique is referred to as history
matching, and the application of the model to the future enables predictions of the
reservoir’s future performance to be made.
The material balance equation can be written in the following form:

𝑁𝑝 �𝐵𝑜 + �𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 �𝐵𝑔 � + 𝑊𝑝 𝐵𝑤
𝐵𝑔
= 𝑁�(𝐵𝑜 − 𝐵𝑜𝑖 ) + (𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜 )𝐵𝑔 � + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 � − 1�
𝐵𝑔𝑖
+ (1 + 𝑚)𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 � � ��
∆𝑝 + 𝑊𝑒
1 − 𝑆𝑤𝑖
Havlena and Odeh simplified the equation into a short hand form:
F = NEo + NmEg + NEfw +We
The left hand side of equation represents the production terms in reservoir volumes and
are denoted by F, i.e.
F = Np[Bo + Bg (Rp – Rso)Bg] + Wp...bbl
The right hand side includes:
(i) the expansion of the oil and its originally dissolved gas, Eo, where:
Eo = Bo – Boi + (Rsoi –Rs) Bg ....bbl/STB
(ii) the expansion of the pores and connate water Efw where:
𝐵
��…bbl/STB
𝐸𝑓𝑤 = (1 + 𝑚) 1−𝑆𝑜𝑖 �𝑐𝑓 + 𝑆𝑤 𝑐𝑤 �∆𝑝
𝑤
(iii) expansion of the free gas Eg where:
𝐵𝑔
𝐸𝑔 = 𝐵𝑜𝑖 � − 1�…bbl/STB
𝐵𝑔𝑖
With the above terms the material balance equation can be written:
F = NEo + NmEg + NEfw + We

No Water Drive and No Original Gas Cap
In this condition We and Nm are zero and the equation becomes:
F = NEo
i.e. a plot of F vs Eo should produce a straight line through the origin as seen in Figure.41
This is the simplest relation and is just a plot of observed production against determined
PVT parameters. The slope of the line gives the oil in place N.
Figure 41. F vs Eo No water drive and no Gas Cap
Gas Drive Reservoirs, No Water Drive and Known Gas Cap
Although We is zero, the gas cap has a volume as given by m, and the equation
becomes:
F = N(Eo + mEg)
A plot of F vs (Eo + mEg) should produce a straight line through the origin with a
slope N. See Figure 42. If m is not known then by making assumptions for m a number of
plots can be generated with the linear slope being the correct value for m.
Figure 41. F vs (Eo + mEg), Gas Drive with Known Gas Cap but no water drive

Gas Drive Reservoirs with No Water Drive, N and G Are Unknown
If there is uncertainty in both the size of the oil and gas accumulation then
Havlena and Odeh suggest the following form of the material balance equation, by
dividing both sides by Eo.
𝐹 𝐸𝑔
=𝑁+𝐺
𝐸𝑜 𝐸𝑜
where:
𝐺=
𝐵𝑔𝑖
A plot of F/Eo vs Eg/Eo should be linear with an intercept of N and a slope of mN.
See Figure 43.
Figure 43. FEo vs Eg/Eo

REFERENCES:
Dake ,L.P. “The Practise of Reservoir Engineering” Elsevier, Ams 1994
Schilthuis, R.J., Active Oil and Reservoir Energy. Trans., AIME,118:33-52, 1936.
Havelena,D and Odeh,A.S. The Material Balance Equation as an Equation of

Straight Line. J.Pet.Tech. Aug. 896-900. Trans AIME. 1963
Slider, H.C., Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Methods, Petroleum Publishing

Co. Tulsa, 1976.
Craft and BC Hawkins M.F Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering. Prentice

Hall,New Jersey, 1959
Tarner,J. “How Different Size Gas Caps and Pressure Maintenance Programs
Affect Amount of Recoverable Oil”, Oil Weekly, June 2,1944 No2 32-34
Tracy, G.W. “ Simplified Form of the Material Balance Equation “ Trans AIME
294,243, 1955
Cole,F.W “Reservoir Engineering Manual” Gulf Publishing, Houston 1961.
Havlena,D. and Odeh,A.S. “ The Material Balance as the Equation of a Straight

Line- Oart II Field Cases”, JPT July1964

CHAPTER 4
Fluid Flow in Porous Media
Introduction
Pressures are the most valuable and useful data in reservoir engineering. Directly or
indirectly, they enter into all phases of reservoir engineering calculations. Therefore,
accurate determination of reservoir parameters is very important. In general, well test
analysis is conducted to meet the following objectives:
• To evaluate well condition and reservoir characterization;

• To obtain reservoir parameters for reservoir description;
• To determine whether all the drilled length of oil well is also a producing zone;
• To estimate skin factor or drilling and completion-related damage to an oil well.
Based upon the magnitude of damage, a decision regarding stimulation can be
made.
However, before we can undergo in these test analyses, we must first be able to
understand the fundamentals of fluid flow in porous media which relates all the
parameters in a single equation. This equation is called Darcy equation, named after a
French hydraulic engineer Henry Darcy (1856) whose works were mainly involved in
underground water hydrology, soil physics and petroleum engineering. But this equation
only works on certain conditions where reservoir characteristics were considered which
includes, flow regime, flow geometry, number and nature of fluid present.
Darcy’s Law
This basic equation for fluid flow can only be applied for certain conditions and must
meet the following assumptions:
1. Steady state creeping flow

2. Rock 100% saturated with one fluid
3. Fluid does not react with rock

4. Rock is homogeneous and isotropic

**Note: The difference between homogeneous and isotropic is that homogeneous

reservoirs are those rocks which properties do not change with location while on the other
hand, isotropic are those which rock properties are the same in all directions. They are
quite used interchangeably but they should not since considerations in the direction must
be taken into account when talking about isotropic material. Another the difference
between the two are that homogeneous material has the same body of properties at every
place, but an isotropic material has the same looking in all the directions at different
point of the property.
Figure 44. Darcy’s Law
Units for Darcy Equation
Parameter Darcy Unit Oilfield Unit SI Unit

Volume Flow Rate, q cm3/s bbl/day m3/s
Cross-sectional area, A cm3 ft2 m2
Permeability, k Darcy (D) milliDarcy (mD) milliDarcy (mD)
Viscosity, µ cp Cp Pa-s
Pressure, P atm Psia Pa
Length, L cm Ft M
Flow Velocity, u cm/s ft/s m/s
Conversion: 1 mD = 0.986823x10-15 m2
However, when dealing with oilfield units, conversion factor of 1.1271 x 10-3 must be
included to make it in barrel per day,
𝒒 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝒌𝒅𝑷
=𝒖= −
𝑨 𝝁𝒅𝒙

(for reservoir condition, q is in bbl/day)
𝒒𝑩𝒐 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒌𝒅𝑷

=𝒖= −
𝑨 𝝁𝒅𝒙
(for surface condition, q is in STB/day)
where Bo is oil formation volume factor in bbl/STB.
One of the few ways on how we can obtain data from the well is through coring analysis.
In this method core samples are obtained from the underground which represents part of
the formation being explored. From the core samples, we can obtain smaller pieces of
samples called core plugs as a test sample for laboratory. Laboratory measurement of the
permeability of core plugs can be done as seen in Figure 45 where the fluid present in the
core is being displaced by another immiscible fluid and by measuring the pressure
difference between the inflow and outflow, we can now get the permeability of the
sample using Darcy Equation.
Figure 45. Measuring Permeability of Core Plugs
From Darcy units (laboratory units), we can define one Darcy as the permeability
which will permit a fluid of one centipoise viscosity to flow at a linear velocity of one
centimetre per second for a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimetre.
Primary Reservoir Characteristics
Flow in porous media is a very complex phenomenon and cannot be described as

explicitly as flow through pipes or conduits. It is rather easy to measure the length and
diameter of a pipe and compute its flow capacity as a function of pressure; however, in

porous media flow is different in that there are no clear-cut flow paths which lend
themselves to measurement.
The analysis of fluid flow in porous media has evolved throughout the years along two
fronts: the experimental and analytical. Physicists, engineers, hydrologists and the like
have examined experimentally the behavior of various fluids as they flow through porous
media ranging from sand packs to fused Pyrex glass. On the basis of their analyses, they
have attempted to formulate laws and correlations that can be utilized to make analytical
predictions for similar systems.
One of the aims of this course is to present the mathematical relationships that are
designed to described the flow behavior of the reservoir fluids. The mathematical forms
of these relationships will vary depending upon the characteristics of the reservoir. These
primary reservoir characteristics that must be considered include:
• Types of fluids in the reservoir

• Flow regimes
• Reservoir geometry
• Number of flowing fluids in the reservoir
1. Types of Fluids in the Reservoir

The isothermal compressibility coefficient is essentially the controlling factor in
identifying the type of reservoir fluid. In general, reservoir fluids are classified into three
groups:
(1) Incompressible fluids

(2) Slightly compressible fluids
(3) Compressible fluids
The isothermal compressibility coefficient c is defined mathematically by the following
two equivalent expressions:
In terms of fluid volume:
−1 𝜕𝑉
𝑐=
𝑉 𝜕𝑝
In terms of fluid density:
−1 𝜕𝜌
𝑐=
𝜌 𝜕𝑝

1. Flow regimes
There are basically three types of flow regimes that must be recognized in order to
describe the fluid flow behavior and reservoir pressure distribution as a function of time.
The three basic flow regimes are briefly described as:
Steady State Flow
During this steady state, the pressure does not change with time at every location.
This flow condition occurs when there is a strong support from an aquifer or injection
wells which provides the pressure maintenance for the reservoir.
Figure 46. Pressure at any radius in steady state flow
Pseudo-steady State Flow
Also known as semi-steady state flow where there is no flow across boundary or
closed boundary.
During this flow condition, the change in pressure with respect to time becomes the same
throughout the drainage area. And it is now necessary to impose different boundary
conditions on the diffusivity equation and derive and appropriate solution for this flow
regime.
∆𝒑
𝑷 = 𝒇(𝒓, 𝒕)𝒃𝒖𝒕 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒕
Characteristics of the behaviour of pressure decline rate during pseudo-steady state:

