MODULE B

In this module we are going to study pure bending theory(that is bending with applied bending
moments only), combined direct and bending stress, torsion( of circular bars, hollow circular bars,
circular shafts and elastic torsion of thin-walled closed tubes) and buckling of axially loaded columns.

I am to dwell mostly on examples. You as a student try as many examples in the literature below:

Literature: 1. STRUCTURAL MECHANICS by R. HULSE and J. CAIN

2. STRUCTURAL MECHANICS by AI NAGEIM, F DURKA, W MORGAN AND D WILLIAMS

A. DIRECT STRESS
Definition of some terms in direct stress analysis:

1. Direct (Normal) Stress

A force which acts normal to a surface causes stress which also acts normal to that surface.
Provided that the force passes through the centroid of the whole surface. This type of stress
is known as a direct stress and can be denoted by Ϭ. The formula to calculate direct stress is
as follows:
Ϭ = axial force (P)/area of surface or area of cross-section (A)
The SI unit for stress is the Pascal, Pa = 1N/m2. However, since the square metre is a rather
inconvenient unit of area when measuring stress, British Standards adopted the multiple
N/mm2 as a stress unit for materials. Note: 1N/mm 2 = 1MN/m2 = 1MPa.
2. Direct Strain
A body subjected to a direct stress will deform and be in a state of strain. The direct strain Ɛ,
which is measured in the same direction as the direct stress Ϭ, and is given by the expression
Ɛ = change in length of body(δL)/original length of body(L) is dimensionless,
where both δL and L are measured in the direction of the applied normal force P.
3. Stress-Strain Relationship
The direct stress Ϭ and the direct strain Ɛ are related by Young’s modulus of elasticity E in
the expression
E = direct stress (Ϭ)/direct strain (Ɛ), the unit is kN/mm2
4. Lateral Strain
The straining of any elastic material will give rise to change in lateral dimensions and hence,
to lateral strains in all directions at right angles to the direction of the applied force.
5. Poisson’s Ratio
For any elastic material, the direct (longitudinal) strain and the indirect lateral strain are
related by Poisson’s Ratio ( γ), which is given by the expression and is dimensionless
γ = - lateral strain/ longitudinal strain

6. Stress in Thin-walled Cylinders

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Thin –walled cylinders, such as pressure vessels, are subject to direct stresses along their
length normal to all cross-sections of the cylinder. They are also subject to stresses which act
circumferentially around the cylinder. These circumferential stresses are called hoop
stresses. Although there are standard formulae for the calculation of both longitudinal and
hoop stresses, they are best calculated by the application of fundamental principles, as
illustrated by the examples to be worked later.
EXAMPLE 1
A draw bar between a tractor and a trailer is made from a length of steel with a rectangular
cross-section 100mm by 12mm. The load of 100 kN is transmitted to the bar via a pin
through a 25mm diameter hole at each end as shown in Figure 1.
X Y

100mm P 25mm P =100kN

X Y
Figure 1
(a) Determine the stress at cross-section X-X and the stress at cross-section Y-Y
(b) If the maximum permissible stress in the steel is 150 N/mm2, determine the maximum
load that can be taken by the bar.
Solution
(1) Finding the areas and stresses of the cross-sections
Area of cross-section X-X =( 100)(12) = 1200 mm2
Area of cross-section Y-Y = (100-25)(25) = 900 mm2
Therefore the stresses at the cross-sections are:
Stress at X-X = load/area = 100000/1200 = 83.33 N/mm2
Stress at Y-Y = load/area = 100000/900 = 111.11 N/mm2
(2) The stress at Y-Y governs the safe load that can be taken by the bar, because its
greater.
Permissible stress at Y-Y = 150 N/mm2
Therefore, maximum load is = permissible stress x area at Y-Y = (150)(900) = 135 Kn
You can get the maximum load by proportioning the permissible stress to maximum
stress = 150/111.11)(100) = 135 kN.

