Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845

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Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/suscom

Context-aware recommendations for extended electric vehicle battery

lifetime
Markus Eider a ,∗, Bernhard Sick b , Andreas Berl a
aDeggendorf Institute of Technology (DIT), Faculty of Computer Science, Dieter-Goerlitz-Platz 1, Deggendorf, 94469, Germany
b
University of Kassel, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Intelligent Embedded Systems, Wilhelmshoeher Allee
73, Kassel, 34121, Germany

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Electric vehicles are a means of reducing CO2 emissions in transportation. However, the sustainability of
Electric vehicle electric vehicle batteries is affected by battery health degradation, which decreases their overall lifetime.
Battery health This results in a substantial amount of depleted batteries due to replacements. Users have a major impact
Recommendation system
on battery health degradation through their actions while handling electric vehicles, such as the use of fast
Prescriptive maintenance
charging. To mitigate this problem, this article presents a methodology to generate user guidance for battery-
friendly actions in the upcoming use. Therefore, we first identify general recommendations from related work
and combine them with the vehicle context in order to define context-aware recommendations in the form
of if–then rules. These context-aware recommendations are then used to generate user advice. Second, the
article covers how to predict the vehicle context in order to determine necessary recommendations. Third, a
prescriptive recommendation system architecture is proposed, which takes vehicle context information, and
produces user guidance. Finally, we test the proposed architecture using fuzzy logic as decision system. Overall,
the architecture provides satisfactory user advice.

1. Introduction At a certain point after years of operation, EV batteries reach an

The world population is at the verge of not being able to stop
climate change. At present, great efforts are undertaken to switch
technologies from fossil fuel energy to sustainable alternatives. Ideally,
these technologies are powered by renewable energies such as photo-
voltaics or wind turbines. One prominent technological example are
EVs that gained popularity in the last decade. In 2020, EVs reached
a total number of 10 million worldwide, while registrations increased
by 41% within one year [1]. The electrification of cars can be a
promising step towards CO2 -free mobility. However, there is more to
EV sustainability than just their energy source.
The lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in EV battery packs underwent the
highest number of innovations in EV development in the last decades.
Like in 1980, the research group of Goodenough created the first oxide
cathode [2], which paved the way for further chemistry developments
until today. The primary cathode chemistry currently seen in EV bat-
teries is lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt-oxide [1]. However, sourcing
elements such as manganese and cobalt is highly controversial as it
causes harm to the environment. Therefore, these materials should be
used sparingly.
end-of-life (EoL) due to health degradation [3]. In this state, the initial
capacity decreases to roughly 80%, which makes them unfit for all-day
EV usage [3]. Consequently, batteries need to be replaced by new ones.
Depleted batteries, however, could be recycled, but this procedure is
still in its cradle [1]. EV batteries’ EoL should therefore be prolonged
as much as possible.
In EVs, the battery management system (BMS) keeps the battery
cells out of hazardous operation conditions such as depth of discharge
(DoD) and high state of charge (SoC). However, battery degradation
is a result of cumulative usage. Therefore, constantly using the battery
outside a well-balanced operating point can result in accelerated degra-
dation. However, EV users are able to influence the rate of degradation
and, as a result, the sustainability of EVs [3].
The battery-friendly operation of EVs requires users to gain knowl-
edge about common degradation causes of the lithium chemistry in
their EV. Users are recommended to apply this knowledge during every-
day EV operation in order to limit battery health degradation. As
a matter of fact, it is not necessarily within reason that every user
understands the complex degradation effects. After all, some users may

