PRACTICAL MANUAL

ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY
(ID-503)

By:

Engr. Muhammad Waqar Akram

DEPARTMENT OF IRRIGATION & DRAINAGE

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, FAISALABAD.

 INTRODUCTION

The laboratory sessions are designed to support and supplement the theories introduced in the
course and also to expose the students to some relevant applications.

Objectives of the laboratory work:

1. To prepare the students to effectively link theory with practice and application and to
demonstrate background of the theoretical aspects.

2. To prepare the students to generate and analyze data using experiments and to apply
elements of data statistics.

3. To prepare students to have hands on experiments and to have exposure to equipment.

4. To prepare the students to solve problems related to their course work.

5. To encourage the students to use computer in analyzing the data.

6. To improve the student communication skills.

 TABLE OF CONTENT

Lab. # Title Page

1 Demonstration of Weather Recording Instruments. 04

2 Determination of Infiltration rate by Double Ring Infiltrometer. 10

3 Compute mean areal precipitation from point data using Thiessen 14

polygon method and Isohyetal method.

4 Derivation of Unit Hydrograph. 18

5 Alteration of unit hydrograph duration. 22

6 Determination of reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) by using 24

Evaporation pan.

7 Design of contours / Maps using Surfer Programme. 27

8 Introduction to CROPWAT Programme. 30

9 Demonstration of Lysimeter. 35

10 Estimation of the design run-off. 38

 Lab. # 1
Title:
Demonstration of Weather Recording Instruments.

Theory:
Barograph

Barograph is a recording type instrument used to record pressure. It consists of an

evacuated metal chamber with flexible metal walls. As atmospheric pressure changes, the
changing pressure difference between the inside and outside causes the chamber to expand
and contract. These movements are magnified mechanically to move a pen across a recording
chart. The chart is wrapped around a drum which rotates at a rate of one revolution per week.
To provide easy, trouble free writing, a fibre tipped pen is supplied. This has enough black
ink in its body to write for many months. It should be replaced when the trace becomes faint.
All barographs should be placed on a rigid support to eliminate vibration. The installation
height should be convenient for observation and chart changing.

Barograph
Barometer

Barometer is used to measure pressure. It

consists of a long glass tube sealed at one end and
filled with mercury. The tube is inverted so that open
end is submerged in cistern of mercury. The height of
the mercury in the tube is measure of atmospheric
pressure acting in the cistern. Readings are taken by
first adjusting mercury level in the cistern to a zero
point and then moving a vernier to the top of the
mercury column. The vernier is moved manually. An
accurate dual-scale thermometer (°c and °F) is
mounted on barometer case to to assist in temperature
corrections.
Barometer

Thermometer

Thermometer is derived from the Greek words “thermo”

meaning warm and “meter” meaning to measure. It is a device used
to measure temperature or temperature gradient using different
principles.

It has two important elements. One is temperature sensor (the

bulb on mercury thermometer) in which some physical change occur
with temperature change and other is working fluid (mercury).

Thermometer
Thermograph

Thermograph is a recording type instrument to get record of air temperature. Bi-

metallic thermograph is most commonly used for temperature measurement. It uses a bi-
metallic strip for temperature reading and a tipped pen to record the reading. A thermograph
is usually configured with a pen that records temperature on a paper wrapped around a
revolving cylinder. The pen is attached at the end of a lever that is controlled by a bi-metallic
strip of temperature sensitive metal which bends as the temperature changes. In this
instrument the movement of recording pen is controlled by change in curvature of bi-metallic
strip.

Thermograph

Rain gauges

A rain gauge is an instrument used by metrologists and hydrologists to measure the

amount of rainfall. Most rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimetres. The
rainfall is some times reported in inches or centimetres.
Symon's rain gauge (Non-recording)

It consists of funnel with a circular rim of 12.7 cm diameter

and a glass bottle as a receiver. The cylindrical metal casing is
fixed vertically to the masonry foundation with the level rim 30.5
cm above the ground surface. The rain falling into the funnel is
collected in the receiver and is measured in a special measuring
glass graduated in mm of rain fall. When full it can measure 1.25
cm of rain.