EXAMPLE 2

2
The structure shown in Figure 2 consists of three non- uniform horizontal members AB,
BC and CD. The members are pinned together at B and C, while the ends A and D are
pinned to the foundation. The diameters of the members are for AB and CD150 mm
respectively and for member BC is120 mm. Calculate, the value of the horizontal force
at B that will produce a displacement of 1.8 mm at B in the X direction. What is then
the displacement at joint C and the reactions at A and D?
Assume that the modulus of elasticity E = 200 kN/ mm2.

A B C D

1.2m 2.0m 1.0m

Figure 2

Solution
(1) Find the cross-section areas of the bars
Area of cross-sections AB and CD = πr2 =( π)752 = 3.147(75)2 = 17708 mm2
Area of cross-section BC = π602 = 11329 mm2
The force that will produce a displacement of 1.8 mm is a pull force, let it be P1, it
will be at B. To member BC it will compress the structure, so let it be force P 2. Force
The free-body diagram with how the forces will act.
P
RA P 1 P2 P2 P2 RD
A B C D
(2) Let: P = the total force applied at B
P1 = the component of force P stretching AB
P2 = the component of force P compressing BCD
Then
Stress in AB, Ϭ = P1/17708 kN/mm2
Strain in AB, Ɛ = stress/ modulus of elasticity = P1/(17708x200)
Therefore,
Increase in length of AB = δl =ƐL = (P1L)/(AE) = (P1X1200)/(17708x200) =
(P1x6)/17708 mm
(3) Similarly, decrease in length of BC = (P2x2000)/(11329x200) = (P2x10)/11329 mm
And the decrease in length of CD = (P2x1000)/(17708x200) = (P2x5)/17708 mm
(4) The increase in length of AB equals the combination of the decrease in members
BC and CD.
Therefore, 6P1/17708 = 10P2/11329 + 5P2/17708
Multiply by 17708 to simplify the above equation and get
6P1 = 15.63P2 + 5P2
P2 = 3.44P1
The increase in length of AB is 1.8 mm from the question.
Therefore, P1/200 = 1.8
P1 = 360 Kn
So P2 = 360 x 3.44 = 1224 Kn

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 Total force P = P1 + P2 =360 +1224 = 1584 Kn
(5) The displacement of joint C equals the shortening of CD =5 P2/17708 =
5(1224)/17708= 0.35 mm
(6) The reaction at A equals the force in member AB = 360 kN(but have a negative
sign)
The reaction at D equals the force in BCD = 1224 Kn

EXAMPLE 3
A laboratory vacuum flask consists of two long thin –walled glass tubes, each with
wall thickness 1 mm, connected by thick diaphragms as shown in Figure 3.
The space between the tubes is completely evacuated. Determine the maximum
tensile and compressive stresses in the glass. ( Normal atmospheric pressure =
0.101N/mm2)

A C

240mm B 1mm 120mm

1mm
Figure 3
Draw the free-body diagrams showing how the atmospheric pressure is exerted .
Since, the flask is evacuated, atmospheric pressure exerts inward –acting forces on
the outer surfaces of the flask.

A
B

(a) (b)
(a) Free-body diagram of part of outer tube (b) Free body diagram of inner tube
Solution
(1) Calculation of forces acting on faces A and B
Area of face A = (π2412)/4 = 45616.67 mm2
Force on face A, to the right = 45616.67 x 0.101 x10-3 = 4.607 kN
Area of face B = (π1192)/4= 11122.01 mm2
Force on face B = 11122.01x0.101 x10-3 mm2 = 1.123 Kn
(2) Calculation of longitudinal stresses
The inner tube between B and C will be in tension under the action of the
force acting on face B. The cross-sectional area of glass in the inner tube
= π x average diameter x wall thickness = π x 120 x 1 = 376.99 mm2