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: markus.eider@th-deg.de (M. Eider).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.suscom.2022.100845
Received 9 May 2022; Received in revised form 9 December 2022; Accepted 31 December 2022
Available online 5 January 2023
2210-5379/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Eider et al.
Fig. 1. Mock-up of a context-aware guidance notification, which is shown ahead of
the required action. It implicitly tells to disconnect the EV from a high power charging
station.
see their EV just as a mean of transport without wanting to deal with
technical details.
The main objective of this research is to provide users with guidance
on battery-friendly EV handling in everyday use. This guidance is
supplied in the form of machine-readable and textual explanations of
certain actions (see example in Fig. 1). In this regard, context awareness
is established by observing the EV operation and its main parameters
that describe the battery conditions. Also, the EV environment must be
considered, as the ambient temperature has great impact on battery
health degradation. Through predictions on future EV context, the
guidance describes battery-friendly actions to be realized by the user.
The actions are grouped into the EV uses of driving, charging and
parking, and respectively contain information on adjustive procedures
such as lowering the charging rate.
Overall, the approach described in this article is not only restricted
to light EVs such as cars. Other EV types can be supported, such
as buses or heavy-duty vehicles in industry or construction. Beyond
that, similar health degradation challenges as described in this article
arise in mechanical and electrical devices in industry. Therefore, the
outlined approach can be applied in prescriptive maintenance activities
in various fields of industry. Here, the term prescriptive maintenance
means that system failures are predicted and appropriate advice is
provided in order to avoid the failure [4]. Though, the forms of user
instructions of prescriptive maintenance systems have not yet been
sufficiently researched [5].
To facilitate the challenge of providing users with battery-friendly
EV usage advice, this article contains the following main contributions.
• Common degradation causes from LIB research are discussed.
These causes serve as the foundation for detecting accelerated
degradation in the upcoming EV context. Knowledge about these
causes can help other research in prescriptive maintenance for
EVs.
• The article provides context-aware recommendations as a set of
rules based on degradation causes and EV context.
• A prescriptive recommender system architecture is proposed. It
predicts the future EV context and applies context-aware recom-
mendations to generate user advice.
Overall, the methodology proposed in this article renounces from
using direct personal data such as an appointment calendar. Instead,
only EV internal data as well as the surrounding air temperature are
used.
The rest of this article is structured as follows. Section 2 provides
information about the major causes for degradation of LIBs. From
there, Section 3 proposes a formal description of an EV context and
2
Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845
in Section 4, the mapping through context-aware recommendations
as well as the resulting advice and guidance are explained. Further,
Section 5 proposes the prediction requirements and mechanisms to
determine the EV context in the future and Section 6 presents an
overall system architecture for providing guidance. In a second part of
this article, Section 7 provides an evaluation of the proposed concept
using open data and fuzzy logic as recommender system. This is then
discussed in Section 8. Afterwards, Section 9 provides more detailed
information on the topic’s background and Section 10 concludes the
article.
2. Battery health degradation and its delaying
In order to slow down battery health degradation, it is necessary to
understand the causes for LIB degradation in general and which coun-
termeasures exist. Therefore, this section at first addresses degradation
causes from LIB research and derives a common battery-friendly use of
electric vehicles. Later in the article, the common use is linked to the
vehicle context in order to adapt it to the corresponding use cases, such
as charging.
Battery degradation is the process of battery performance loss (see
Section 9.1). On the one hand, the battery is losing energy storage
capacity and on the other, it is losing the ability to provide a certain
power flow. This means that the EV battery is not able to store as
much energy as right after manufacture. Furthermore, the EV drive
train cannot be provided with as much electrical current as with a new
battery. After years of use, this performance decrease accumulates to
battery EoL. This state describes the condition when a battery is not fit
for use in an EV anymore.
The EV parameters mainly influencing battery degradation are the
battery temperature 𝜗𝑏 [◦ C] and the state of charge (SoC) [%]. As
a rule of thumb, every increase by 10 ◦ C causes a doubled chemical
reaction speed. Therefore, a battery temperature significantly above
room temperature can cause battery degradation. However, a temper-
ature around the freezing point slows down electron exchange in the
LIB cells, which again is a reason for degradation. Of course, thermal
management is an important technology employed in EVs, which aims
to keep the battery temperature in nominal operation conditions. De-
pending on the vehicle model, however, the thermal management can
have limitations, especially under high battery use. Also, it is assumed
in this research that the thermal management is switched on only
when the EV is being driven or charged. The SoC parameter is to be
considered analogously. Both values near 0% or 100% SoC lead to
accelerated degradation. In practice, the EV BMS prevents users from
reaching these values and excludes a certain percentage range near the
hard boundaries for daily use. Although the above-mentioned safety
mechanisms are included for both parameters in EVs, users can still
cause the parameters to reach semi-hazardous values. For example,
the mechanisms cannot prevent the user from keeping the SoC on the
highest possible value throughout years. Hence, there is a margin in
which users can actively contribute to a longer battery lifetime.
At first glance, it seems straightforward to reduce battery degra-
dation, as the battery temperature and the SoC should be kept in a
medium value range. However, there are two further EV parameters to
be considered which are secondary and influence the main parameter
𝜗𝑏 . These are the ambient temperature 𝜗𝑎 [◦ C] and the C-rate [h−1 ].
With regard to the ambient temperature, we assume that the thermal
management of the EV is shut down if the EV is not in operation. In this
state, there is a slow process of thermal energy transition between the
EV environment and the LIB cell cores. After a certain time, the indi-
vidual cell temperatures therefore align with the ambient temperature.
Hence, there is a direct and proportional correlation between ambient
and battery temperature in the EV off state. The C-rate [h−1 ] describes
the charging and discharging current [A] of the battery with respect
to its nominal capacity [Ah]. For example, when charging a 130 Ah
battery with a current of 100 A, the C-rate is C = 100 A ⋅ 130−1 Ah−1 =
M. Eider et al.
Fig. 2. Finite state machine to represent EV usage states.
0.77 h−1 . Hence, it takes 0.77−1 h = 1.3 h to fully charge the battery.
More importantly, the higher the C-rate, the more current flow there is
through the battery. This inevitably causes an increase in the battery
temperature 𝜗𝑏 . In general, low C-rates are to be preferred in terms
of battery-friendly operation, as this more or less keeps the battery
temperature unaffected. However, applying a high C-rate to a battery
with low battery temperature can quickly increase the temperature to
optimal value. Hence, the C-rate stands in indirect correlation with 𝜗𝑏 .
Moreover, users cannot determine the exact values of the parame-
ters 𝜗𝑏 , SoC and C-rate in the EV dashboard. Although 𝜗𝑎 is traditionally
displayed for driver’s convenience, the other values are often not shown
as numbers or they are even not shown at all. This makes it hard for
users to apply a battery-friendly EV operation. Therefore, EV users at
first require information if a parameter enters a hazardous range. From
there, the users can apply the knowledge contained in this section
to implement optimal EV usage. However, this still requires them to
learn about battery degradation. Also, the objectives of this article
aim at providing context-aware guidance for common EV users, be
it newcomers, average or experienced users. Therefore, users need
guidance that provide them with all necessary information to adjust
their decisions.
3. The context of electric vehicle usage
As described in the previous section, battery health degradation
parameters are present at different EV use cases, such as its off state.
Hence, there are common rules for battery-friendly EV operations,
which cannot be applied in specific situations. Therefore, the con-
text for different EV use cases needs to be defined first. This way,
parameters can be assigned to the specific use cases. Furthermore,
a recommender system can analyze the EV context information in-
cluding its parameter values to determine the need for the specific
recommendations in this context.
In the following paragraphs, the EV usage is discussed and ab-
stracted using a simple finite state machine, as depicted in Fig. 2. It
combines the use cases of charging, parking and driving as well as their
state transitions performed by the user.
Fig. 2 shows the states 𝑆 = {𝑠𝐶 , 𝑠𝑃 , 𝑠𝐷 } with the state transition
function 𝛿, as shown in Eq. (1). In a typical case, a user arrives at
a parked EV (thus, state 𝑠𝑃 ) and may want to change its state to
driving (𝑠𝐷 ), which is denoted by 𝑠𝑃 𝐷 . A state change, however, is not
necessarily required as the user could, for example, fetch an item from
the EV trunk (see 𝑠𝑃 𝑃 ).
𝛿 = {𝑠𝐶𝐶 , 𝑠𝐶𝑃 , 𝑠𝑃 𝐶 , 𝑠𝑃 𝑃 , 𝑠𝑃 𝐷 , 𝑠𝐷𝑃 , 𝑠𝐷𝐷 }
As can be seen in the figure, the transitions are denoted by simple
terminology, but include further actions. For the transition ‘‘drive’’, the
user is required to enter the EV, buckle up, turn the ignition, set the
gear, and loosen the handbrake. This sequence of actions is reverted
with the transition ‘‘park’’. When switching from 𝑠𝑃 to 𝑠𝐶 (𝑠𝑃 𝐶 ), the
transition is connected to actions at a charging station (CS). Here, a
user authenticates at a CS, connects the charging cable and starts a
charging process at the CS user interface. Usually, when switching back
to 𝑠𝑃 , the charging process is stopped at the CS and the charging cable
is removed. Again, 𝑠𝐶 and 𝑠𝐷 do not require any user inputs to keep
the EV in the respective state.
During 𝑠𝑃 , there are two parameters that influence calendaric bat-
tery degradation, as discussed in Section 2. These are the ambient
Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845
temperature 𝜗𝑎 as well as the SoC. Thus, Eq. (2) is the link between
the parking state and its battery degradation parameters. In order to
reach battery-friendliness while parking, an EV should be parked at
room temperature and medium SoC level.
𝑠𝑃 = (𝜗𝑎 , SoC) (2)
𝑠𝐶 = 𝑠𝐷 = (Crate, 𝜗𝑏 , SoC) (3)
The battery degradation parameters at state 𝑠𝐶 are the C-rate, the
battery temperature 𝜗𝑏 , and the SoC, as shown in Eq. (3). Here, the C-
rate should be chosen with regard to 𝜗𝑏 . At low ambient temperatures
around the freezing point and with low C-rates, 𝜗𝑏 may not reach room
temperature with the help of thermal management. As a result, the C-
rate should be increased in order to heat up the battery. In contrast,
the C-rate should be set low when 𝜗𝑏 is high. Therefore, 𝜗𝑏 needs to be
considered. With the last parameter, high SoC levels should be avoided,
as a high electric potential over the LIB cell terminals accelerates
degradation.
The link in Eq. (3) also applies for state 𝑠𝐷 . Although 𝜗𝑏 is handled
in the same way as described for charging, the C-rate and the SoC
behave differently. In this research, the C-rate is assumed to be a
negative value while driving because the SoC decreases. Therefore,
after considering the C-rate as an absolute value, the same relationship
between 𝜗𝑏 and C-rate can be used, as mentioned in connection with
charging. With regard to the SoC, it needs to be considered as inverse
to its battery-friendly range in charging. Therefore, the SoC should not
reach low values. For example, users should consider recharging before
entering deep discharge of the battery.
With the EV usage states and parameters in mind, the EV context
can be defined in Eq. (4). It describes the EV operation conditions at
any point in time.
𝑐 = (𝛿, 𝑡, ⟨(𝑝𝑖 , 𝑢𝑖 , 𝑣𝑖 )𝑛𝑖=1 ⟩) with 𝑛 = 4 (4)
Here, a context 𝑐 is defined by the following descriptors. 𝛿 describes
a state transition that results in a specific state 𝑠 ∈ 𝑆. 𝑡 is the timestamp
at which the context 𝑐 takes place. Lastly, the nested tuple (𝑝𝑖 , 𝑣𝑖 , 𝑢𝑖 )
represents an individual parameter comprising C-rate, SoC, 𝜗𝑏 or 𝜗𝑎
(therefore, n = 4). Each parameter is represented by its parameter name
𝑝, unit 𝑢 and the value 𝑣.
To illustrate this definition, the example in Fig. 1 is used. There, its
base context can also be formulated as
𝑐 = (𝑠𝑐𝑐 , 12 ∶ 15, ⟨(C-rate, [h−1 ], high), (SoC, %, high),
(1)
(𝜗𝑏 , [◦ C], high), (𝜗𝑎 , [◦ C], med)⟩).
The context 𝑐 in the example therefore describes that an EV is being
charged and at 12:15 pm, the C-rate, the SoC and the battery temper-
ature 𝜗𝑏 are on high levels. Although not shown in Fig. 1, the ambient
temperature 𝜗𝑎 could be a medium value. Using the knowledge of
battery degradation causes, it can be seen that the first three parameters
indicate harmful ranges. Therefore, respective advice is needed based
on this context.
In summary of this section, the states are linked to their respec-
tive battery health degradation parameters. Further, any EV context
can be abstracted formally. This way, after acquiring the parame-
ter values throughout time, a recommendation system can take the
machine-readable context data to make further decisions.
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M. Eider et al. Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845