 The pressure declines at a higher rate, with an increase in the fluids production
rate.
 The reservoir pressure declines at a slower rate for the reservoirs with higher total
compressibility coefficients
 The reservoir pressure declines at a lower rate for reservoirs with larger pore
volumes.
Figure 47. Pseudo-steady state flow regime
Unsteady State Flow
Also known as transient flow. This type of flow is defined as the fluid flowing at
which the rate of change of pressure with respect to time at any position in the
reservoir is not zero or constant. As long as the leading front of the pressure transient
has not reached the boundaries of the reservoir, fluid flow toward the well is in the
transient state, and the reservoir acts as if it is an infinite in size.
Figure 48. Pressure behaviour for unsteady state

During the transient flow phase, pressure distribution in the reservoir is not constant and
depends on time and distance from the well.
Figure 49 Comparison of pressure behaviour with respect to time for the three flow
regimes.
2. Reservoir Geometry
The shape of a reservoir has a significant effect on its flow behavior. Most reservoirs
have irregular boundaries and a rigorous mathematical description of their geometry is
often possible only with the use of numerical simulators. However, for many engineering
purposes, the actual flow geometry maybe represented by one of the following flow
geometries:
• Radial flow
• Linear flow
• Spherical and hemispherical
Radial flow
In the absence of severe reservoir heterogeneities, flow into or away from a

wellbore will follow radial flow lines a substantial distance from a wellbore. Because
fluids move toward the well from all directions and coverage at the wellbore, the term
radial flow is used to characterize the flow of fluid into the wellbore.
Linear flow
Linear flow occurs when flow paths are parallel and the fluid flows in a single
direction. In addition, the cross-sectional area to flow must be constant. A common
application of linear flow equations is the fluid flow into vertical hydraulic fractures.

Spherical and Hemispherical
Depending upon the type of completion configuration, it is possible to have

spherical or hemispherical flow near the wellbore. A well with limited perforated interval
could result in spherical flow in the vicinity of the perforations. And a well which only
partially penetrates the pay zone could result in hemispherical flow. The condition could
arise where coning of bottom water is important.
Fluid Flow Equation
The fluid flow equations that are used to describe the flow behavior in a reservoir can
take many forms depending upon the combination of variables presented previously.
Also, assumptions to consider when dealing with Darcy’s law has been presented earlier.
Now, applications of Darcy’s law for different reservoir characteristics must be given
emphasis.
(1) Linear flow of incompressible fluids

In linear system, it is assumed that the flow occurs through a constant cross-
sectional area, A, where both ends are entirely open to flow. It is also assumed
that no flow crosses the sides, top or bottom. If an incompressible fluid is flowing
across the element dx, then the fluid velocity v, and the flow rate q are constants at
all points. The flow behavior in this system can be expressed as
0.001127𝑘𝐴(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑞=
𝜇𝐿
Where q = flow rate, bbl/day
k = absolute permeability, mD
p = pressure, psi
μ = viscosity, cp
L = distance, ft
A = cross-sectional area, ft2
Example 1.
An incompressible fluid flows in a linear porous media with the following properties:
L = 2000ft h = 20 ft width = 300 ft
k = 100 mD φ = 15% μ = 2 cp
p1 = 2000 psi p2 = 1990 psi
Calculate

(a) Flow rate in bbl/day

(b) Apparent velocity in ft/day
(c) Actual fluid velocity in ft/day
Solution:
Calculate the cross-sectional area A:
𝐴 = ℎ(𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ) = 20(300) = 6000 𝑓𝑡 2
a. Flow rate, q
0.001127𝑘𝐴(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )
𝑞=
𝜇𝐿
0.001127(100)(6000)(2000 − 1990)
𝑞=
2(2000)
𝑏𝑏𝑙
𝑞 = 1.6905
𝑑𝑎𝑦
b. Apparent Velocity, v
𝑞 1.6905 𝑓𝑡
𝑣= = = 0.0016
𝐴 6000 𝑑𝑎𝑦
c. Actual fluid velocity, v

𝑞 1.6905 𝑓𝑡
𝑣= = = 0.0105
𝜙𝐴 0.15(6000) 𝑑𝑎𝑦
(2) Linear flow of slightly compressible fluids
Equation below describes the relationship that exists between pressure and
volume for a slightly compressible fluid.
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 �1 + 𝑐(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑝)�
This equation can be modified and written in terms of flow rate;
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 �1 + 𝑐(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑝)�
Where qref is the flow rate at some reference pressure pref. Substituting the
relationship in Darcy’s equation gives:

𝑞 𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 �1 + (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑝)� 𝑘 𝑑𝑝

= = −0.001127
𝐴 𝐴 𝜇 𝑑𝑥
Integrating the above equation will give
0.001127𝑘𝐴 1 + 𝑐(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑝2 )
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 = � � 𝑙𝑛 � �
𝜇𝑐𝐿 1 + 𝑐(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑝1 )
Where:
qref = flow rate at a reference pressure, pref, bbl/day
p1 = upstream pressure, psi
p2 = downstream pressure, psi
k = permeability, mD
μ = viscosity, cP
c = average liquid compressibility, 1/psi
Case 1: Selecting upstream pressure, p1 as the reference pressure
0.001127𝑘𝐴
𝑞1 = � � 𝑙𝑛[1 + 𝑐 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )]
𝜇𝑐𝐿
Case 2: Choosing the downstream pressure p2 as the reference pressure.
0.001127𝑘𝐴 1
𝑞2 = � � 𝑙𝑛 � �
𝜇𝑐𝐿 1 + 𝑐 (𝑝2 − 𝑝1 )
Example 2.
Consider the linear system in Example 1 and assuming slightly compressible liquid,
calculate the flow rate at both ends of the linear system. The liquid has an average
compressibility of 21 x 10-5 psi-1.
Solution:
Choosing the upstream pressure as the reference pressure gives:
0.001127𝑘𝐴
𝑞1 = � � 𝑙𝑛[1 + 𝑐 (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )]
𝜇𝑐𝐿
0.001127(100)(6000)
𝑞1 = � � 𝑙𝑛[1 + 21𝑥10−5 (2000 − 1990)]
2(21𝑥10−5 )(2000)
𝑞1 = 1.689 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Choosing the downstream pressure as the reference pressure gives:
0.001127𝑘𝐴 1
𝑞2 = � � 𝑙𝑛 � �
𝜇𝑐𝐿 1 + 𝑐 (𝑝2 − 𝑝1 )
0.001127(100)(6000) 1
𝑞2 = � � 𝑙𝑛 � �
2(21𝑥10−5 )(2000) 1 + 21𝑥10−5 (1990 − 2000)
𝑞1 = 1.692 𝑏𝑏𝑙/𝑑𝑎𝑦
The above calculations show that q1 and q2 are not largely different, which is due to the
fact that the liquid is slightly incompressible, and its volume is a not strong function of
pressure.
(1) Linear flow of compressible fluids (gases)
0.111924𝑘𝐴(𝑝12 − 𝑝22 )
𝑄𝑠𝑐 =
𝑇𝐿𝑍𝜇𝑔
It is essential to notice that those gas properties Z and μg are very strong functions of
pressure. The above equation is valid for applications when the pressure is less than
2000 psi and the gas properties must be evaluated at the average pressure 𝑝̅ as defined
below:
1
𝑝12 + 𝑝22 2
𝑝̅ = � �
2
Example 3.
A natural gas with a specific gravity of 0.72 is flowing in linear porous media at
140⁰F. The upstream and downstream pressure are 2100 psi and 1894.73 psi,
respectively. The cross-sectional area is constant at 4500 ft2. The total length is 2500
ft with an absolute permeability of 60 mD. Calculate the gas flow rate in SCF/day.
Solution:
Estimating reservoir pressure,

1
𝑝12 + 𝑝22 2
𝑝̅ = � �
2
1
21002 + 1894.732 2
𝑝̅ = � � = 2000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2
Calculating the pseudo-critical and pseudo-reduced properties for Z estimation,
𝑇𝑝𝑐 = 168 + 325𝛾𝛾𝑔 − 12.5𝛾𝛾𝑔2
𝑇𝑝𝑐 = 168 + 325(0.72) − 12.5(0.72)2
𝑇𝑝𝑐 = 395.5⁰𝑅
𝑝𝑝𝑐 = 677 + 15𝛾𝛾𝑔 − 37.5𝛾𝛾𝑔2
𝑝𝑝𝑐 = 677 + 15(0.72) − 37.5(0.72)2
𝑝𝑝𝑐 = 668.4 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑝 2000
𝑝𝑝𝑟 = = = 2.99
𝑝𝑝𝑐 668.4
𝑇 600
𝑇𝑝𝑟 = = = 1.52
𝑇𝑝𝑐 395.5
Using Standing-Katz Chart gives;
𝑍 = 0.78
Calculating gas viscosity using Lee-Gonzales-Eakin method
𝑙𝑏
𝑀𝑎 = 28.96𝛾𝛾𝑔 = 28.96(0.72) = 20.85
𝑙𝑏 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑝𝑀𝑎 (2000)(20.85)
𝜌𝑔 = = = 8.30 𝑙𝑏/𝑓𝑡 3
𝑍𝑅𝑇 (0.78)(10.73)(600)
(9.4 + 0.02𝑀𝑎 )𝑇 1.5

𝐾=
209 + 19𝑀𝑎 + 𝑇
(9.4 + 0.02(20.85))6001.5
𝐾= = 119.7194
209 + 19(20.85) + 600

986
𝑋 = 3.5 + + 0.01𝑀𝑎
𝑇
986
𝑋 = 3.5 + + 0.01(20.85) = 5.35
600
𝑌 = 2.4 − 0.2𝑋 = 2.4 − (0.2𝑥5.35) = 1.33
𝜌𝑔 𝑌
𝜇𝑔 = 10−4 𝐾𝑒𝑥𝑝 �𝑋( ) �
62.4
8.3 1.33
𝜇𝑔 = 10−4 �(119.72)𝑒𝑥𝑝 �5.35 � � ��
62.4
𝜇𝑔 = 0.0173 𝑐𝑃
Calculating gas flow rate,
0.111924(60)(4500)(21002 − 1894.732 )
𝑄𝑠𝑐 =
(600)(2500)(0.78)(0.0173)
𝑸𝒔𝒄 = 𝟏, 𝟐𝟐𝟒, 𝟐𝟒𝟐 𝒔𝒄𝒇/𝒅𝒂𝒚
Darcy equation can only be applied under certain conditions in the reservoir, the reality is
that the condition underneath can be described as follows:
-Unsteady-state flow in heterogeneous systems:
 Three dimensional
 Multi (three) phases