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 Therefore tensile stress = force/area = 1.123 x 103/376.99 = 2.98 N/mm2
The outer tube will be in compression under the action of the force on
face A. The cross-sectional area of glass in the outer tube = π x240 x 1
=753.98 mm2
Therefore, compressive stress = force/area = 4.607/753.98
= 6.11 N/mm2
(3) Calculation of hoop stresses
Let us draw the half-section of the outer tube, where the
atmospheric pressure acts radially inwards, giving rise to a
resultant force RO which is restricted by forces PO acting on faces D.
RO

P=0.101 N/mm2

1mm

D D
241
PO PO
Outer tubecross-section enlarged
Considering a 1 mm length of the tube:
RO = pressure x projected area = 0.101 x 241 x 1 = 24.34 N
Note that the resultant thrust on a curved surface equals the value
of the pressure on the surface multiplied by the projection of the
area on to a plane surface at right angles to the direction of action
of the resultant thrust.
Area of one face = 1 mm2
Therefore, force PO = area x stress = 1 x Ϭo, where Ϭo is the hoop
stress in the outer tube. From equation of equilibrium ∑V=0 +
2PO = RO
Therefore, 2Ϭo = 24.34
Compressive hoop stress in outer tube = 12.17 N/mm2
For the tensile hoop stress in inner tube, let us consider the half-
section of the tube below.

1mm

5
 Pi
Ri
Pi 119 Pi
Inner tube cross-section enlarged
Force Ri = 0.101 x 119 x 1 = 12.02 N
Force Pi = area x stress = 1 x Ϭi
Where Ϭi is the hoop stress of the inner tube
2Pi = Ri
Therefore, 2Ϭi = 12.02
Ϭi = 6.01 N/mm2
NOTE: this solution for the hoop stresses assumes that the effect
of the solid end plates may be ignored. Such an assumption is
suggested by the question, which states that the tubes are long.
Also note that in the given solution the actual external and
internal diameters of the tubes have been used in the
calculations. However, it is normally sufficiently accurate when
analysing thin walled tubes to use the standard formulae;
Longitudinal stress = (p x D)/4t
And
Hoop stress = (p x D)/2t
Where p = the internal or external pressure
D = the mean diameter of the tube
t =the thickness of the wall of the tube

Attempt questions 4.1, 4.2, and 4.4 pages 114 and 115 in Structural Mechanics by R. Hulse
and J. Cain.

B. BENDING STRESS
Definitions

(a) Bending Stress

The effect of a bending moment applied to a cross-section of a beam is to induce a
state of stress across that section. These stresses are known as bending stresses and
they act normally to the plane of the cross-section.
Bending stresses vary linearly across a section , with maximum value (compression
or tension) at the outer fibres of the beam and with zero value at the level of the
neutral axis.

(b) Neutral Axis

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 The neutral axis is the axis of the cross-section of a beam at which both the bending
strain and bending stress are zero. The neutral axis passes through the centroid of
the cross-section.
(c) Equations of Bending
The fundamental equations that govern the bending of a beam or other structural
member are given by
Ϭ/y = M/I = E/R
Where Ϭ = the bending stress in a layer of fibres distance y from neutral
axis;(N/mm2)
M = the bending moment at the section under consideration, (kN/m)
I = the second moment of area (moment of inertia) of the cross-section taken
about the neutral axis, (mm4)
E = Young’smodulus of elasticity or just modulus of elasticity (kN/mm 2)
R = the radius of curvature at the section under consideration
y = the distance from the neutral axis to the level at which the bending stress
is being calculated (mm)
(d) Second Moment of Area
The second moment of area of a cross-srction about the neutral axis is a geometrical
property of that cross-section and can be obtained from tab;les of standard values or
can be calculated. For a rectangular section of breath b and depth d, the second
moment or area (ICC) of that section about an axis through the centroid is given by:
ICC = bd3/12 (mm4)
(e) Parallel Axis Theorem
The second moment of area (IXX) of a cross-section about an X-X axis which is parallel
to a distance h from an axis through its own centroid is given by
IXX = ICC + Ah2
Where ICC = the second moment of area about the centroidal axis; and A= the area of
the cross-section.
(f) Elastic Section Modulus
The elastic section modulus (Z) of a section is the second moment of area (I) about
the axis of bending, divided by the distance (ymax) from the neutral axis to the
furthermost fibre of the section. That is Z = I/ymax.(mm3)
If the neutral is not at the mid-height of a section will have two section moduli- one
relating to the compression face and one relating to the tensile face.
(g) Moment of Resistance
The moment of resistance (M) of a beam at a particular section is given by
M = Ϭmax x Z kNm
Where, Ϭmax = the maximum permissible bending stress; and Z = the elastic section
modulus of that section.