Table 1 parking garage nearby. Depending on the garage construction, there is a

Numbered and fuzzified recommendations (from [3]).
chance for lower or higher temperatures inside compared to the outside
No. 𝛿 C-rate SoC 𝜗𝑏 𝜗𝑎 𝑝 𝑣′ temperature. As seen by the missing information, recommendations
1 𝑠𝐶𝐶 Low Low C-rate High lack explanations to be presented to users in the form of advice or
2 𝑠𝐶𝐶 High High C-rate Low
instruction.
3 𝑠𝐶𝐶 High C-rate Low
4 𝑠𝐶𝑃 Low SoC Med
Thus, the advice needs to be enhanced by further information. In
5 𝑠𝐶𝑃 High SoC Med particular, a natural language explanation of instructions is required,
6 𝑠𝐷𝐷 High High C-rate Low as well as an explanation why certain advice is derived from a context.
7 𝑠𝐷𝐷 Low SoC Med Here, the latter information corresponds to explainable artificial intel-
8 𝑠𝐷𝑃 Low SoC Med ligence (AI) so that users can follow the causal background of advice.
9 𝑠𝐷𝑃 High SoC Med In Eq. (7), we therefore define a guidance 𝑔 for users, which is also
10 𝑠𝑃 𝑃 low 𝜗𝑎 Med shown visually in Fig. 1. It shall serve as a data structure to be presented
11 𝑠𝑃 𝑃 High 𝜗𝑎 Med in a user interface.
12 𝑠𝑃 𝐷 Low SoC Med
13 𝑠𝑃 𝐶 High SoC Med 𝑔 = (𝑐, 𝑎, 𝑙𝑒 , 𝑙𝑟 ) (7)

Users require simple and non-expert level descriptions on the above-

4. Definition of context-aware recommendations
Although the previously defined context can be interpreted by
software, a mapping between parameter values and respective advice is
missing. Therefore, context-aware recommendations need to be defined
first. In this research, a recommendation is seen as an if–then rule
that derives a specific action from a battery-harmful EV parameter.
However, the recommendation itself is not the user instruction but a
mapping rule, as defined in Eq. (5).
𝑟 ∶ 𝑐 ↦ 𝐴 with 𝐴 = {𝑎0 , … , 𝑎𝑛 }
mentioned advice. Therefore, we propose to include linguistic infor-
mation 𝑙𝑒 and 𝑙𝑟 in the guidance, where 𝑙𝑒 provides an explanation
for users in simple and human-readable language for how 𝑎 should be
interpreted and followed. 𝑙𝑒 therefore is a textual representation of 𝑎.
𝑙𝑟 further describes the reason for providing the recommendation. It is
used as justification and for educational purposes. With the perspective
of explainable AI in mind, 𝑙𝑟 derives from 𝑐. Thus, users can understand
why they receive information 𝑙𝑒 . The text in 𝑙𝑒 and 𝑙𝑟 can be derived
from the table and be enhanced with natural-language instructions.
Here, the information can either be manually typed by an expert or
(5) generated using natural language processing.

5. Time aspect for prescriptive advice

𝑎 = (𝑝, 𝑢, 𝑣′ , 𝑤) (6)