 Multi (three) forces
However, in this book, we will focus only on radial, one phase flow, under one
dimension with one force (viscosity) involved.
Well testing provides the following information to be able to optimize the production and
understand well behaviour for future development plans.
• Pressure behaviour
• Average reservoir pressure
• Reservoir properties (permeability)
• Reservoir characterization (Faults, layering, areal continuity)

• Well Completion efficiency (Skin)
• Well productivity (Productivity Index, J)
• Nature of formation fluid
• Reservoir temperature
For pressure behaviour, plotting the pressure versus time during the test leads to the
determination of the following:
• Average static reservoir pressure
• Flow capacity (k*h = permeability*net pay)
• Skin
• Reservoir discontinuity and limits (fault,…)

These data obtained from well test must be crossed-checked with other data source such
as seismic data, well logs, core analysis and others to determine the accuracy of the test
and validate the results. That is why it should be given emphasis that a multidisciplinary
professional need to work as an integrated team to develop and implement the well test
data management program.
Radial Flow System
In a radial flow system, all fluids move toward the producing well from all
directions. However, before flow can take place, a pressure differential must exist. Thus
if a well is to produce oil, which implies a flow of fluids through the formation to the
wellbore, the pressure must be less than the pressure in the formation at some distance
from the well.
The pressure in the formation at the wellbore of a producing well is known as the
bottom-hole flowing pressure (flowing BHP, pwf).
Consider Figure 50 as a radial flow towards a well in a circular reservoir. In this diagram,
we can derive the diffusivity equation by combining the law of conservation of mass and
Darcy law for the isothermal flow of fluids of small and constant compressibility.

Figure 50. Reservoir Model with Well at the Center
Diffusivity Equation Derivation
The diffusivity equation is a fundamental differential equation obtained by combining the

continuity equation, Darcy law and the equation of state. Most of the mathematics of well
testing were derived from solutions of this equation, which is originally developed for the
study of heat transfer. Fluid flow through porous media is directly analogous to flow of
heat through solids. Solutions used in well testing usually assume radial flow,
homogeneous and isotropic formations. (Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary)
Just like Darcy law, this equation was derived using the following assumptions:
1. Homogeneous and isotropic porous media of uniform thickness;

2. Rock and fluid properties are pressure-independent;
3. Pressure gradients are small;
4. Flow is radial;
5. Darcy’s law is applicable;
6. Gravity forces are negligible;
7. The flow is along a radial path toward the wellbore;
8. The fluid flow is single phase and fluid saturation in the system is constant;
9. The porosity and permeability are constant in space and time; and
10. Viscosity and compressibility of the fluid are constant.
The Governing Equations for Diffusivity Equation
1. Mass Continuity Equation

𝟏 𝝏 𝝏
[𝒓(𝒗𝝆)] = [∅𝝆]
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒕
2. Transport Equation
𝒌 𝝏𝒑
𝒗 = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖)
𝝁 𝝏𝒓
3. Compressibility Equation/Equation of State

𝟏 𝝏∅
𝒄𝒕 =
∅ 𝝏𝒑
Here, the diffusivity equation was obtained by applying the mass balance over a control
volume. Equation of motion which is the Darcy law and the equation of state (PVT
relations) are then combined with the mass balance equation to obtain the final form of
diffusivity equation.
Figure 51. Reservoir Cross-section
By general material balance
Mass entering volume element during interval Δt - Mass leaving volume element
during interval Δt = Rate of mass accumulation during interval Δt
Mass in = Δt(Avρ)r+dr = Δt(2πh(r+dr))(Vρ)r+dr (1)
Mass out = Δt(2πrh)(Vρ)r (2)

where V = πr2h
Differentiating V with respect to r,
𝑑𝑉
= 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ𝑑𝑟 (3)
Mass accumulation = dV [ Φρt+Δt - Φρt] (4)
Substituting Eq.3 to eq. 4,
Mass accumulation = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉𝒅𝒓 [ Φρt+Δt - Φρt] (5)
And then placing Eqs.1,2 and 5 as an input to the general material balance expression,
Δt(2πh(r+dr))(vρ)r+dr - Δt(2πrh)(vρ)r = 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉𝒅𝒓 [ Φρt+Δt - Φρt] (6)
Dividing both sides by 2πrhdr giving

𝟏 𝟏
[(𝒓 + 𝒅𝒓)(𝒗𝝆)𝒓+𝒅𝒓 − 𝒓(𝒗𝝆)𝒓 ] = [(∅𝝆)𝒕+∆𝒕 − (∅𝝆)𝒕 ] (7)
𝒓𝒅𝒓 ∆𝒕
Taking Δr and Δt as a limit for the given function above, eq.7 can now be simplified
𝟏 𝝏 𝝏
[𝒓(𝒗𝝆)] = [(∅𝝆)]  Mass Continuity Equation (8)
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒕
Applying the given equation below

𝒌 𝝏𝒑
𝒗 = (𝟓. 𝟔𝟏𝟓)(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟕)  Transport Equation (9)
𝝁 𝝏𝒓
where 0.001127 is a conversion factor for field units (bbl/day) and 5.615 is a conversion
factor for bbl/day to ft3/day which will give 0.006328
Combining Eq. 8 and Eq.9

𝟏 𝝏 𝒌𝝆 𝝏𝒑 𝝏
�𝒓 �𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖 �� = [(∅𝝆)] (10)
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝁 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒕
Differentiating the right side of the equation using product rule

𝝏 𝝏𝒑 𝝏∅
[(∅𝝆)] = ∅ + 𝝆 (11)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
Taking compressibility formula into account
𝟏 𝝏∅
𝒄𝒇 =
∅ 𝝏𝒑

𝝏∅
∅𝒄𝒇 = (12)
𝝏𝒑
𝝏∅
And then taking the chain rule of
𝝏𝒕
𝝏∅ 𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒑
= (13)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒕
Substituting Eq.11 to Eq.12 will give

𝝏∅ 𝝏𝒑
= ∅𝒄𝒇 (14)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
The right side of Eq.10 can now be written as

𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑
∅ + 𝝆∅𝒄𝒇 (15)
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
And now, assuming that the reservoir is homogeneous with constant viscosity and
constant compressibility and substituting Eq.15 on the right side of Eq.10,
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖 𝝏 𝒌 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑
��(𝝆𝒓) �� = ∅ + 𝝆∅𝒄𝒇
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝁 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
Simplifying the above equation

𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖𝒌 𝝏 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑
��(𝝆𝒓) �� = ∅ + 𝝆∅𝒄𝒇 (16)
𝝁𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
Differentiating using chain rule
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖𝒌 𝝆 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝟐 𝒑 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝝆 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑
� +𝝆 + � = ∅ + 𝝆∅𝒄𝒇 17)
𝝁 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
And then differentiating density in terms of radius and time using chain rule
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖𝒌 𝝆 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝟐 𝒑 (𝝏𝒑)𝟐 𝝏𝝆 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝝆 𝝏𝒑
� +𝝆 𝟐 + (𝝏𝒓)𝟐
�= ∅ + 𝝆∅𝒄𝒇 (18)
𝝁 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒕
Simplifying the equation above by dividing both sides by density (𝝆)
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖𝒌 𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝟐 𝒑 𝟏 𝝏𝝆 (𝝏𝒑)𝟐 𝟏 𝝏𝝆 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑
� + +� � � = � � ∅ + ∅𝒄𝒇 (19)
𝝁 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝝆 𝝏𝒑 (𝝏𝒓)𝟐 𝝆 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
1 𝜌
And since compressibility of a fluid can be defined as 𝑐 = , we can substitute this in
𝜌 𝜕𝑝
Eq.19 to simplify
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖𝒌 𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝟐 𝒑 (𝝏𝒑)𝟐 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑
� + 𝟐 +𝒄 𝟐
� = 𝒄∅ + ∅𝒄𝒇
𝝁 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 (𝝏𝒓) 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕

(𝝏𝒑)𝟐
With 𝒄 (𝝏𝒓)𝟐 which is so small, we can neglect now the whole term
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖𝒌 𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝟐 𝒑 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝒑
� + � = 𝒄∅ + ∅𝒄𝒇 (20)
𝝁 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒕
The right side of the equation above leads to the total compressibility, ct = c + cf, which
we simplify as
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖𝒌 𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝟐 𝒑 𝝏𝒑
� + 𝟐 � = ∅𝒄𝒕
𝝁 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒕
Rearranging the above equation to get the diffusivity equation for radial flow
𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝟐 𝒑 𝝁∅𝒄𝒕 𝝏𝒑
� + �= (𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒂𝒚) (21)
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖𝒌 𝝏𝒕
𝟏 𝝏𝒑 𝝏𝟐 𝒑 𝝁∅𝒄𝒕 𝝏𝒑
� + �= (𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓) (22)
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟒𝒌 𝝏𝒕
The term 0.000264k/φμct is the diffusivity constant and is denoted by the symbol η,
0.0002637𝑘
𝜂=
∅𝜇𝑐𝑡
This diffusivity equation was derived to be the basis for all mathematical
calculations involved in the radial flow system within the reservoir.
Radial Incompressible Flow
The main feature of steady-state radial flow of incompressible fluids is its

superficial fluid velocity which is derived from the volumetric flow-rate passing through
any cross-section as shown in the figure below.
𝒔 𝒐 𝒒 𝑩
𝒖𝒓 = − 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉 (23)
The absolute value of this fluid velocity increases as the wellbore is approached.
𝒌 𝒅𝒑
Relating this equation with Darcy law under laminar condition, 𝒖𝒓 = − ,
𝝁 𝒅𝒓
Eq.23 can now be written as

𝒒𝒔 𝑩𝒐 𝒌 𝒅𝒑
− = −
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉 𝝁 𝒅𝒓
Solving for dp using separation of variables will give

𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒅𝒓
= 𝒅𝒑 (24)
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒓
And the above equation can now be integrated between the limits of rw to re for r and for
p will be from pwf to pe.
𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒓 𝒑𝒆
� = � 𝒅𝒑
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒓𝒘 𝒓 𝒑𝒘𝒇
𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒓
𝒍𝒏 �𝒓 𝒆 � = (𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇) (25)
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒘
The above equation can be written in two forms, explicitly for the flow rate as:
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉
𝒒𝒔 = 𝒓 (𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 ) (26)
𝑩𝒐 𝝁𝒍𝒏� 𝒆 �
𝒓𝒘
or explicitly for the pressure difference:

𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒓
(𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇) = 𝒍𝒏 �𝒓 𝒆 � (27)
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒘
Considering the conversion factor 0.001127 in eq. 27, will give
𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒓𝒆
(𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 ) = 𝒍𝒏 � �
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟕(𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉) 𝒓𝒘
𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟐𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒓𝒆

(𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇) = 𝒍𝒏 � �
𝒌𝒉 𝒓𝒘
Where
qs = oil flow rate, STB/day
pe = external pressure, psi
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure, psi
μ = oil viscosity, cP
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB

h = thickness, ft
re = external or drainage radius, ft
rw = well
The external (drainage) radius re is usually determined from the well spacing by
equating the area of the well spacing with that of a circle expressed as:
𝜋𝑟𝑒2 = 43,560𝐴
where A is the well spacing in acres.
Example 4.
An oil well in Hans Sam field is producing at a steady rate of 600 STB/day at a stabilized
bottom-hole flowing pressure of 1800 psi. Analysis of the pressure build-up test data
indicates that the pay zone is characterized by a permeability of 120 mD and a uniform
thickness of 25 ft. The well drains an area of approximately 40 acres. The following
additional data is available:
rw = 0.25 ft A = 40 acres
Bo = 1.25 bbl/ STB μo = 2.5 cP
Calculate the pressure and pressure drop at r = 1.25 ft .
𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒓𝒆
(𝒑𝒓 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇) = 𝒍𝒏 � �
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟕(𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉) 𝒓𝒘
𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟐𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒓𝒆

𝒑𝒓 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + 𝒍𝒏 � �
𝒌𝒉 𝒓𝒘
𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟐(𝟔𝟎𝟎)(𝟐. 𝟓)(𝟏. 𝟐𝟓) 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓

𝒑𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 + 𝒍𝒏 � �
(𝟏𝟐𝟎)(𝟐𝟓) 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓
𝒑𝒓 = 𝟏, 𝟗𝟒𝟐.0329

Figure 52. Steady-state radial flow of incompressible fluids
The pressure differential between the external and well bottom hole pressure is known as
drawdown in petroleum engineering. Equation 25 shows the important relationship
between well production rate, q, drawdown and the reservoir properties. This equation is
also known as well inflow model.
Figure 53. Steady-stated creeping flow
Figure 53 shows the radial flow integration and the pressure distribution in which based
on the derived equation (Eq.25) shows that the drawdown is directly proportional to the
production rate, q and the oil viscosity, µ, and is inversely proportional to reservoir
permeability thickness product, kh.
Equation 25 can also be written in a form of a dimensionless parameter where

𝒓𝒆
𝒍𝒏 � � is also known as the dimensionless pressure at external radius to wellbore
𝒓𝒘
radius.

(𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 ) 𝒓
𝒑𝑫𝒆 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏.𝟐𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 = 𝒍𝒏 �𝒓 𝒆 � (28)
𝒘
𝒌𝒉
The dimensionless pressure is of much used in the analysis of well behaviour especially
in steady-state flow where it depends only on the geometry of the drainage area. This can
be related to the ratio of external radius to the wellbore radius, re/rw which is known as
the dimensionless radius, rDe. With this relationship, we can now express the
dimensionless pressure in terms of dimensionless radius,
𝒑𝑫𝒆 = 𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝑫𝒆 ) (29)
The pressure, p, at any radius, r, intermediate between rw and re is given by:

𝟏𝟒𝟏.𝟐𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒓
(𝒑 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇) = 𝒍𝒏 � � (30)
𝒌𝒉 𝒓𝒘
which follows on changing the upper integration limit and leads to the dimensionless
pressure at any radius, r.
(𝒑 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇) 𝒓
𝒑𝑫 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝑫 =
𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟐𝒒𝒔 𝝁𝑩𝒐 𝒓𝒘
𝒌𝒉
And the pressure profile in the vicinity of the well can now be written as:
𝒑𝑫 = 𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝑫) (31)
Figure 9 shows the pressure behaviour in the vicinity if the well which demonstrates how
the pressure increases rapidly as it approached the wellbore. This is associated with the
increase in the fluid velocity as the area for flow, 2πrh, decreases. Also the near well bore
region shows the most significant effect in the total drawdown. The relationship now can
be drawn from the ratio, re/rw which approximates the total dimensionless drawdown if
and only if external radius, re is known.
Figure 54. Pressure profile for steady state flow

Radial flow of slightly compressible fluids
0.00708𝑘ℎ
𝑞𝑠 = � � 𝑙𝑛�1 + 𝑐�𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 ��
𝜇𝐵𝑜 𝑐𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑒 /𝑟𝑤 )
Where
c = isothermal compressibility coefficient, 1/psi
qs = oil flow rate, STB/day
Example 5.
The following data is available on a well in Hans Sam Field:
pe = 2506 psi pwf = 1800 psi
re = 745 ft rw = 0.25 ft
Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB μ = 2.5 cP
k = 0.12 Darcy h = 25 ft
c = 25x10-6 1/psi
Solution:
0.00708𝑘ℎ
𝑞𝑠 = � � 𝑙𝑛�1 + 𝑐�𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 ��
0.00708(120)(25)
𝑞𝑠 = � � 𝑙𝑛[1 + 25𝑥10−6 (2506 − 1800)]
2.5(1.25)(25𝑥10−6 )𝑙𝑛(745/0.25)
𝑞𝑠 = 595 𝑆𝑇𝐵/𝑑𝑎𝑦
If the fluid is incompressible,
0.00708𝑘ℎ�𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 �
𝑞𝑠 = � �
0.00708(120)(25)(2506 − 1800)
𝑞𝑠 = � �
(2.5)(1.25)(25𝑥10−6 )𝑙𝑛(745/0.25)
𝑞𝑠 = 600 𝑆𝑇𝐵/𝑑𝑎𝑦

Solutions to Diffusivity Equation
To obtain a solution to diffusivity equation, it is necessary to specify an initial condition

and impose two boundary conditions. The initial condition simply states that the reservoir
is at uniform pressure pi, when production begins. The two boundary conditions require
that the well is producing at a constant production rate and the reservoir behaves as if it
were infinite in size, re = ∞.
(1) Based on the boundary conditions imposed, there are two generalized solutions to
the diffusivity equation. These are: Constant-terminal pressure solution
(2) Constant-terminal rate solution
The constant-terminal pressure solution is designed to provide the cumulative flow at any
particular time for reservoir in which the pressure at one boundary of the reservoir is held
constant. This technique is frequently used in water influx calculations in gas and oil
reservoirs.
The constant-terminal rate solution of the radial diffusivity equation solves for the
pressure change throughout the radial system providing that the flow rate is held constant
at one terminal end of the radial system, that is at the producing well. There are two
commonly used forms of the constant-terminal-rate solution:
(1) the Ei function solution;

(2) the dimensionless pressure drop pD solution
Constant-terminal-rate solution
The constant terminal rate solution is an integral part of most transient test analysis
techniques, for example, drawdown and buildup analyses. Most of these tests involve
producing a well at a constant flow rate and recording the flowing pressure as a function
of time, i.e., p(rw, t).
The Ei function solution
For an infinite-acting reservoir, Matthew and Russel (1967) proposed the

following solution to the diffusivity equation;
70.6𝑞𝑠 𝜇𝐵𝑜 −948∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟 2

𝑝(𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑝𝑖 + � � 𝐸𝑖 � �
𝑘ℎ 𝑘𝑡
where
p(r, t) = pressure at radius r from the well after t hours

t = time, hours
qs = flow rate, STB/day
The mathematical function, Ei, is called the exponential integral and is defined by:
∞
𝑒 −𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
𝐸𝑖 (−𝑥 ) = − � = �ln 𝑥 − + − + ⋯ �
𝑥 𝑢 1! 2! 3!
Craft et al. (1991) presented the values of the Ei function in tabulated and graphical forms
as shown in the table below.
The Ei solution as expressed by the equation shown on the left is referred to as the line
source solution. The exponential integral “Ei” can be approximated by the following
equation when its argument x is less than 0.01:

𝐸𝑖 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑛(1.781𝑥 )
where the argument x in this case is given by:
948∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟 2
𝑥=
𝑘𝑡
However, if 0.01 < x < 3.0, the equation is given as;
𝐸𝑖 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 ln(𝑥 ) + 𝑎3 [ln(𝑥)]2 + 𝑎4 [ln(𝑥)]3 + 𝑎5 𝑥 + 𝑎6 𝑥 2 + 𝑎7 𝑥 3 + 𝑎8 /𝑥
with the coefficients a1 through a8 having the following values:
a1 = -0.33153973 a2 = -0.81512322
a3 = 5.22123384x10-2 a4 = 5.9849810x10-3
a5 = 0.662318450 a6 = -0.12333524
a7 = 1.0832566x10-2 a4 = 8.6709776x10-4
The above relationship approximated the Ei values with an average error of 0.5%. It
should be pointed out that for x > 10.9, Ei(-x) can be considered zero for reservoir
engineering calculations.