Tipping bucket rain gauge (Recording)

It consists of cylindrical receiver 30 cm diameter with a funnel inside. Just below the
funnel, a pair of tipping buckets is pivoted such that when one of the buckets receives a
rainfall of 0.25mm it tips and empties into a tank below, while the other bucket takes its
position and the process is repeated. The tipping of buckets actuates on an electronic circuit
which causes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a drum which revolves by a clock
mechanism.

Tipping bucket rain gauge (Recording)

Weighing type rain gauge (Recording)

It consists of funnel, catch bucket, spring balance and clock mechanism .when a
certain weight of rainfall is collected in the tank, which rests on a spring-lever balance, it
makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped on a drum. The rotation of drum sets the time scale
while the vertical motion of the pen records the cumulative precipitation.
Float type rain gauge (Recording)

It consists of a funnel, filter chamber, float, siphon chamber, siphon, pen and clock
mechanism. In this type of rain gauge, rain is collected in a float chamber, the float moves up
which makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven drum. When the float
chamber fills up, the water siphons out automatically through siphon chamber .The clock
revolves the drum once in 24 hours. This type of rain gauge needs rewinding once in a week.

Psychrometer

Psychrometer is used for the determination of relative humidity. In psychrometer, dry

and wet bulb thermometers are used. The dry bulb measures the actual air temperature at any
instant whereas the wet bulb measures the air temperature when the moist wick on the bulb
gets cooled.

Psychrometer

Anemometer

An anemometer measures wind speed

and direction.
Sunshine recorder

A sunshine recorder is a device that records the amount of sunshine at a given

location. It consists of a glass sphere mounted concentrically in a section of spherical bowl.
The sun rays are focused sharply on a card held in grooves within the bowl. Radiation from
the sun leave traces on the card.
 Lab. # 2
Title:
Determination of Infiltration rate by Double Ring Infiltrometer.

Theory:
Infiltration

Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.

Infiltration rate

The infiltration rate is the velocity or speed at which water enters into the soil. It is
usually measured by depth (in mm) of the water layer that can enter the soil in one hour. An
infiltration rate of 15mm/hour means that a water layer of 15mm on the soil surface will take
one hour to infiltrate. Infiltration rate is governed by two forces:

1. Gravity: smaller pores offer greater resistance to gravity.

2. Capillary action: very small pores pull water through capillary action in addition and even
against the force of gravity.

The most common method to measure the infiltration rate is by a field test using a
double ring infiltrometer. Double ring infiltrometer has two rings:

1. Inner Ring

An inner ring is driven into the ground and a second bigger ring around that to help
control the flow of water through the first ring. Water is supplied either with a constant or
falling head condition, and the operator records how much water infiltrates from the inner
ring into the soil over a given time period.

2. Outer Ring

The purpose is to create a one dimensional flow of water from the inner ring, as the
analysis of data is simplified.
Basic Infiltration rates for various types of soil

Soil Type Basic Infiltration rate (mm/hour)

Sand Less than 30
Sandy loam 20-30
Loam 10-20
Clay loam 5-10
Clay 1-5

Equipment:

• Shovel/hoe.
• Hammer (2kg).
• Watch or clock.
• 5-litre bucket.
• Timber (75*75*400).
• Hessian (300*300) or jute cloth.
• At least 10-litre of water.
• Ring infiltrometer of 30cm diameter and 60cm diameter.
• Measuring rod graduated in mm (e.g. 300mm ruler).