A recommendation 𝑟 in Eq. (5) takes a context 𝑐 and maps it to
multiple advices 𝐴. Depending on the number of harmful parameter
values, 𝐴 can be an empty set or contain four pieces of advice. An
advice 𝑎 consists of an EV parameter with preferred value 𝑣′ as well as
a weight 𝑤. The weight here can also be interpreted as priority. Each
advice is the essential information of a context-aware recommendation
and can be used as instruction by EV users.
In order to specify the recommendations, to create battery-friendly
EV operation advice, it is necessary to know which actions need to
follow on harmful EV parameter values. As mentioned earlier in this ar-
ticle, the literature proposes fuzzy parameter values for battery-friendly
EV usage. However, the exact links between context and resulting
advice needs to be defined. Therefore, the links are proposed in Table 1.
In the left part of Table 1, the columns 𝛿 to 𝜗𝑎 describe the EV
contexts that are harmful to LIBs and the respective advice is shown in
columns 𝑝 and 𝑣′ . The listed values are on the one hand derived from
literature (see Sections 2 and 9.1) and are on the other hand fuzzified.
The reason for this abstraction is that LIB chemistries have different
health degradation behaviors. Also, there is no strict classification
boundary for any parameter which distinguishes between a battery-
friendly or a harmful value. Depending on the decision methodology
used to implement the links, more detailed conditions can be used
instead of the values ‘‘low’’, ‘‘med’’ or ‘‘high’’.
The first row describes a charging context where both C-rate and
battery temperature are low. This shows that even with battery tem-
perature conditioning and an ongoing charging process, the battery
temperature cannot reach nominal values. Therefore, the advice is to
increase the C-rate to a high value. As can be seen from the table, the
weight 𝑤 of Eq. (6) is not specified here, as it should be derived using a
separate formula. For instance, such a formula should output a priority
that is proportional to the battery-harmfulness of a context.
Moreover, context-aware recommendations need to be defined fur-
ther, as seen with the rather non-intuitive recommendations 10 and
11. The recommendations describe bringing the ambient temperature
to medium level. Of course, it is not possible for users to change
the environment, but there is a certain possibility that there is a
In the last section, a first hint was given that the EV parameters
have to be predicted. The reason for this is that the guidance must
be provided to the user at a certain point in time before deciding
on the future EV use. Here, it is necessary to know which values the
parameters will take on. Therefore, this section proposes a methodology
for predicting the upcoming EV context and parameters in order to
guarantee support in adequate decision-making time.
In essence, the prediction process consists of two steps. These are
the prediction of the upcoming EV context and the prediction of EV
parameters in the respective context states, as shown between ‘‘Start’’
and ‘‘End’’ in Fig. 3. Both pieces of information are required to generate
context-aware advice and guidance later on. With regard to the training
of the prediction steps, the upper dashed box (Fig. 3) shows the data for
supervised machine learning (ML) model training. Here, normal face
fonts show data that represent input data and bold face fonts show
the expected model outputs. The bottom dashed box represents data
that are used in productive forecasts, such as the time horizon for
which predictions should be generated. The following subsections go
into more detail regarding the different components in Fig. 3.
5.1. Context prediction
Overall, the predictions first start with the EV context in order to
determine upcoming use cases. There is a long-term context forecast
that considers the next 24 h of a day. In the case of a commuter’s typical
day, this prediction is a comparatively simple task. This is because
the work commute starts and ends at more or less fixed times. Using
aggregated EV data, the timing of a commute or a charging process can
be trained in an ML algorithm.
The state 𝑠𝐷 can be derived from a falling SoC and a negative C-
rate whereas 𝑠𝐶 inherits a rising SoC and positive C-rate. All other
situations are then to be classified as 𝑠𝑃 . The battery temperature
as learning parameter is not relevant for determining the EV usage,
as this is an implicit outcome of the usage. Using the derived states
at respective times of a day, the long-term context forecast can be
trained. After training, the model uses a time horizon to predict the