Example 6.
An oil well is producing at a constant flow rate of 300 STB/day under unsteady state flow
conditions. The reservoir has the following rock and fluid properties:
Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB μo = 1.5 cp ko = 60 mD
ct = 12x10-6 psi-1 h = 15 ft pi = 4000 psi
φ = 15% rw = 0.25 ft
(1) Calculate the pressure at radii of 0.25, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, and
2500ft for 1 hour. Plot the results as:
a. Pressure versus the logarithm of radius
b. Pressure versus radius
(2) Repeat part 1 for t = 12 hours and 24 hours. Plot the results as pressure versus
logarithm of radius.
Solution:
70.6(300)(1.5)(1.25) −948(0.15)(1.5)(12x10 − 6)𝑟 2

𝑝(𝑟, 𝑡) = 4000 + � � 𝐸𝑖 � �
(60)(15) 60𝑡

𝑟2
𝑝(𝑟, 𝑡) = 4000 + 44.125𝐸𝑖 �(−42.6𝑥10−6 ) �
𝑡
-
By performing the required calculations after 1 hour in tabulated form will give
a As calculated using the equation

b From Figure 1.19

For t = 12 hours
For t = 24 hours
Figure 1.21 indicates that as the pressure disturbance moves radially away from the
wellbore, the reservoir boundary and its configuration has no effect on the pressure
behavior, which leads to the definition of transient flow as: “Transient flow is that time
period during which the boundary has no effect on the pressure behavior and the well acts
as if it exists in an infinite size reservoir.”
The given example shows that most of the pressure loss occurs close to the wellbore;
accordingly, near-wellbore conditions will exert the greatest influence on flow behavior.
When the Ei parameter x < 0.01, the log approximation of the Ei function can be
expressed as:
162.6𝑞𝑠 𝜇𝐵𝑜 𝑘𝑡
𝑝(𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑝𝑖 − � � �𝑙𝑜𝑔 � � − 3.23�
𝑘ℎ ∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟 2

For most of the transient flow calculations, engineers are primarily concerned with the
behavior of the bottom-hole flowing pressure at the wellbore, i.e., r = rw.
𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝑝𝑖 − � � �𝑙𝑜𝑔 � � − 3.23�
𝑘ℎ ∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2
Using the properties for logarithm,
162.6𝑞𝑠 𝜇𝐵𝑜 𝑘
𝑝(𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝑝𝑖 − � � �log(𝑡) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 � � − 3.23�
Note: The two equations are only applicable if the flow time is greater than the limit
9480∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟2
imposed by the constraint 𝑡 > 𝑘
.
Example 7.
Using the data in Example 6, estimate the bottom-hole flowing pressure after 10 hours of
production.
Solution:
Calculating t to determine if Ei or log approximation is applicable.
9480∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟 2
𝑡>
𝑘
9480(0.15)(1.5)(12𝑥10−6 )(0.252 )
𝑡=
60
𝑡 = 0.000267 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 = 0.153 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
Since the specified time of 10 hours is greater than 0.000267 hours, the value of pwf can
be estimated using either Ei function or log approximation.
𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝑝𝑖 − � � �𝑙𝑜𝑔 � � − 3.23�
162.6(300)(1.5)(1.25) (60)(10)
𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 4000 − � � �𝑙𝑜𝑔 � �
(60)(15) (0.15)(1.5)(12𝑥10−6 )(0.252 )
− 3.23�
𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 3358 𝑝𝑠𝑖

The second form of solution to the diffusivity equation is called the dimensionless
pressure drop solution.
The dimensionless pressure drop pd solution
𝑝𝐷 = 𝑙𝑛(𝑟𝑒𝐷 )
𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓
𝑝𝐷 =
141.2𝑞𝑠 𝐵𝑜 𝜇
� �
𝑘ℎ
𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝑒𝐷 =
𝑟𝑤
The dimensionless pressure drop concept can be extended to describe the changes in the
pressure during unsteady state flow condition where the pressure is a function of time and
radius:
𝑝 = 𝑝(𝑟, 𝑡)
Therefore, the dimensionless pressure during unsteady state flowing condition is defined
by:
𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝(𝑟, 𝑡)
𝑝𝐷 =
𝑘ℎ
Since the pressure p(r, t), as expressed in a dimensionless form, varies with time and
location, it is traditionally presented as a function of dimensionless time, tD and radius, rD
as defined below:
0.0002637𝑘𝑡
𝑡𝐷 =
∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟𝐷 = and 𝑟𝑒𝐷 = 𝑟𝑒
𝑟𝑤 𝑤
where pd = dimensionless pressure drop
reD = dimensionless external radius
tD = dimensionless time based on wellbore radius rw
tDA = dimensionless time based on well drainage area A
A = well drainage area, i.e., πre2, ft2

rd = dimensionless radius
t = time, hours
p(r, t) = pressure at radius r and time t
μ = viscosity, cp
Dimensionless pressure for infinite-acting reservoir.
For infinite acting reservoir, re = ∞, the dimensionless pressure drop pD is strictly a

function of the dimensionless time tD. pD = f(tD)
Chatas and Lee tabulated the pD values for the infinite-acting reservoir as shown in Table
1.2. The following mathematical expressions can be used to approximate these tabulated
values of pD.
For tD < 0.01:

𝑡𝐷
𝑝𝐷 = 2�
𝜋
For 100 < tD < 0.25reD2:
𝑝𝐷 = 0.5[𝑙𝑛(𝑡𝐷 ) + 0.80907]
For 0.02 < tD < 1000
𝑝𝐷 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑙𝑛(𝑡𝐷 ) + 𝑎3 [𝑙𝑛(𝑡𝐷 )]2 + 𝑎4 [𝑙𝑛(𝑡𝐷 )]3 + 𝑎5 𝑡𝐷 + 𝑎6 (𝑡𝐷 )2 + 𝑎7 (𝑡𝐷 )3 + 𝑎8 /𝑡𝐷
where the values of the coefficients of the above equations are:
Example 8.
A well is producing at a constant flow rate of 300 STB/day under unsteady-state flow
conditions. The reservoir has the following rock and fluid properties:
Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB μo = 1.5 cp ko = 60 mD
ct = 12x10-6 psi-1 h = 15 ft pi = 4000 psi
φ = 15% rw = 0.25 ft
Assuming an infinite-acting reservoir, I.e., reD = ∞, calculate the bottom-hole flowing

pressure after 1 hour of production by using the dimensionless pressure approach.
Solution:
Calculating tD,
0.0002637𝑘𝑡
𝑡𝐷 =
∅𝜇𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑤2
0.0002637(60)(1)
𝑡𝐷 =
(0.15)(1.5)(12𝑥10−6 )(0.25)2
𝑡𝐷 = 93,866.67

Since tD > 100, calculate the dimensionless pressure drop pD function:
𝑝𝐷 = 0.5[𝑙𝑛(𝑡𝐷 ) + 0.80907]
𝑝𝐷 = 0.5[𝑙𝑛(93,866.67) + 0.80907]
𝑝𝐷 = 6.1294
Calculating the bottom-hole flowing pressure at given r and t.
𝑝(𝑟𝑤 , 𝑡) = 𝑝𝑖 − � � 𝑝𝐷
𝑘ℎ
141.2(300)(1.25)(1.5)
𝑝(0.25, 1) = 4000 − � � (6.1294)
(60)(15)
𝑝(0.25, 1) = 3459 𝑝𝑠𝑖
Well Productivity Index
Oil well performance
A commonly used measure of the ability of the well to produce is the productivity
index, defined by the symbol J, the productivity index is the ratio of the total liquid flow
rate to the pressure drawdown. For a free-water oil production, the productivity index is
given by:
𝑞𝑠
𝐽=
𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓
where qs = oil flow rate, STB/day
J = productivity index, STB/day/psi
pe = volumetric average drainage area pressure
pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure
Δp = drawdown, psi
It is important to note that the productivity index is a valid measure of the well
productivity potential only if the well is flowing at pseudosteady state conditions.
Therefore in order to accurately measure the productivity index of a well, it is essential
that the well is allowed to flow at a constant flow rate for a sufficient amount of time to
reach pseudosteady state as shown in the figure below.

Example 9
A productivity test was conducted on a well. The test results indicate that the well is
capable of producing at a stabilized flow rate of 110 STB/day and a bottom-hole flowing
pressure of 900 psi. After shutting the well for24 hours, the bottom-hole flowing pressure
reached a static value of 1300 psi.
Calculate:
(a) the productivity index

(b) the AOF (Absolute Open Flow: maximum flow rate)
(c) the oil flow rate at a bottom-hole flowing pressure of 600 psi
(d) the wellbore flowing pressure required to produce 250 STB/day
Solution:
(a)
𝑞𝑠 110 𝑆𝑇𝐵
𝐽= = = 0.275 /𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 1300 − 900 𝑑𝑎𝑦
(b)
𝑆𝑇𝐵
𝐴𝑂𝐹 = 𝐽(𝑝𝑒 − 0) = 0.275(1300 − 0) = 375.5
𝑑𝑎𝑦
(c)
𝑞𝑠 = 𝐽�𝑝𝑒 − 𝑝𝑤𝑓 � = 0.275(1300 − 600) = 192.5 𝑆𝑇𝐵/𝑑𝑎𝑦
(d)
𝑞𝑠 250
𝑝𝑤𝑓 = 𝑝𝑒 − = 1300 − = 390.9 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝐽 0.275

Radial Steady State Model
The steady state radial flow equation shows how the permeability-thickness
product, kh, influences the rate at which oil can be produced from the well. This can be
an indicator or a basis to decide whether an oil field will be economically viable. The
productivity of an oil well is quantified by the productivity index, Jsse, which is defined
by the ratio of volume flow rate to pressure drawdown.
𝒒𝒔
𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒆 = �𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 �
(32)
where qs is the oil flow rate at stock tank conditions (STB/day) and the pressure
drawdown is in psi. Hence, the productivity index is the rate at which stock tank oil can
be produced per unit pressure drawdown with a unit of STB/day/psi. For oilfield units
where productivity index is usually expressed, formation volume factor, B is introduced
to obtain Jsse in bbl/day/psi
𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 (𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉)
𝒒𝒔 𝑩𝒐 = 𝒓 �𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 �
𝝁𝒍𝒏 � 𝒆 �
𝒓𝒘
Expressing productivity index form the above equation
𝒒𝒔 𝟏.𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 (𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉) 𝒃𝒃𝒍