EXAMPLE 1

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 The beam section shown in Figure 1 is formed of a channel section and a universal
beam section welded together as shown. The cross-sectional areas (A) and the
relevant second moments of areas (ICC) about the centroidal axes of each section are
as tabulated. The distance 26.5 mm is the distance from the top of the compound
beam to the centroid of the channel section. Calculate the maximum tensile and
compressive bending stresses caused by the 20 kN/m, as indicated.
20kN/m
8mm 26.5mm

A B
6m
310mm

PART A (cm2) ICC (cm4)

Channel 38.0 264

Universal beam 60 8 9500

Figure 1

(1) First determine the second moment of area about the X-X axis in order to locate the
neutral axis (centroid of structure), moments of area are taken about the the bottom
face of the section. (z which has replaced y to avoid confusion with y which is
defined above.
For channel z = 310 – 18.5 = 291.5 mm
For universal beam z = 310/2 = 155 mm
You can tabulate your workings as follows

PART AREA (A) z Az h(z-ẑ) Ah 2 ICC

mm2 mm mm3x 103 mm mm x 10 mm x 106
4 6 4

Channel 3800 291.50 1107.70 84.00 26.81 2.64

Universal beam 6080 155.00 942.40 52.50 16.76 95.00
∑ 9880 2050.10 43.57 97.64

The centroid (neutral axis) ẑ = ∑Az/∑A = 2050.1 x 103/9880 = 207.5 mm

The second moment of area about the X-X axis IXX = Ah2 + ICC
= (43.57 + 97.64)106=141.21x106 mm4
Note that the distance between a through the centroid of the universal beam
section, h is negative, but in your analysis you consider it as positive.

8
(2) The maximum bending stresses will occur at mid span, where the bending moment is
the maximum. Since the beam is loaded symmetrically by the uniformly distributed
load on the whole span, maximum bending moment is = WL2/8
= 20x 6 2/8
= 90.00 kNm
Maximum tensile bending stress is given by Ϭ =( M/IXX)y
=[( 90 x 106)/(141.21x 106)]207.5
= 132.25 N/mm2
And the maximum bending compressive stress at the top of the section
=[(90.00x10 6)/(141.21x106)][318.00 – 207.5]
= 70.43 N/mm 2
EXAMPLE 2
The fibre-reinforced concrete I-beam shown in Figure 2 (a) is simply supported over
a span of 8 m and carries a superimposed load as indicated in Figure2 (b). The
density of concrete is 2400 kg/m3.
Determine the maximum value of bending moment in the beam due to:
(a) Self-weight only;
(b) Imposed load only.

300

A 60

460 40 6.25 kN/m

B A C D B

C 100 2m 4m 2m

500

(a) (b)
Figure 2
(1) Locate the neutral axis by calculating and calculate the second moment of area
about X-X axis IXX, moments of area are taken about the bottom face of the
section (z is measured from the bottom face of the section)
For flange A z = 460 – 30 = 430 mm (from bottom of flange A to centroid of
flange B)
For web B z = 100 + (460 – 160)/2 = 250 mm
For flange C z = 100/2 = 50 mm
You can tabulate your workings