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M. Eider et al.
Fig. 3. Steps of predicting EV context and parameters.
EV context change during the day. This prediction can be realized with
ML algorithms that output a classification based on a numerical input.
Examples for this purpose are decision trees (DTs), artificial neural
networks (ANNs), support vector machines (SVMs) and so forth.
Time is an essential information for context prediction. As com-
mutes take place on working days, the weekends need to be dis-
tinguished. Also, the commuting times to and from the workplace
arrange around the working hours. It is further assumed in this work,
that driver’s EV usage behavior can be different during the day. For
example, a commuter may want to rush home after work. Therefore,
the day of week 𝑑 = [1, 7] and quarter-hour of day 𝑡 = [1, 96] need to
be considered. Instead of seconds or minutes, a resolution of quarter
hours is proposed in this work, as this maintains sufficient accuracy
of ML models and still provides enough time for users to incorporate
recommendations in their decisions. Assuming the long-term prediction
model determines the end of a commute in the next 15 minutes, then
advice for specific charging before the end of the commute is provided
with enough time to locate a respective charging station. It should
be noted here that the further in the future the context is to be
predicted, the coarser the quarter-hour time resolution could be chosen
(e.g. 30 min). This choice can simplify a forecast model.
Besides commuting, there can be further kinds of trips as well, and
these increase the complexity of a prediction. When considering the
daily life of an employee or a family, several types of car trips come to
mind. For example, there are regular trips that take place at a relatively
fixed time during the week. An example is the weekly shopping trip
or driving to a fitness center. Compared to commuting, these trips
should be easy to predict because of their regularity. In addition, there
are one-time planned trips. These include doctor appointments or one-
time shopping trips. Here, a prediction algorithm is clearly limited
in determining the EV context due to the sparsity of such an event.
The only reliable sources of indication of one-time planned trips are
personal calendars, user inputs or other sources that provide user
information. Lastly, extraordinary, spontaneous trips incorporate the
most challenging case. Here, only the driver knows when a trip is going
to take place. In an extreme example, a family’s child is feeling sick and
requires examination by a physician as soon as possible. In this case,
however, it is not clear if a parent drives the child to the physician
within a quarter-hour or within a few hours. Also, it is not possible
to determine if this emergency interferes with other appointments. In
the example, a parent could temporarily leave work to pick up the
child at the school. Therefore, some occurrences lack machine-readable
information of state change at specific times. We hence assume that
there are use cases that are impossible to predict. This not only covers
driving, but also spontaneous charging or parking.
To mitigate the problem of unknown user decisions, a short-term
context determination is necessary. Instead of using direct personal
data, as from an appointment calendar, it derives an unforeseen state
change from current EV data. In the same way of preparing data for
training of long-term context forecast, current EV data are analyzed
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Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845
for specific values. As mentioned before, a falling SoC value and a
negative C-rate determine 𝑠𝐷 . Both value trends are inverted for 𝑠𝐶 and
otherwise, the state 𝑠𝑝 is determined.
Based on the mentioned steps, the state change 𝛿 from Table 1 can
now be determined. Still, the battery degradation parameters need to be
calculated by forecasting methods as discussed in the next subsection.
5.2. Parameter prediction
Once the EV context is determined for all quarter-hours of the
upcoming day, the EV parameters have to be forecasted. First, this
applies to the battery degradation parameters SoC and C-rate. In ML,
regression approaches help to determine a continuous value based on
input parameters. Here, the SoC and the C-rate are derived by an ML
model using the parameters 𝑡, 𝑑 (quarter-hour, day) and EV context
state. For training of such a model, a large volume of data is re-
quired. Therefore, the EV usage and its parameters need to be gathered
throughout multiple months or years to include seasons. Otherwise, the
ML model may not be trained well enough for predicting an EV context
at specific times accurately.
The parameter 𝜗𝑎 can be extracted from weather forecast services
of the Internet. As weather forecasting is a science in itself, bringing
up a weather forecast in this work would go beyond the scope of this
article. Therefore, we propose to connect the recommender system with
existing –either free or paid –weather forecast services. These provide
a more or less precise time series of ambient temperatures for at least
24 h.
From the prediction of the other degradation parameters 𝜗𝑎 and C-
rate, the battery temperature 𝜗𝑏 is to be derived. Here, either physical
models or ML applications can help to calculate the change in the bat-
tery pack temperature and hence 𝜗𝑏 at a specific moment in time. There
are software projects such as PyBaMM [6,7] or liionpack [8] which
simulate LIB cell and pack parameters over time. These require specific
battery characteristics to produce accurate values, as for example the
cell temperature.
As the EV parameters are dependent on previous values, ML models
that can handle time-series forecasting need to be chosen. Examples for
this are recurrent ANNs such as long–short term memory (LSTM) or
applications in deep learning.
At this point, the main inputs of the ML models are identified.
These are the day of the week and the quarter-hour. Further inputs
can be added as well, which have to be evaluated as influential using
correlation analysis. For example, a candidate input to be considered
is the occurrence of public holidays. Usually, a commute does not take
place on such a day.
The outputs of the forecasting models are the EV contexts on a
quarter-hour basis for the upcoming 24 h, as well as the EV parameters
in the quarter-hours. Concluding, the ML models predict both EV
context and parameter in order to generate advice according to Table 1
later on.
M. Eider et al.
Fig. 4. Prescriptive recommender system structure and data flow.
6. Architecture for prescriptive recommender systems
The above sections describe all necessary steps to determine both
the necessity for context-aware advice as well as a recommendations
system to generate it. However, the steps need to be combined in soft-
ware for automated advice generation. Therefore, this section proposes
a software architecture of a context-aware recommender system based
on a previous publication [9].
The recommender system (see Fig. 4) is both context-aware and
prescriptive. In the scheme of this article, the system creates a represen-
tation of the EV context ahead of time and thereon creates guidance for
users. The guidance instructs users on battery-friendly EV usage. More
importantly, the guidance is not just generally valid but prescriptive, as
it is provided ahead of time and fits the upcoming context. Therefore,
the recommender system is referred to as prescriptive recommender
system (PRS) in the rest of this article. A more detailed description of
the concept of prescriptive analytics is provided in the related work in
Section 9.3.
The PRS as shown in Fig. 4 first takes different inputs before it can
decide on necessary advice. First, this contains static EV information
which is used as reference and entered by the EV user on first use of
the PRS. Static EV information contains all relevant data regarding the
EV such as the battery capacity in Watt-hours or the specification of
charging connectors. Alternatively to specific user inputs, the knowl-
edge of the EV model type can help the PRS to find relevant data by
itself. Using a look-up database and the user choosing a certain EV
increases usability. Nevertheless, static EV information needs to be in
a persistent database in the PRS in order to work properly for future
advice generation.
The second data input of the PRS is an EV data provider, which
outputs the instantaneous parameter values during vehicle use. These
data are necessary for context determination, as spontaneous changes in
the EV context have to be detected (see Section 5.1). For this, different
techniques can be used. For example, using an on-board diagnostics
(OBD) port logger and the mobile Internet, EV data can be read while
the EV is powered on and sent to the PRS. This has the advantage that
the most precise data are available for analysis. Its drawback, however,
is the use of additional hardware in the vehicle. An alternative to this
approach are EV manufacturer data services. These online services can
be connected with the vehicle and the EV users can read the vehicle
parameters online. The PRS then requires a connection to such a service
as well as the user credentials to access the data.
The third input is a weather forecast API which in essence provides
information about the ambient temperature throughout the prediction
horizon of 24 hours. As mentioned in Section 5.2, the ambient tem-
perature does not need to be predicted by the PRS as there are many
weather forecast services online. These usually provide representational
state transfer (REST) application programming interfaces (APIs) to be
used by software clients. The PRS periodically connects to such a
service to fetch a set of temperature values.
The above-mentioned input data then go into the context and pa-
rameter prediction, which was explained in Section 5. This component
provides both predicted and derived EV context and parameters for
further analysis.
The next PRS component in the proposed architecture, i.e. the
inference system, determines the necessity of advice on the basis of
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Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845
Table 1. It does so by taking the forecasted contexts and parameters
and comparing them to the context-aware recommendations in the
rows of the table. There are various candidate techniques to implement
the inference system. The recommendations in the table consist of
specific state transitions as well as parameter values binned in the
classes of ‘‘high’’ and ‘‘low’’. Therefore, a simple Boolean or fuzzy logic
system is sufficient to determine if certain recommendations have to
be followed. However, when detailing out Table 1 in a more precise
way or adding further inputs, a more dedicated technique is required.
It needs to perform a calculation that outputs the necessity of an active
recommendation.