= 𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒆 = 𝒓 ; /𝒑𝒔𝒊 (33)
�𝒑𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 � 𝑩𝒐 𝝁𝒍𝒏� 𝒆 � 𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝒓𝒘
Well’s productivity is often measured by the productivity index which shows the well’s
ability to deliver oil and is one of the most important concepts in petroleum engineering.
The usual value of productivity index varies from less than unity to nearly 100,000 in
extremely prolific wells.
Based on Eq.33, well productivity index depends strongly on permeability-thickness

product, kh and in-situ viscosity, µ.
Figure 55. Inflow Performance Relation

Example 10
An oil well which 1250 ft long is drilled in a reservoir with the following characteristics:
h = 170 ft; rw = 0.39 ft; φ = 4.9%; Bo = 1.275 bbl/STB and μ = 0.75 cP. Calculate the
steady state well productivity if a vertical well drains 80 acres with a permeability of 85
mD.
Solution:
Calculating the effective drainage radius,
43,560𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟𝑒2 = 43,560(80)
43,560(80)
𝑟𝑒 = � = 1053 𝑓𝑡
𝜋
0.00708𝑘ℎ 0.00708(85)(170)
𝐽𝑠𝑠𝑒 = 𝑟𝑒 =
𝜇𝐵𝑜 �𝑙𝑛 � �� (0.75)(1.275) �𝑙𝑛 �1053��
𝑟𝑤 0.39
𝐽𝑠𝑠𝑒 = 13.54 𝑆𝑇𝐵/𝑑𝑎𝑦/𝑝𝑠𝑖
Straight Line Inflow Performance Relation (IPR)
Inflow performance relation (IPR) is a mathematical tool used in production

engineering to assess well performance by plotting the well production rate against
flowing bottom hole pressure (BHP). The data required to create the IPR are obtained by
measuring the production rates under various drawdown pressures. The reservoir fluid
composition and behaviour of the fluid phases under various flowing conditions
determine the shape of the curve.
In single phase flow, this is a straight line but when gas is moving in the reservoir,
at a pressure below the bubble point, the relationship is not linear.
Figure 56 shows the well inflow performance where the inflow performance relation
(IPR) and vertical lift performance (VLP) were plotted to get the optimal operating
pressure from the point of intersection. This is done to determine the best pressure which
will give the optimum flow rate in a safe operating condition.

Figure 56. IPR vs. VLP
In some circumstances, it is useful to know the volume averaged pressure within the
system of a steady state radial flow. This is defined by the following:
𝒓
∫ 𝒑(𝒓)𝒅𝑽 ∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒑(𝒓)𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉𝒅𝒓
𝒘
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑽
= 𝝅(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 )𝒉
(35)

𝒓
∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒑(𝒓)𝟐𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝒘
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘
(36)
Substituting Eq.34 to Eq.36,

𝟐 𝒓 𝒒𝝁 𝒓
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = �∫𝒓 𝒆 �𝒑𝒘𝒇 + 𝒍𝒏 � �� 𝒓𝒅𝒓
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝒘 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒓𝒘
(37)
𝟐
Distributing and 𝑟𝑑𝑟,
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 )
𝟐 𝒓 𝟐 𝒒𝝁 𝒓𝒆 𝒓
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 ∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒓𝒅𝒓 + ∫ 𝒓𝒍𝒏 �𝒓 � 𝒅𝒓
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝒘 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒓𝒘 𝒘
(38)
Applying integration by parts on the last term of Eq.38,

𝒓 𝒓
For ∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒓𝒍𝒏 � � 𝒅𝒓 :
𝒘 𝒓𝒘
𝒓
Let 𝒖 = 𝒍𝒏 � � 𝒅𝑽 = 𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝒓𝒘

𝒅𝒓 𝒓𝟐
𝒅𝒖 = 𝑽=
𝒓 𝟐
𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒓
𝒖𝒗 − � 𝒗𝒅𝒖 = 𝒍𝒏 � � − �
𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝟐 𝒓
𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝟏
= 𝒍𝒏 � � − � 𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝟐
𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝒖𝒗 − ∫ 𝒗𝒅𝒖 = 𝒍𝒏 � � − (39)
𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝟐 𝟐
Integrating Eq.38 and plugging Eq.39 will give
𝟐𝒑𝒘𝒇 𝒓𝟐 𝟐 𝒒𝝁 𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟐 + 𝟐 � 𝒍𝒏 � � − �
(𝒓𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐 (𝒓𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝟐𝟐
Evaluating the limits of the above equation from r = rw to r = re will result to
𝟐𝒑𝒘𝒇 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 )

𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = +
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐
𝟐 𝒒𝝁 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒘 𝟏 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 )

� �𝒍𝒏 � � − 𝒍𝒏 � �� − �
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝒓𝒘 𝟐 𝟐
Simplifying the equation above by cancellation and factoring,
𝒒𝝁 𝒓 𝒓 𝟏 𝒓
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + ��𝒍𝒏 � 𝒆 � − 𝒍𝒏 � 𝒘 �� − � ; 𝒍𝒏 � 𝒘 � = 𝒍𝒏(𝟏) =0
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒓 𝒘 𝒓 𝒘 𝒓 𝟐 𝒘
𝒒𝝁 𝒓 𝟏
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + �𝒍𝒏 � 𝒆 � − � (40)
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒓 𝟐
𝒘
Equation 40 shows the average pressure formula for steady-state radial flow. And the
difference between the average pressure, pave, and the external pressure, pe, is small and is
given by
𝟏 𝒒𝝁
𝒑𝒆−𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = (41)
𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉
The productivity index, J can also be expressed in terms of average pressure

instead of the external pressure which is denoted as Jssa
𝒒𝒔 𝟏.𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 (𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉) 𝒃𝒃𝒍

𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒂 = = 𝒓 𝟏 ; 𝒅𝒂𝒚 /𝒑𝒔𝒊 (42)
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 −𝒑𝒘𝒇 𝑩𝒐 𝝁�𝒍𝒏� 𝒆 �− �
𝒓𝒘 𝟐

Pseudosteady State Radial Flow
Figure 57 shows the comparison of the pressure profile between the transient and
semi-steady state flow. As shown, the trend of pressure change in the semi-steady state is
the same and constant, however, in the transient flow, it is not and it hasn’t reached the
boundary yet known as infinite-acting period.
Figure 57. Pseudo steady state flow vs Unsteady state flow
In a closed or no flow boundary as depicted by the circular well in Fig 57, when an
undersaturated, bounded reservoir is produced at a constant rate, after an initial start-up
period, the rate of pressure decline at all points in the system becomes constant and
uniform. And when the disturbance reaches the outer boundary, the shape of the
distribution stabilizes and the pressure changes linearly with time, this is referred to as
semi-steady state flow or also known as stabilise flow since the pressure profile in the
depletion zone, although declining, maintains the same shape as shown in Fig.14.
Figure 58. Pseudosteady state flow

Pseudo-Steady State Solution
In the semi-steady state (SSS) analysis, no flow is allowed across the external face
and oil production from the cell occurs solely as a result of the expansion of the oil
(natural drive mechanism) due to a reduction in pressure. Also, it should be emphasized
that this type of stabilized flow is only attained after a transient period during which the
pressure in the region changes from the initial uniform value to a profile characteristics of
SSS flow.
Since the natural drive mechanism in this system is the expansion of oil within the
reservoir, we can take into account fluid compressibility assuming that it is constant
everywhere. The fluid compressibility, c, is defined as the fractional change in volume
per unit change in pressure denoted by,
𝟏 𝝏𝑽
𝒄= − (43).
𝑽 𝝏𝒑
Liquid’s compressibility is so small which means that even if there is a large change in
pressure, its effect in volume would be small, this is the basic reason for the inefficiency
of depletion drive.
By equating the oil production rate at the well to the overall volume rate of fluid
expansion within the drainage region, we can obtain the rate of pressure decline in a
depletion drive. Consider a time interval, dt, over which the in-situ fluid expands by a
mount dV, due to a pressure change, dp, then using the compressibility definition:
𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝒑
𝒒= = −𝒄𝑽 (44)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒒𝒅𝒕 = ∆𝑽 = −𝒄𝑽𝒅𝒑
Volume produced in time interval = Expansion of the liquid in the reservoir
Note that in Eq.44 dp/dt is negative for oil production and putting the volume of oil in
place V = 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒉∅, will give,
𝒒 𝒅𝒑
−= (45)
𝒄𝝅𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒉∅ 𝒅𝒕
Equation 45 is applicable to any pressure in the distribution since its shape is constant
and, in particular, it applies to the average reservoir pressure, pave. In Figure 15, this
quantity is plotted versus time on a Cartesian graph where a straight line of slope m* = -
𝑞
2 ℎ∅ is present; this illustrates the primary depletion of an undersaturated reservoir
𝑐𝜋𝑟𝑒
block with no aquifer support. The key point about semi-steady state depletion is the

linear decline of the average pressure with time according to the Equation 45. If the
volume, V, drained by a particular well is relatively small due to reservoir
compartmentalization, then this rate of pressure change can be rapid which will have an
adverse effect on the well’s production rate.
The compressibility used in Equation 45 should also account for the expansion of connate
water and porosity reduction due to formation compression as the pore pressure
decreases. That is why total compressibility must be taken into account, which is denoted
by the formula given below,
ct = Swccw + (1-Swc)co + cf (46)
where
Swc = connate water saturation
cw = compressibility of water
co = compressibility of oil
cf = compressibility of formation
Equation 45 should therefore be written in the form:

𝒅𝒑 𝒒𝒔 𝑩
� 𝒔𝒔𝒔 = − (47)
𝒅𝒕 𝒄𝒕 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒉∅
Figure 59. Linear Pressure Decline in Primary Depletion
Figure 59 also shows the importance of reservoir limit test which is a long drawdown
with constant volume flow rate. This reservoir limit test is used to determine the
boundary of the formation and the drainage area of the reservoir.