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 PART Area (A) z Az h(z-ẑ) Ah 2 ICC(bd3/12)
Mmx103 mm 3
mm x10 3
mm mm4x106 mm4x106
Flange A 18 430 7740 264.50 1259.28 5.40
Web B 12 250 3000 84.50 85.68 90.00
Flange A 50 50 2500 115.50 667.01 41.67
∑ 80 13240 2011.97 137.07

The neutral axis (centroid) of the cross-section ẑ = ∑Az/∑A = 13240x103/80x103

= 165.50 mm
Therefore, the second moment of area about X-X axis IXX = Ah2 + ICC
=(2011.97+137.07)10 6
I XX = 2149.04x106 mm4
From your calculations you will notice that the distance between an axis through
the centroid of a section of flange C, h is negative, but in your analysis you
consider it as positive.
(2) Bending moment due to self-weight
Volume of beam = area of cross-section of I-beam x one meter length of beam
= 8000x10-6x 1 = 0.08 m3/m
Weight of beam = volume x density of concrete x gravitational force
= 0.08 x (2400x9.81x10-3) = 1.884 kN/m
Therefore, maximum bending moment at mid span = wL2/8 = 1.884x82/8
= 15.072 kNm

(3) Bending moment due to the imposed load

Determine the reactions
∑MA = 0, -VBx8 +25 x 4 = 0
VB = 100/8 =12.50 kN
∑MB = 0, VAx8 – 25 x 4 = 0
VA = 12.50 Kn
Maximum bending moment at mid span = 12.50 x 4 -6.25 x 2 x2/2 = 37.50 kNm
(4) Stresses due to combined loading
(5) Total maximum bending moment (at mid-span due to both loadings)
= 15.072 + 37.50 = 52.572 kNm
Bending stress is given by
Ϭ = (M/I)y
Therefore, maximum tensile stress (at bottom face)
Ϭ = (52.572x106/2149.04x106)x165.5 = 4.05 N/mm2
If you were asked the maximum compressive stress, it would be calculated as
follows:
Maximum compressive stress (at top face)

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 Ϭ = (52.572x106/2149.04x106)x(460-165.5) = 7.02 N/mm2
Study all the worked examples in Structural Analysis by R. Hulse and J. Cain.
Do the following problems on bending stress on pages 134 to 138:
Problems 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.5 and 5.6

C. COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESS

Definitions
(1) Single-axis Bending
The maximum stress in a section subject to direct axial loading together with
an externally applied moment acting about either the X –X axis or Y – Y axis
are given by
Ϭ = P/A ± MX/ZX or Ϭ = P/A ± MY/ZY respectively.
Where, A = area of the cross-section under load
P = the direct axial load
MX = the external applied moment about the X –X axis
MY = the external applied moment about the Y – Y axis
ZX = the elastic modulus of the section about the X –X axis
ZY = the elastic modulus of the section about the Y – Y axis.
(2) Biaxial Bending
The maximum stresses in a section subject to direct axial loading together
with externally applied moments acting about two mutually perpendicular
axes (X – X and ( Y – Y) are given by
Ϭ = P/A ± MX/ZX ± MY/ZY
(3) Eccentrically Loaded Sections
If a load P acts at an eccentricity e from the centroidal axis of a section, then
that loading is equivalent to:
(a) A direct load P acting axially through the centroid of the section, together
with
(b) A moment of value P x e acting about the axis of bending which passes
through the centroid of the section.

EXAMPLE 1

The cross-section of a beam made of aluminium alloy is shown in Figure 1 below. The origin
of coordinates is located at the centroid. Compute the values of the second moments of
area IXX and IYY.

At a particular cross-section the beam is subjected simultaneously to (a) a load of 50 kN

acting through the centroid, (b) a bending moment about the X – X axis of value 0.8 kNm
which causes tension along the face AB and (c ) a bending moment about the Y – Y axis of
value 0.5 kNm which causes tension along the face BC.

11
Determine the stress on the cross-section at each of the four corners A, B, C and D due to
the given loading, on the assumption that the behaviour is linear elastic.