After determining which recommendation is required for a certain
point in time, a guidance generation component can then build up
the information that is contained in each single guidance 𝑔 with its
advice 𝑎. Section 4 provides a reference for the guidance data fields
and Table 1 contains specific values that can be filled out. However,
the linguistic information is not provided in this article.
The generated guidance can then be provided through a user API.
These days, the intuitive way of connecting such an API with the EV
user is by having a client smartphone application. However, it is also
conceivable to connect the EV dashboard with this API as the media
interfaces in vehicles already contain a vast number of functionalities.
This way, context-aware guidance becomes visible without distracting
the user during driving and handling a smartphone at the steering
wheel is not required.
7. Evaluation
The goal of this section is to evaluate a PRS for providing EV
battery-friendly guidance to a commuter. Therefore, a minimalistic
implementation is created in order to check the feasibility of the
approach discussed in this article. The implementation is based on
fuzzy logic, as this is suited to values such as ‘‘high’’ or ‘‘low’’. With
regard to evaluation, care should be taken to ensure that a PRS provides
correct guidance. This means that if battery-friendly guidance becomes
necessary at a certain time, the PRS should suggest this guidance
shortly before this time.
This section contains two principal limitations. First, the EV usage
is reduced to only work commutes. Second, the predictions are skipped
by directly using EV context and parameter data. This allows to test
whether the PRS produces the correct guidance. However, this leaves
out the prediction of the EV context as well as the prediction of the EV
parameters.
7.1. Preparation of data
The EV usage data in this evaluation are generated using the open
source Python library emobpy [10,11]. The advantage here is that the
library is based on mobility studies in Europe and produces mobility
and energy consumption data accordingly [10]. It therefore is suitable
for a first evaluation without having to collect real-world data.
The data out of emobpy for this evaluation are created in the
following steps. The mobility pattern for a single user is created for
365 days. Also, the user is set as commuter with a full-time, 9 to 5
job. Further mobility destinations such as grocery shopping are not
considered in this evaluation. The popular EV model ‘‘Renault Zoe
Q90 2019’’ with a battery capacity of 45.61 kWh is chosen. Based on
these selections, the emobpy session created 522 single trips, meaning
261 working days. Regarding EV charging, the option of ‘‘immediate
charging’’ is chosen here, which allows the user to fully charge the
vehicle once arriving at a destination. Here, the maximum charging
power in the data is 22 kW.
The output emobpy contains the columns as listed in Table 2.
The relevant columns to this work are date, state, consumption,
actual_soc and charge_battery, since these describe the states and
parameters proposed in this work. It should be noted at this point that
M. Eider et al.
Table 2
Columns in the output time series data of emobpy [11].
Column Description
date Timestamp of a data row
hh Hour as floating point value
state emobpy EV context
distance Driven distance at state ’driving’ [km]
consumption Energy consumption at state ’driving’ [kW]
charging_point Type of charging station
charging_cap Available charging capacity [kW]
actual_soc Current EV SoC [%]
charge_battery Charging power to the battery [kW]
charge_grid Charging power from the grid [kW]
temperature data are not included in the outputs, but are added in a
separate step in this evaluation.
An interesting point is that the above-mentioned immediate charg-
ing happens directly after driving. However, this state transition is
not reflected in Section 3. The reason is that charging cannot happen
instantly after driving as the driver has to stop at a charging station, and
set up the charging process manually. This usually takes a few minutes.
Therefore, charging processes in the output data are moved forward
in time by a quarter-hour slot to correctly interpret state transitions.
Further, this evaluation focuses on commuting, which is why weekend
entries can be omitted. In this time, the vehicle is parked at the home
and is not moved.
Regarding state, the column state contains the values home, work-
place and driving. The first two states are translated to a park-
ing state if there is no significant value above zero in the column
charge_battery. Otherwise, the states are translated to charging. The
latter entry is kept as is. In order to quickly identify a certain state
transition (see Section 3), the state of the last data row is added in a
new column last_state.
Converting EV parameters from the output data is done as follows.
The SoC values in column actual_soc are left unchanged, as these
already represent a percentage of the battery capacity. With the C-rate,
a more specific approach is required. As the output data provide the
columns consumption while driving and charge_battery at charging,
both columns need to be first merged in a column c_rate. Here, the
power at driving needs to be inverted to represent power draw. Second,
the values have to be recalculated to be relative to the maximum
charging power (22 kW) considered by emobpy.
Temperature data are taken from the open science and data platform
Zenodo [12] as done in emobpy. In specific, the dataset ERA5-NUTS1
was taken, where hourly 2-meter temperature [◦ C] data for the Munich
region were extracted for this article. The data originally stem from
a climate data reanalysis of the European Centre for Medium-Range
Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) and cover subsections of Europe. As the
time resolution of emobpy is in quarter-hours, a resampling from the
initial one-hour resolution of the ERA5-NUTS1 to quarter-hours was
necessary. This can be realized with a forward-filling algorithm (ffill)
of the Python library pandas [13]. In order to determine the battery
temperature, one could use the liionpack library. However, no thermal
specification of the Renault ZOE battery is known to the authors of
this article. Therefore, the ambient temperature is assumed as battery
temperature. Of course, this does not reflect reality but provides a
certain parameter range for further evaluations.
Figs. 5 and 6 show the outcome of the data preparation of this
implementation. Both figures show the properties of the whole dataset
condensed in an average day. Fig. 5 shows that indeed the commutes
take place around work start and end. Followed by this are charging
processes. Interestingly, most charging processes are performed at the
working place.
As shown in Fig. 6, the ranges of the EV parameters C-rate and SoC
follow the pattern of the EV context states accordingly. Commuting
trips start at 8 a.m. and 16 p.m., followed by charging. As can be seen
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Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845
in the top graph of the figure, the maximum charging rates exceed the
maximum driving consumption. In specific, this results in two peaks
with a battery charging power of 9.89 kW and 19.79 kW. The power
is lower than the capacities of the charging station capacities, as there
is energy loss in the charging electronics calculated by emobpy. The
discharge power on the other hand reaches 8.57 kW during driving.
The SoC in Fig. 6 shows a constant range outside the time interval of
8 a.m. and 17 p.m. This is 81 to 100%. The lowest level is reached at
commuting to work with 69%. Lastly, the temperature ranges between
−11 and 31 ◦ C throughout the year.
The above-mentioned steps produce a dataset of 25,056 timestamps
with varying parameter values. However, there is the limitation that the
C-rate and the SoC do not represent all cases which are listed in Table 1.
In particular, the C-rate never reaches a value that can be considered
high during driving. In contrast, the SoC values are always high. This
must be taken into account when evaluating the guidance produced.
7.2. An inference system using fuzzy logic
This section discusses the implementation of an inference system as
shown in Fig. 4. It uses the previously generated EV context data and
parameters to determine the necessity for guidance. Since Python was
used in the steps of the last subsection, it is applied here as well with
the library SciKit-Fuzzy [14].
The inference system in this section needs to realize the rules of Ta-
ble 1. In a first step, the antecedent EV parameters need to be fuzzified
from their crisp numeric values. As there are only the values ‘‘high’’
and ‘‘low’’ in the table, a simple membership function is sufficient. This
is shown in Fig. 7, where the lower and upper boundaries 𝑏𝐿 and 𝑏𝑈
are visualized. These boundaries are set at the value limits of the EV
parameters.
In a more abstract way, the membership function can be formulated
as in Eqs. (8) and (9). These describe the ‘‘high’’ and ‘‘low’’ member-
ships 𝜇ℎ𝑖 and 𝜇𝑙𝑜 by taking the EV parameter 𝑥 with its lowest (𝑏𝐿 ) and
highest (𝑏𝑈 ) possible value.
⎧0 if 𝑥 < 𝑏𝐿
⎪ 𝑥
𝜇ℎ𝑖 (𝑥, 𝑏𝐿 , 𝑏𝑈 ) = ⎨ 𝑏 if 𝑏𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏𝑈 (8)
⎪ 𝑈
⎩1 if 𝑥 ≥ 𝑏𝑈
⎧1 if 𝑥 < 𝑏𝐿
⎪ 𝑥
𝜇𝑙𝑜 (𝑥, 𝑏𝐿 , 𝑏𝑈 ) = ⎨1 − 𝑏𝑈
if 𝑏𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏𝑈 (9)
⎪
⎩0 if 𝑥 ≥ 𝑏𝑈
The boundaries are selected as following. The C-rate in the data can
reach absolute values between 0 and 22 kW ∗ 45.61−1 kWh−1 . Therefore,
𝑏𝐿 = 0 and 𝑏𝑈 = 0.48 h−1 . The SoC is handled with 𝑏𝐿 = 0 and 𝑏𝑈 = 1.
In the case of the ambient and battery temperature, the boundaries
are set as 𝑏𝐿 = −11 ◦ C and 𝑏𝑈 = 31 ◦ C, which are the minimum and
maximum temperatures in the data. In the end, the fuzzy logic should
produce each recommendation number as a single output, as there can
be multiple recommendations for a quarter-hour timestamp. Here, 𝑏𝐿
is chosen as 0 (unimportant) and 𝑏𝑈 as 1 (high priority) to indicate the
necessity of a recommendation.
The fuzzy inference system uses a complete representation of Ta-
ble 1 including all permutations of ‘‘high’’ and ‘‘low’’ values. As there
are four EV parameters, each with two states, this results in 24 fuzzy
rules. In each rule, the fuzzy values of the single recommendation are
set with a respective value. The value here is ‘‘high’’, if the table rule
can be found in a permutation. In other cases, the recommendation is
set to ‘‘low’’. This effort is necessary in order to define ‘‘low’’ values of
the recommendations for the fuzzy system. Otherwise, the fuzzy rules
are not clearly defined, and the fuzzy system cannot determine the
output values.
After the fuzzy inference system is implemented, it can be applied
to the previously generated data. Depending on the individual state
M. Eider et al. Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845