Equation 45 shows how the pressure at any point varies with time. The
instantaneous pressure profile in the radial zone can be determined by realizing that the
oil flow crossing any circumference at radius, will be proportional to the fluid volume
between r and re as shown in Figure 17. Thus the oil flow at r, denoted as qr, is given by:
𝒅𝒑
𝒒𝒓 = −𝒄𝒕 𝝅(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐 )𝒉∅ (48)
𝒅𝒕
And at the wellbore:

𝒅𝒑
𝒒 = −𝒄𝒕 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒉∅ (49)
𝒅𝒕
𝒒𝒓 𝒓𝟐𝒆 −𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
= = 𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 (50)
𝒒 𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒆
Equation 50 shows how the oil flow at radius r which is determined by the cumulative
expansion of all the fluid contained within the rock volume between r and the external
boundary. Naturally, qr increases progressively as the wellbore is approached where it
attains the maximum value of q, the well production rate and the local pressure gradient
is given by Darcy’s law:
𝒒𝒓 𝒌 𝒅𝒑
= (51)
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉 𝝁 𝒅𝒓
Figure 60. Mechanism of PSS
Substituting Eq.50 to Eq. 51 in terms of qr gives
𝒓𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉𝒌 𝒅𝒑
𝒒 �𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 � = (52)
𝒆 𝝁 𝒅𝒓

Separating the variables setting q,h,k and μ as constant and integrating between the
limits:
r = rw p = pwf and r = re p = pe
results in:
𝑟𝑒
𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒓 𝟐𝝅𝒉𝒌 𝒑𝒆
� �𝟏 − � = � 𝒅𝒑
𝑟𝑤 𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒓 𝒒𝝁 𝒑𝒘𝒇
Distributing dr/r gives

𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒
𝒅𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒓 𝟐𝝅𝒉𝒌 𝒑𝒆
� − � � 𝟐 �= � 𝒅𝒑
𝑟𝑤 𝒓 𝑟𝑤 𝒓𝒆 𝒓 𝒒𝝁 𝒑𝒘𝒇
𝒓𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒉𝒌
𝒍𝒏(𝒓) − = 𝒑
𝟐𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒒𝝁
Evaluating their limits will result to
𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒓𝟐𝒘 𝟐𝝅𝒉𝒌

𝒍𝒏 � � − � 𝟐 + 𝟐 � = �𝒑𝒆 −𝒑𝒘𝒇�
𝒓𝒘 𝟐𝒓𝒆 𝟐𝒓𝒆 𝒒𝝁
The analytical solution for q, takes the form:
𝟐𝝅𝒉𝒌�𝒑𝒆 −𝒑𝒘𝒇�
𝒒=
𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝝁 �𝒍𝒏 �𝒓 𝒆 � − � 𝒆𝟐 + 𝒘𝟐 ��
𝒘 𝟐𝒓𝒆 𝟐𝒓𝒆
But re>>rw, which simplifies the equation to be
𝟐𝝅𝒉𝒌�𝒑𝒆 −𝒑𝒘𝒇 �
𝒒= 𝒓 𝟏 (53)
𝝁�𝒍𝒏� 𝒆 �− �
𝒓𝒘 𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟖𝒌𝒉�𝒑𝒆−𝒑𝒘𝒇�
𝒒=
𝒓 𝟏
𝝁 �𝒍𝒏 �𝒓 𝒆 � − 𝟐�
𝒘
Equation above (Eq.53) is well inflow equation under semi-steady state conditions and
this equation can also be written in terms of dimensionless parameters:
�𝒑𝒆 −𝒑𝒘𝒇 � 𝟏
𝒒𝝁 = 𝒑𝑫𝒆 = 𝒍𝒏𝒓𝑫𝒆 − (54)
𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝒉𝒌

Figure 61. Dimensionless Pressure Profile
Well Inflow in terms of Average Pressure
Pseudo-steady State Flow in a Radial System
𝒅
[ 𝒑(𝒓, 𝒕)]⃒𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (55)
𝒅𝒕
𝑵𝒑 𝑩
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝑷𝒊 − where NBi = Vp (56)
𝑵𝑩𝒊𝑪𝒕
𝑵𝒑 𝑩
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒊 − (57)
𝑽𝒑 𝑪𝒕
For a cylindrical reservoir, 𝑽𝒑 = ∅𝒉𝝅(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) (58)
Substituting Eq.4 to Eq. 3,

𝑵𝒑 𝑩
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒊 − (59)
∅𝒉𝝅�𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 �𝑪𝒕
Recalling the definition of the cumulative production, Np, we have

𝒕
𝑵𝒑 = ∫𝟎 𝒒(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 (60)
𝒅𝑵𝒑
=𝒒 (61)
𝒅𝒕
Taking the derivative of Eq.57,

𝒅𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝑩𝒒
= − ; all in Darcy units (62)
𝒅𝒕 ∅𝒉𝝅�𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 �𝑪𝒕

Pseudo-steady State Flow Solutions for the Radial Flow Diffusivity Equation
The governing partial differential equation for flow in porous media is called the
“diffusivity equation”. The diffusivity equation for a slightly compressible liquid is given
by
𝟏 𝝏 𝒓𝝏𝒑 ∅𝝁𝒄𝒕 𝝏𝒑
� �= (21)
𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒌 𝝏𝒕
The significant assumptions made in Eq.9 are:
- Slightly compressible liquid (constant compressibility)
- Constant fluid viscosity
- Single-phase liquid flow
- Gravity and capillary pressure are neglected
- Constant permeability
- Horizontal radial flow (nonvertical)
𝒅𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝝏𝒑
If we assume q is constant, then is also constant and hence, is also constant as
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒕
well. Assuming q is constant, then
𝒅𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝝏𝒑 𝑩𝒒
= = − = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (63)
𝒅𝒕 𝝏𝒕 ∅𝒉𝝅�𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 �𝑪𝒕
Substituting eq.10 to Eq.9 to make it as an ordinary derivatives
𝟏 𝒅 𝒓𝒅𝒑 ∅𝝁𝒄𝒕 𝑩𝒒
� �= �− �
𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒌 ∅𝒉𝝅(𝒓𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 )𝑪𝒕
𝟐
Simplifying the given equation above
𝟏 𝒅 𝒓𝒅𝒑 𝑩𝝁𝒒
� � = �− � (64)
𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒌𝒉𝝅�𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 �
Defining
𝑩𝝁𝒒
𝒄= (65)
𝒌𝒉𝝅�𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 �
Substituting Eq.12 to Eq.11

𝟏 𝒅 𝒓𝒅𝒑
� � = −𝒄 (66)
𝒓 𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒓

Separating
𝒓𝒅𝒑
𝒅� � = −𝒄𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝒅𝒓
Integrating the equation above with respect to r,
𝒓𝒅𝒑
�𝒅� � = −𝒄 � 𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝒅𝒓
𝒅𝒑 −𝒄𝒓𝟐
𝒓 = + 𝑪𝟏 (67)
𝒅𝒓 𝟐
Dividing both sides by r

𝒅𝒑 −𝒄𝒓 𝑪𝟏
= + (68)
𝒅𝒓 𝟐 𝒓
For pseudosteady state, we assume a closed reservoir, that is,
𝒅𝒑
� � @𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒓
𝒅𝒑 −𝒄𝒓𝒆 𝑪
� � @𝒓𝒆 = 𝟎 = + 𝒓𝟏
𝒅𝒓 𝟐 𝒆
Solving for C1 gives
𝒄𝒓𝟐𝒆
𝑪𝟏 = (69)
𝟐
Substituting Eq.16 to Eq.15 gives
𝒅𝒑 𝒄 𝒓𝟐𝒆
= � − 𝒓� (70)
𝒅𝒓 𝟐 𝒓
Multiplying both sides by dr
𝒄 𝒓𝟐𝒆
𝒅𝒑 = � − 𝒓� 𝒅𝒓
𝟐 𝒓
Integrating across the reservoir volume,

𝒑𝒆 𝒄 𝒓 𝒓𝟐
∫𝒑𝒘𝒇 𝒅𝒑 = ∫ � 𝒆 − 𝒓� 𝒅𝒓
𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝒓
(71)
𝒄 𝒓𝟐
𝒑𝒓 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 = �𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝐥𝐧(𝒓) − � evaluating from r w to r
𝟐 𝟐
𝒄 𝒓 𝒓𝟐 −𝒓𝟐𝒘
𝒑𝒓 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 = �𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝐥𝐧 � � − � (72)
𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝟐

Recalling Eq.65 and substitute it to Eq.72
𝑩𝝁𝒒 𝟏 𝟐
𝒓 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘
𝒑𝒓 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 = �𝒓 𝐥𝐧 � � − �
𝟐𝒌𝒉𝝅 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝒆 𝒓𝒘 𝟐
𝟏
Distributing �𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 � will give
𝒆 𝒘
𝑩𝝁𝒒 𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒓 𝒓𝟐 −𝒓𝟐𝒘

𝒑𝒓 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 = ��𝒓𝟐 𝟐 � 𝐥𝐧 � � − �
𝟐𝒌𝒉𝝅 𝒆 − 𝒓𝒘 � 𝒓𝒘 𝟐�𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 �
(73)
𝒓𝟐𝒆
Assuming that re>>rw ��𝒓𝟐 𝟐 �=𝟏
𝒆 − 𝒓𝒘 �
𝒓𝟐 −𝒓𝟐𝒘 𝒓𝟐
�𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 �
= 𝒓𝟐
𝒆
Simplifying Eq.73 will give
𝑩𝝁𝒒 𝒓 𝒓𝟐
𝒑𝒓 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 = �𝐥𝐧 � � − � (74)
𝟐𝒌𝒉𝝅 𝒓𝒘 𝟐𝒓𝟐𝒆
Rearranging Eq.74 to obtain pr
𝑩𝝁𝒒 𝒓 𝒓𝟐
𝒑𝒓 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + �𝐥𝐧 � � − � (75)
𝟐𝒌𝒉𝝅 𝒓 𝒘 𝟐𝒓𝟐𝒆
Equation 75 determines the pressure at any given radius, r within the reservoir under
semi-steady state condition. However, average pressure is also an important data to be
determined for forecasting and future plans.
Volume Average Reservoir Pressure
To express the inflow equation in terms of average pressure, it is necessary to

derive an expression for pave as:
𝒓
∫ 𝒑𝒓 𝒅𝑽 ∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒑𝒓 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉𝒅𝒓
𝒘
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = = 𝝅(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 )𝒉
(76)
𝑽

𝒓
∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒑𝒓 𝟐𝒓𝒅𝒓
𝒘
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘
(77)
Substituting Eq.75 to Eq.77,