B A

R 10

10

X S X 30

C D 10

50

All dimensions are in millmetres

Solution

(1) First calculate the elastic modulus of the section about the X –X axis since the X axis
does not pass through the centroids of the three parts.
PART Area (A) h Ah 2 ICC(bd3/12)
mm2 mm mm4x106 mm4x 106
Top flange R 500 20 0.200 0.00417
Web S 300 0 0.000 0.02250
Bottom flange T 500 20 0.200 0.02250
∑ 1300 0.400 0.03084

IXX = (0.400 + 0.03084 )106= 0.431 X 106 mm4

ZX = IXX/yMAX. = 0.431 x 106/25 = 17.24 x 103 mm3

(2) Then calculate the elastic modulus of the section about the Y – Y axis.
The Y axis passes through the centroids of each of the three parts of the section;
therefore, there are no Ah2 terms involved in the calculation.
For the top flange R, ICC = bd3/12 = 10x 503/12 = 0.10417 x 106mm4
For the web S, ICC = bd3/12= 30 x 103/12 = 0.00250 x 103mm4
For the bottom flange T, ICC =bd3/12=10x503/12= 0.10417 x 103mm4
∑ICC =0.21084 X 103mm4

Then, ZYY = IYY/xMAX. = 0.21084 x 103/25 = 8.44 x 103mm3

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(3) Determine the stresses on the cross-section
(i)Stress due to the direct axial load of 50 kN:
P/A = - 50 x 103/1300 = -36.46 N/mm2
(ii) Maximum stress due to MX:
MX/ZX = ± 0.8 X 106/17.24 x 103 = ±46.40 N/mm2 (tensile on face AB and
compressive on face CD)
(iii) Maximum stress due to MYY:
MYY/ZY = ±0.5 x 106/8.44 x 103 = ±59.24 N/mm2 (tensile on face BC and compressive
on face AD)
Hence, the total stresses at the corners are given by:
At corner A, ϬA = P/A – MX/ZX + MY/ZY = -38.46 – 46.40 + 59.24 = - 25.62 N/mm2
(tensile)
At corner B, ϬB = -38.46 - 46.40 – 59.24 = -144.10 N/mm2 (tensile)
At corner C, ϬC = -38.46 +46.40 -59.24 = -51.30 N/mm2 (tensile)
At corner D, ϬD = -38.46 +46.40 +59.24 = +67.18 N/mm2 (compressive)
Note: compressive stresses have been taken as positive and tensile stresses as
negative in this lecture only.
Note: The nature of the stresses produced by the axial load and the moments on the
various faces are determined by a careful study of the question and the diagram. The
student should be able to visualise the effect each moment has on the the crosss-
section (i.e. whether a moment causes tension or compression on any face or
corner).
Study the following examples on COMBINED BENDING AND DIRECT STRESS chapter
6 in Structural Mechanics by R. Hulse and J. Cain:
Examples: 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.8, and 6.9.
Do the following problems (exercises): 6.1, 6.2, 6.3,and 6.4.

D. TORSIONAL STRESS
Definitions
(1) Torsional Stress
Torsional stress results from the action of torsional or twisting moments acting about
the longitudinal axis of a shaft. The effect of the application of a torsional moment,
combined with appropriate fixity at the supports, is to cause torsional stresses within
the shaft. These stresses, which are effectively shear stresses, are greatest on the outer
surface of the shaft.
(2) The Torsion Relationship
The relationship between the parameters that govern the torsion of a shaft is given by
τ/r = T/J = GƟ/L
where τ = the shear stress at a distance r from the central longitudinal axis of the shaft
(N/mm2)
r = the radius at which τ is being calculated (mm)
T = the torsional moment in the shaft (kNm)