Fig. 5. Probability of EV context states in emobpy generated data throughout working days.

Fig. 6. Extent of EV parameters throughout the data of one year.

Table 3
Frequency of recommendations.
R1 R3 R5 R9 R10 R11 R13 Count Freq. [%]
– – – – – – – 874 3.49
– – – – x – – 12484 49.82
– – – – – x – 9910 39.55
– – – x – – – 522 2.08
– – – – – – x 385 1.54
– – x – – – – 385 1.54
x x – – – – – 307 1.23
– x – – – – – 189 0.75
Fig. 7. Shape of antecedent and consequent membership functions.

change, some recommendations are set to ‘‘low’’. The reason for this
is that the recommendations are initially defined for certain state
transitions. For example, the recommendation 1 is only valid if the
vehicle is kept in the charging state. In the contrary, recommendations
4 to 13 cannot be applied in this situation.
Fig. 8 now shows the output of the fuzzy inference system using the
data of one year. The upper three graphs show the input parameters,
including colored bars indicating their classification as ‘‘high’’ (orange)
or ‘‘low’’ (blue). In the figure, a data point is shown as member of one
of the two classes if the membership is above 50%. As already seen
from Fig. 6, the C-rate is seldom high and the SoC is high in all cases.
The temperature data on the other hand allow for a balance of ‘‘high’’
and ‘‘low’’ classifications.
The lower graph in the figure shows the ‘‘high’’ values of the recom-
mendations as green bars. From the 𝑦-axis labels it becomes clear that
there are missing recommendations. In specific, these are not generated
as the input data lack certain cases of EV usage. For example, as the SoC
is always classified as ‘‘high’’, recommendations 4, 7, 8, 12 cannot reach
a ‘‘high’’ level of importance. Also, the C-rate is not high enough in
two consecutive charging timestamps as to trigger recommendations 2
and 6. Naturally, a software unit test was conducted before this step to
ensure the correct output value of each recommendation by the fuzzy
inference system.
At this point, recommendations can be identified that are rather
to be classified with priority values of ‘‘high’’ instead of ‘‘low’’. These
are configured according to Table 1. This includes values used to
determine the recommendation necessity as well as the user guidance.
For example, with recommendation 5, the guidance tells the user to
implicitly decrease the SoC when switching from charging to parking.
Therefore, the charging process should be stopped to maintain a lower
SoC value.
Further, it is interesting to analyze the frequency and permutations
of the used recommendations based on the data. Table 3 shows the
overall frequency of recommendations in the 25,056 timestamps. It
shows that in 3.49% of the time, no guidance is provided at all. This
sums up to a time of 9.1 days. In the next rows, the table displays
that the recommendations 3, 5, 9, 10, 11 and 13 are used individually
and recommendations 1 and 3 are used at the same time (1.23%). The
simultaneous occurrence makes sense, as both recommendations are
independent in terms of their triggers EV context and EV parameters.
Also, their user guidance sums up to use fast charging until a medium
SoC. Hence, this summary shows that the guidance does not contradict
in any timestamp.
The evaluation in this section is limited by the use of open data.
When evaluating a PRS, it needs to be analyzed if the correct guidance
is provided before the right point in time. This means that in a first step,