Procedure:

• Hammer the 30cm ring at least 15cm into the soil. Use the timber to protect the ring
from damage during hammering. Keep the side of the ring vertical and drive the
measuring rod into the soil so that approximately 12cm is left above the ground.
• Hammer then 60cm diameter ring into the soil or construct an earth bund around the
30cm diameter ring to the same height as the ring and place the hessian inside the
infiltrometer to protect the soil surface when pouring in the water.
• Start the test by pouring water into the ring until the depth is approximately 70-
100mm. At the same time add water to the space between the two rings or the ring
and the bund to the same depth. Do this quickly.
• Record the clock time when the test begins and note the water level on the measuring
rod.
• After1-2 mints, record the drop in water level in the inner ring on the measuring rod
and add water to bring the level back to approximately the original level at the start
of the test. Record the water level. Maintain the water level outside the ring similar to
that inside.
• Continue the test until the drop in water level is same over the same time interval.
Take readings frequently (e.g. every 1-2 mints) at the beginning of the time. But
extend the interval between readings as time goes on (e.g. every 20-30 mints).

Data sheet:

Location: Example Soil type: Loam Test date: 08-10-2013

Time Time Cumulative Water Infiltration Infiltration Cumulative

Difference Time Level rate Infiltration
hr min sec (min) (min) (mm) (mm) (mm/min) (mm)

14 05 0 Start=0 0 100

14 07 0 2 2 92 8 4.00 8

14 10 0 3 5 85 7 2.33 15

14 15 0 5 10 75 10 2.00 25

14 25 0 10 20 58 17 1.70 42

14 35 0 10 30 47 11 1.10 53

14 45 0 10 40 40 7 0.70 60

15 05 0 20 60 31 9 0.45 69

15 25 0 20 80 22 9 0.45 78
Graphs:
 Lab. # 3

Title:

Compute mean areal precipitation from point data using Thiessen polygon method
and Isohyetal method.

Theory:

Any point in the watershed receives the same amount of rainfall as that at the nearest
gauge. Rainfall recorded at a gauge can be applied to any point at a distance halfway to the
next station in any direction.

Steps in Thiessen polygon method:

1. Draw lines joining adjacent gauges (B).

2. Draw perpendicular bisectors to the lines created in step 1 (C).

3. Extend the lines created in step 2 in both directions to form representative

areas for gauges (D).

4. Compute representative area for each gauge.

5. Compute the areal average using the following formula:

1 N
P = ∑ Ai Pi
A i =1
Solved Examples:

1. P1= 1.81”, Respective polygon area (calculate).

P2=2.15”, Respective polygon area (calculate).

P3=2.26”, Respective polygon area (calculate).

P4=2.18”, Respective polygon area (calculate).

P5=1.62”, Respective polygon area (calculate).

P6=1.80”, Respective polygon area (calculate).

Now use the formula:

1 N
P = ∑ Ai Pi
A i =1

2. P 1 = 10 mm, A 1 = 12 Km2

P 2 = 20 mm, A 2 = 15 Km2

P 3 = 30 mm, A 3 = 20 km2

1 N
P = ∑ Ai Pi
A i =1

12 ×10 + 15 × 20 + 20 × 30
P= = 20.7 mm
47

Steps in Isohyetal method:

1. Construct isohyets (rainfall contours).

2. Compute area between each pair of adjacent isohyets (A i ).

3. Compute average precipitation for each pair of adjacent isohyets (p i ).

4. Compute areal average using the following formula:

1 N
P = ∑ Ai Pi
A i =1

5 × 5 + 18 ×15 + 12 × 25 + 12 × 35
P= = 21.6 mm
47
 Lab. # 4

Title:
Derivation of Unit Hydrograph.

Theory:
The unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of storm runoff resulting from an
isolated rainfall of some unit duration occurring uniformly over the entire area of the
catchment, produces a unit volume (1 cm) of runoff.
Derivation of the unit hydrographs
The following steps are adopted to derive a unit hydrograph from an observed flood
hydrograph:

1. Select an isolated intense storm, occurring uniformly on catchment.

• The unit period selected should be such that the excess rainfall occurs fairly
uniformly over the entire drainage basin.

• Larger unit periods are required for larger basins.

Select a flood hydrograph, which has resulted from a unit storm chosen above.