13
 J = the polar second moment of area of the section about the longitudinal axis
through the centroid of the section (mm4)
G = the shear modulus (or modulus of rigidity) of the material of which the shaft is
made (kN/mm2)
Ɵ = the angle of rotation (radians)
L = length of the shaft (meters)
In applying the above equation to a thin walled hollow circular shaft the stress τ can be
assumed to be constant across the section and the mean radius r should be used in the
formula.
(3) The Polar Second Moment of Area (J)
For a thin –walled hollow circular shaft of mean radius r and wall thickness t,
J = 2πr3t
For a solid circular shaft of radius R,
J = πR4/2
For a hollow circular shaft of outer radius R and inner radius r,
J = π/2(R4 – r4)
(4) Torsion of Non-prismatic Sections (non-uniform cross-sections)
The total angular rotation of a shaft of non-prismatic cross-section is given by
L
Ɵ = Tdx/GJX
0
Where
JX = the polar second moment of area at a distance x from one end of the shaft; and
L = the length of the shaft.
(5) Power -Torque Relationship
(6) For a rotating shaft the power transmitted by the shaft is related to the torque
developed within the shaft by the relationship
P = 2πnT/60 = πnT/30
Where
P = power (Watts)
n = the number of revolutions per minute
T = torque (Nm)
Note: When tackling torsion problems, the torsion equation should first be written
down and the appropriate part of the equation to be used should be determined by
inspection.
Study examples: 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6,and 8.8
Do the following problems: 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4 on chapter 8 in Structural Mechanics
by R.Hulse and J. Cain.

E. BUCKLING OF AXIALLY LOADED COLUMNS

When the line of action of the resultant load is coincident with the centre of gravity axis of
the column Figure 1 (a), the column is said to be axially loaded and the stress and the stress
produced in the material is said to be a direct compressive stress. This stress is uniform over

14
the cross-section of the column. The term concentric loading is sometimes used instead of
axial loading.

When the load is not axial, it is said to be eccentric (i.e. of centre) and bending stress is
induced in the column as well as a direct compressive stress Figure 1(b).

Other words used to describe members which are subjected to compressive stress are pillar,
post, stanchion, strut. There are no definite rules as to when any one of these words should
be used, but the following convention is fairly general.

Column and pillar can usually be applied to any material, for example, timber, stone,
concrete, reinforced concrete, steel. Post is usually confined to timber. Stanchion is often
used for rolled steel I- sections and channel sections. Strut has a more general significance
than stanchion or post but normally it is not applied to a main supporting member of a
building. The word is often used for compression members of roof trusses whether the
material is timber or steel.

P P

(a) Axially loaded column (b) eccentrically loaded column ( e-eccentricity)

Figure1

The maximum axial load a column can be allowed to support depends on:

(a) The material of which the column is made

(b) The slenderness of the column.

The slenderness involves not only the height or length of the column, but also the size and shape of
the cross-section and the manner in which the two ends of the column are supported or fixed.

The majority of columns are designed by reference to tables of permissible stresses contained in
British Standards specifications and codes of practice or other specifications and codes of practice.

A very short column will fail due to crushing of the material, but long columns are likely to fail by
buckling, the failing load being much less than that which would cause failure in a short column of
identical cross-sectional dimensions.

15
 Load P

Moment M

Moment M

e- deflection

Moment M

Load P

Slender column with lateral deflection

Figure 2

Slenderness ratio

The smaller the cross-sectional dimension of a column is very important from the point of
view of buckling. The slenderness ratio of a column can be defined as

Effective length of column/Least width of column (for columns which are rectangular in
cross-sectin)

An alternative slenderness ratio is also give by

Effective length/Least radius of gyration= l/r or Le/I (for columns which are not rectangular in
cross-section)

Effective length can be defined as that length of the column which is subject to buckling.

Radius of gyration is a property which takes into account not only the size of the section(i.e.
area) but also its shape (i.e. the arrangement of the material in the cross-section).

Radius of gyration r = √(I/A)

Where I second moment of area or moment of inertia

A = area of the cross-section.

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However, when you have calculated the slenderness ratio of the column you will go to
tables which are in the codes for you to determine the permissible axial load.

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