8
M. Eider et al.
Fig. 8. Event plot of the antecedent and consequent values. The top graphs show the change of the input parameters and their classification as low (blue) or high (orange) by
the fuzzy membership functions. The lower graph displays situations when the necessity for generating a guidance is high. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
the PRS must predict the EV context and EV parameters correctly. Here,
metrics such as the mean squared error are usual key indicators for
the precision of classification or regression models. As the prediction
step was skipped in this evaluation by using data of emobpy, the EV
context and parameter prediction was not evaluated. If one of both
predictions is wrong, the fuzzy interference systems either produce a
guidance which is unsuitable in a causal sense or may be too early or
too late.
8. Discussion
This section provides a discussion of the proposed models and
the minimalistic implementation. It highlights possible changes of the
models and the arising challenges.
Depending on the specific use case of the PRS, the models may
not be complete. Especially when reducing the time resolution from
quarter-hour to one-hour, the EV context and the recommendation
triggers need to be changed. For example, when plugging the vehicle
into a charging station right after a trip, the parking state can be too
short and charging takes up most of the time within the hour. Also,
the average EV parameter values are reduced in numerical value. If
in this case the hour is still considered as parking, then the charg-
ing parameters are wrongly considered. Especially with high power
charging, the vehicle battery is introduced with a high C-rate, but
no recommendation is produced by the PRS as the parameter is not
considered. Hence, changes in the PRS may be necessary.
A challenging subtopic is the prediction of the EV context and
parameters. As mentioned in Section 5, recurring trips such as the
commuting case are possible to predict. There are, however, irregular
trips which make predictions likely impossible. User inputs of upcom-
ing state changes reduce the volume of predictions but are tedious for
the users. A compromise is to reduce the user inputs by remembering
repetitions.
In the implementation, limitations were introduced that reduced the
amount of output recommendations. Here, the context and parame-
ters are generated for a commuting case where the SoC is in a high
value range. As expected, recommendations were created correctly,
which means that the fuzzy logic system runs as intended. In this
experiment, no predictions are required, as the emobpy library already
produces values reflecting an average European driver. The experiment,
however, cannot prove that the proposed prediction of context and
parameters in series yields high accuracy. This assumption has to be
evaluated in further research.
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Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845
9. Related work
This section highlights relevant scientific literature. Section 9.1 dis-
cusses battery health degradation issues. Further, Section 9.3 provides
an overview of prescriptive maintenance and the techniques used for
PRS.
9.1. Battery degradation
This section provides an explanation of causes for EV battery degra-
dation in more detail than in Section 2 and is used as reference for
deriving general recommendations in the beginning of this research.
LIBs used in EV battery packs yield high energy density, a long
lifespan, low self-discharge and support increased fast charging [15–20]
and are therefore used in EVs since the start of the current electrifica-
tion of mobility [21]. LIBs are the most expensive part of EVs with
around half the price of such a vehicle [22–24]. However, the cost of
LIBs is dropping exponentially due to technological developments [25].
Ziegler et al. [25] show with price trends based on previous studies that
the limit of 100 USD∕kWh for all cell package types will be reached
between the years 2020 and 2030 [25]. At this point, EVs are at par
with prices for combustion engine vehicles [25]. Although this means
less expense when buying EVs, the EoL of a battery pack can still be
reached within few years under bad operating conditions.
While having the mentioned benefits, LIBs inevitably degrade over
time and use [18,23], which impairs EV performance [26]. The main
degradation indicator is the state of health (SoH) [18,27–29] but there
is no common definition for it [30] and EV manufacturers keep the
calculation of the SoH a company secret [31]. For example, the SoH
can be computed as the relative capacity between current and initial
health state [32–35].
Battery degradation is a dynamic process [15,31,36] and a conse-
quence of cumulative battery operation and history [28,37,38]. This
degradation can also be described as the fade of battery capacity and
power but these can happen independently from each other and do
not implicitly describe the health state [16,17,34,38–40]. Overall, the
most influential parameters for aging are the ambient temperature,
the C-rate, the SoC and the time intervals between full cycles, where
one cycle means charging and then discharging the battery fully [15].
Here, it should be noted that different cell chemistries show individual
degradation progress when exposed to the same experiments [41].
Therefore, a definition of EV battery-friendliness needs to be adapted
for each single LIB chemistry.
M. Eider et al.
In the following sections, the degradation causes of cyclic and
calendaric aging are explained. Here, cyclic aging describes the process
of degradation due to charging and discharging cycles [26] in typical
EV use. Calendaric aging is observed during the course of time with the
absence of current flow [42,43].
9.1.1. Cyclic degradation
LIBs degrade during cycles of charging and discharging, i.e. by
charge throughput [32,37,42,44,45]. Here, the higher the current
flow [23,38,46], e.g. by fast charging [22,42,47], the faster batteries
age due to internal temperature rise [19,44]. Here, the cells can
reach a temperature of 40 ◦ C above ambient temperature [19]. It
should also be mentioned that degradation depends on an aggregation
of cycles [26,37]. Regarding the direction of charge transfer, there
are various conditions to be distinguished. For example, charging is
worse for battery health than discharging [23]. This, however, is not
generally valid as a delayed charging after a trip keeps down the battery
temperature [22].
Besides charge throughput, the SoC has to be considered [22,42].
Especially a frequently high DoD during use should be avoided [15–
17,19,27,37], which is the difference between 100% and current SoC.
Also a battery should not be overcharged above 80% SoC [15–17,
47]. With regard to charge throughput, it is discussed that charging
or discharging a high difference of SoC leads to accelerated battery
degradation [19,23,26,47].
At EV driving, users have a high influence on battery health. Here,
the discharge rate depends on route topology, vehicle load, speed,
acceleration and the driving style [24,31,46]. There, a larger capacity
fade can be observed in highway drives compared with urban or city
drives [46]. Thus, users should avoid routes with high consumption.
9.1.2. Calendaric degradation
Calendaric aging describes the process of battery degradation when
no charge is transferred from or into the LIB, i.e. in the powered off or
open voltage state [31]. Also, this process is independent from cyclic
aging [36,43]. Calendaric aging is critical since EVs are parked up 80
to 95% of the EV lifetime [36,41,43,47].
One of the most important degradation causes in calendaric aging is
temperature [15,24,27,38,45]. Rezvanizaniani et al. [15] conclude that
the optimal battery temperature ranges within 15 to 50 ◦ C [15], while
in general, an increase of 10 ◦ C is doubling the degradation rate [42].
Accordingly, both high as well as low temperatures are harmful for
battery health [15,18,36,38,48,49]. In EV applications, the LIBs are
assembled in a battery pack including cooling technology in order to
reduce stress or failure. However, in parking, which is considered to be
the situation where calendaric aging occurs, other studies assume that
the cooling is switched off [35]. This assumption is also adopted in this
article.
Next, the SoC needs to be considered as aging influence [23,24,26,
45,49] since a low or high storage SoC shortens battery lifetime [16,
20,22,36,47]. Therefore, the battery should be charged to around 50%
or less before the EV is parked [22,42].
9.2. Prescriptive maintenance
This article follows the goals of prescriptive maintenance where
the aim is to predict an upcoming system state and provide guidance
before a system failure occurs [4]. Today, there is a high commercial
interest in prescriptive maintenance with applications in industrial
automation, transportation and health care in order to increase system
lifetime [4,50]. With regard to battery health degradation of EVs,
prescriptive maintenance can propose beneficial user actions to prolong
battery lifetime.
Researchers distinguish between three levels of prescriptive analyt-
ics, which are building up on one another. The first level is descriptive
maintenance, which describes the past and current context of a system
10
Sustainable Computing: Informatics and Systems 37 (2023) 100845
by analyzing its data and by describing interrelations between causes
and effects [51]. Predictive maintenance on top builds ML models that
can predict the probability of certain events in the future [50–52].
Prescriptive maintenance is the third level and provides guidance for
actions in the future [50–52].
9.3. Technologies for recommending battery-friendly EV usage
This section presents decision support system (DSS) related to the
contribution of this article. Please refer to [53] for more details with
regards to goals and requirements.
Expert systems (ES) as one of the oldest DSS have been widely
used in research [54] as well as in prescriptive maintenance [52,55].
expert systems (ES) use a knowledge base to help users in decision-
making [54]. Here, a context is evaluated through if–then rules (i.e. the
knowledge), realized by e.g. fuzzy logic, which ultimately results in
a decision or recommendation [54]. ES are similar to the concept
proposed in this article, which also applies mapping rules in the form
of recommendations.
The knowledge of an ES is traditionally entered by a domain ex-
pert [54], but can be acquired automatically (e.g. using natural lan-
guage processing) [52,56]. The acquisition process, however, requires
caution. The fewer the rules that are entered, the less accurate an
ES becomes. Also, with more rules comes higher accuracy but the
knowledge complexity increases considerably [56].
In contrast to ES, recommender systems (RS) are known for sug-
gesting information to users of consumer services [57,58]. They do
so by filtering for items which are most likely to be preferred by
the individuals [57] by techniques such as knowledge-based, content-
based, collaborative, demographic and hybrid filtering [57,59,60]. In
summary, however, it should be noted that RS make suggestions and
PRS provide advice.
10. Conclusions
With the rising number of EVs worldwide, the question emerges
how to use the vehicles battery-friendly. As users can influence the
rate of battery degradation in LIBs by their vehicle usage, they require
context-based guidance on improving EV usage in the sense of more
battery-friendliness. To mitigate this challenge, this article provides the
following contributions.
• The context of EV usage is defined formally to reflect the individ-
ual situations in which an EV can be used in. In this regard, the
parameters that influence battery health degradation are defined
for the contexts.
• A definition of context-aware guidance is provided. It is ori-
ented on prescriptive maintenance and provides user advice for
battery-friendly EV usage.
• The article extracts a set of recommendations rules for creating
context-aware guidance. Here, the rules are based on common
battery health degradation causes from literature.
• Next, an architecture for a PRS is proposed. The main components
for creating recommendations are discussed.
• Finally, the article provides a description of a prototype imple-
mentation. Using open data, the PRS is tested and the identified
recommendation are visualized.
It shows that the presented system is generating context-aware
guidance as expected. In summary, the presented PRS can provide
useful advice for inexperienced EV users in order to prolong the lifetime
of their EV batteries. Besides electric mobility, this approach can be ap-
plied for industrial systems that are subject to mechanical or electrical
degradation.
M. Eider et al.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Markus Eider: Writing, Conceptualization, Methodology. Bernhard
Sick: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Andreas Berl: Project
administration, Funding acquisition, Supervision.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by the Bavarian Research Foundation
(Bayerische Forschungsstiftung), Germany under project number AZ-
1405-19 (Project SmiLE). The authors thank Mohammad Wazed Ali and
Esther Kinateder for proofreading the article.
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