𝟐 𝒓 𝑩𝝁𝒒 𝒓 𝒓𝟐
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = �∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + �𝒍𝒏 � � − �� 𝒓𝒅𝒓 (78)
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝒘 𝟐𝒌𝒉𝝅 𝒓 𝒘 𝟐𝒓𝟐𝒆
𝟐
Distributing and 𝑟𝑑𝑟,
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 )
𝟐 𝒓 𝟐 𝒒𝝁 𝒓 𝒓 𝒓𝟐
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 ∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒓𝒅𝒓 + 𝒆
∫𝒓𝒘 𝒓 �𝒍𝒏 �𝒓 � − � 𝒅𝒓 (79)
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝒘 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒘 𝟐𝒓𝟐𝒆
𝒓 𝒓 𝒓𝟐
For∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒓 �𝒍𝒏 � � − � 𝒅𝒓 :
𝒘 𝒓𝒘 𝟐𝒓𝟐𝒆
𝒓 𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝟏 𝒓𝟐
As we can recall ∫𝒓 𝒆 𝒓 �𝒍𝒏 � �� 𝒅𝒓 is equal to 𝒍𝒏 � � − . See Equation 39
𝒘 𝒓 𝒘 𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝟐 𝟐
Therefore,
𝒓𝒆 𝒓 𝒆 𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟒
∫𝒓𝒘 𝒓 �𝒍𝒏 �𝒓 � − ∫𝒓𝒘 𝟐𝒓𝟐 � 𝒅𝒓 = 𝟐
𝒍𝒏 � � −
𝒓𝒘 𝟐 𝟐
− 𝟖𝒓𝟐 (80)
𝒘 𝒆 𝒆
Plugging Eq.80 on last term of the right hand side of Eq.79 and integrating the first term
will give
𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝟐 𝒒𝝁 𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟒
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + � 𝒍𝒏 � � − − 𝟖𝒓𝟐 � (81)
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝟐 𝟐 𝒆
𝒓𝟐
Factoring on the last term of Eq.81;
𝟐
𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝟐 𝒒𝝁 𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝟏 𝒓𝟐
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + �𝒍𝒏 � � − − 𝟐 � (82)
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝟒𝒓 𝟐 𝒆
Evaluating the limits of the above equation from r = rw to r = re will result to
𝟐 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 )
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟐 𝒑𝒘𝒇
(𝒓𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐
𝟐 𝒒𝝁 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒘 𝟏
+ 𝟐 ��𝒍𝒏 � � − 𝒍𝒏 � �� −
(𝒓𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝟐 𝒓𝒘 𝒓𝒘 𝟐
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 )
− �
𝟒𝒓𝟐𝒆
Simplifying the equation above by cancellation,
𝒒𝝁 𝒓 𝒓 𝟏 (𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝒓
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + ��𝒍𝒏 � 𝒆 � − 𝒍𝒏 � 𝒘 �� − − � ; 𝒍𝒏 � 𝒘 � = 𝒍𝒏(𝟏) =0
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝒓 𝒘 𝒓 𝒘 𝟐 𝟒𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝒓 𝒘
(𝒓𝟐𝒆 − 𝒓𝟐𝒘 ) 𝟏
Assuming that re>>rw, so =
𝟒𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝟒

𝒒𝝁 𝒓 𝟏 𝟏
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + �𝒍𝒏 � 𝒆 � − − �
𝒘 𝟐 𝟒
𝒒𝝁 𝒓 𝟑
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝒑𝒘𝒇 + �𝒍𝒏 � 𝒆 � − � (83)
𝒘 𝟒
Equation 83 shows the formula for average pressure for semi-steady state condition.
And the difference between the average pressure, pave, and the external pressure, pe, is
small and is given by
𝟏 𝒒𝝁
𝒑𝒆−𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 = (84)
𝟒 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉
Well Productivity in a Bounded Drainage Area
In semi-steady state which is usually has a bounded drainage area, the

productivity of a well is normally defined in terms of the average pressure, pave, since this
quantity is observable from a well test. Thus, the productivity index, Jsssa, of the well is
given by the equation:
𝒒𝒔 𝒒
𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒂 = =
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 𝑩(𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇)
With the equation above, we can now express the well inflow equation for SSS in
terms of average pressure;
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉(𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 )
𝒒= 𝒓 𝟑 (85)
𝝁�𝒍𝒏 𝒆 − �
𝒓𝒘 𝟒
Also, the productivity index in terms average pressure and well inflow
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉
equation: 𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒂 = 𝒓 𝟑 (86)
𝑩𝝁�𝒍𝒏 𝒆 − �
𝒓𝒘 𝟒
Expressing the above equation in field units to obtain Jsssa in bbl/day/psi
𝟏.𝟏𝟐𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 (𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉)
𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒂 = 𝒓 𝟑 (87)
𝑩𝝁�𝒍𝒏 𝒆 − �
𝒓𝒘 𝟒
For true single-phase SSS flow, the productivity index is constant, independent of
flow-rate or drawdown as shown in Eq.86. However, in practice the linearity between
flow rate and drawdown is not preserved and the PI declines somewhat. The cause of this
decrease may be due to:
- turbulence near the well-bore at high flow rates
- decrease in the permeability to oil due to the presence of free gas caused by
the pressure falling below the bubble point

- increase in oil viscosity associated with liberation of gas or simply reduced

pressure
- reduction in formation permeability due to rock compressibility
It should be emphasized that the productivity index is not really a useful concept for
situations where the pressure falls below the bubble-point and two-phase flow occurs.
General Form of the Semi-Steady State Inflow Equation
The equation presented above for the productivity index of a semi-steady state
condition in terms of average pressure is somewhat restrictive to a well on the center of a
circularly shaped drainage area. In particular, a given well may not be symmetrically
located in the drainage region and this has a pronounced effect on SSS drawdown.
However, non-circular, non-symmetric systems do not indeed eventually reach SSS
conditions although it may take much longer for the flow to stabilize than in the case of a
circular well system. Not unexpectedly the average flow paths are longer for
unsymmetrically placed wells and a greater drawdown is experienced than in a symmetric
system of the same overall area. The problem of areal flow convergence and bunching of
the streamlines because the well lies in the proximity of a no flow boundary (real or
virtual) and is evident on this kind of condition.
To generalize the inflow equation for this system, we introduce the so called Dietz
shape factor which is denoted by CA, which are presented for a variety of different
geometric configurations.
Equation 83 can be written alternatively as
𝒒𝝁 𝝅𝒓𝟐𝒆
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 = �𝒍𝒏 � 𝟑 �� (88)
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉
𝝅𝒓𝟐𝒘 𝒆𝟐
in which the natural log can alternatively be expressed as:
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐𝒆 𝟒Ā 𝟒Ā
𝟑 = = (89)
𝟓𝟔.𝟑𝟐𝒓𝟐𝒘 𝟑𝟏.𝟔𝜸𝒓𝟐𝒘
𝟒𝝅𝒆𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝒘
where Ā is the area being drained, 𝛾𝛾 is the exponential of Euler’s constant equal to 1.781
and 31.6 is the Dietz shape factor, CA, for circular geometry. Therefore, Eq.83 can be
written with Dietz shape factor as:
𝒒𝝁 𝟏 𝟒Ā
𝒑𝒂𝒗𝒆 − 𝒑𝒘𝒇 = � 𝒍𝒏 � 𝟐 �� (90)
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒉 𝟐 𝑪 𝑨 𝜸𝒓𝒘
Expressing the productivity index with the Dietz shape factor:

𝟒𝝅𝒌𝒉
𝑱𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒂 =
𝟒Ā
𝑩𝒐 𝝁 �𝒍𝒏 � ��
𝑪𝑨𝜸𝒓𝟐𝒘
Illustrated below is the Dietz shape factor of different geometrical configurations:
Figure 62. Dietz Shape Factor

REFERENCES:
Foroozesh, J., 2018, Lecture in Advanced Well Test Analysis, Univeristi

Teknologi Petronas
Chaudry, A. U., 2004, Oil Well Testing Handbook, Advanced TWPSOM

Petroleum Systems, Inc., Houston, Texas
Stewart, G., 2011, Well Test Design and Analysis, Pennwell Corporation, 1421
South Sheridan Road, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
Ahmed, T., & McKinney P. D., 2005, Advanced Reservoir Engineering, Gulf
Professional Publishing (an imprint of Elsevier)

Standing Katz Chart

Gas Deviation Factor z vs pr/z (Slider)

Material Balance Equation

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Material Balance Equation

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PetE 410 – Reservoir Engineering 2

Figure 37. Graphical representation of the material balance equation

Material Balance Equation

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 1

• Estimate initial hydrocarbon volumes in place.

• Predict future reservoir performance.

• Predict ultimate hydrocarbon recovery under various types of primary driving

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 2

Symbols Oilfield Units Units SI

N Stock tank oil initially in place STB STM3

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 3

Change in the Oil Volume:

Initial reservoir oil volume = NBoi

Oil volume at time t and pressure p = ( N – N p ) B o

Change in oil volume = NBoi - (N - Np)Bo

Change in Free Gas Volume:

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐺𝐵𝑔𝑖

Initial free gas volume = GBgi = NmBoi

𝑆𝐶𝐹 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝐶𝐹 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠, 𝑆𝐶𝐹 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑆𝐶𝐹 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖

Change in water volume

Initial reservoir water volume = W

Cumulative water produced at t = Wp

Reservoir volume of cumulative produced water = BwWp

Volume of water encroached at time t = We

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 4

Change in the Void Space Volume

Initial void space volume = Vf

= −𝑊𝑒 + 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 − 𝑊𝑐𝑤 ����

𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖 𝑁𝐵𝑜𝑖 + 𝑁𝑚𝐵𝑜𝑖

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 5

Expanding all terms

Now, adding and subtracting the term 𝑁𝑝 𝐵𝑔 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖

Then grouping like terms

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 6

�𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 �𝐵𝑔 � + 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 - GENERAL MATERIAL BALANCE EQUATION

Material Balance for Gas Reservoirs

For a dry gas reservoir - no water drive:

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 7

For a dry gas reservoir with water drive

Graphical Material Balance

Combining two equations

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 8

Therefore Gp can be expressed as

Hence, the plot of Gp vs p/z should give a straight line

Figure 40. Gp vs p/z

- when p/z = 0 Gp = G (the original gas in place)

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 9

Reservoir Temperature T = 100°F

1. Determine the original pressure and the original gas in place

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 10

Drive Mechanism Index in Material Balance

Dividing both sides by 𝑁𝑝 �𝐵𝑡 + �𝑅𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑖 �𝐵𝑔 �

DDI +SDI +WDI = 1

Linear form of MBE

Compiled by Engr. John Kevin M. de Castro, MSPE 11

The material balance equation can be written in the following form:

F = NEo + NmEg + NEfw +We

The right hand side includes:

Eo = Bo – Boi + (Rsoi –Rs) Bg ....bbl/STB

(iii) expansion of the free gas Eg where:

F = NEo + NmEg + NEfw + We

= −𝑊𝑒 + 𝐵𝑤 𝑊𝑝 − 𝑊𝑐𝑤 ��