2. Separate the base flow from the total runoff.

3. From the ordinates of the total runoff hydrograph deduct the corresponding ordinates of
base flow, to obtain the ordinates of direct runoff.

4. Divide the volume of direct runoff by the area of the drainage basin to obtain the net
precipitation depth over the basin.

5. Divide each of the ordinates of direct runoff by the net precipitation depth to obtain the
ordinates of the unit hydrograph.

6. Plot the ordinates of the unit hydrograph against time since the beginning of direct runoff.

7. This will give the unit hydrograph for the basin, for the duration of the unit storm selected
above.
Solved Example:

The runoff data at a stream gauging station for a flood are given below. The drainage area
is 40 km2. The duration of rainfall is 3 hours. Derive the 3-hour unit hydrograph for the
basin and plot the same.

Date Time(Hr) TRO(cumec)

01/03/1970 2 50
5 47
8 75
11 120
14 225
17 290
20 270
23 145
02/03/1970 26 110
29 90
32 80
35 70
38 60
41 55
44 51
47 50

Graph b/w time & TRO (Streamflow)

TRO: Total runoff ordinate = gauged discharge of stream

BFO: Base flow ordinate read from graph separation line shown in above figure.

N = 0.83 A0.2 = 0.89(40)0.2 = 1.73 days = 1.73 × 24 = 41.4 hr from peak, which is
seen not applicable here; hence an arbitrary separation line is sketched.

DRO: Direct runoff ordinate = TRO - B.F.O.

UGO: Unit hydrograph ordinate

Date Time(Hr) TRO(cumec) BFO(cumec) DRO(cumec) UGO(cumec)

01/03/1970 2 50 50
5 47 47 0 0.00
8 75 46 29 1.09
11 120 45 75 2.82
14 225 45 180 6.77
17 290 45 245 9.21
20 270 46 224 8.42
23 145 48 97 3.65
02/03/1970 26 110 50 60 2.26
29 90 53 37 1.39
32 80 54 26 0.98
35 70 57 13 0.49
38 60 60 0 0.00
41 55 55
44 51 51
47 50 50
Graph:
 Lab. # 5
Title:
Alteration of unit hydrograph duration.

Theory:
In computation of flood hydrograph it become necessary that duration of unit
hydrograph available should be altered to suit the duration of design storm which is to be
used for obtaining the flood hydrograph.

Procedure:

1. Assume two consecutive unit storms, producing net rain of 1cm each.

2. Draw the two unit hydrographs, the second unit graph being lagged by 3
hours.

3. Draw now the combined hydrograph by superposition. This combined

hydrograph will now produce 2 cm in 6 hours.

4. To obtain the 6-hour unit graph divide the ordinates of the combined
hydrograph by 2.

Solved Example:

Time(hr) 3 hr UGO 3 hr UGO lagged(cumec) Total 6 hr UGO

0 0 0 0
3 1.5 0 1.5 0.7
6 4.5 1.5 6 3
9 8.6 4.5 13.1 6.5
12 12 8.6 20.6 10.3
15 9.4 12 21.4 10.7
18 4.6 9.4 14 7
21 2.3 4.6 6.9 3.4
24 0.8 2.3 3.1 1.5
27 0.8 0.8 0.4
Graph:

Time (hours)
 Lab. # 6
Title:
Determination of reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) by using Evaporation
pan.

Theory:

Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) is the evapotranspiration from reference

crop 20-25 cm high completely shading the ground and not short of water.

Many different types of evaporation pans are being used for estimation of ETo. The
best known pans are the class A-pan (circular pan) and the sunken Colorado pan (square pan).

Procedure:

1. The pan is installed in the field.

2. The pan is filled with a known quantity of water (the surface area of the pan is known
and the water depth is measured).
3. The water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (usually 24 hours).
For example, each morning at 7 o'clock a measurement is taken. The rain fall, if any,
is measured simultaneously.
4. After 24-hours, the remaining quantity of water (i.e. water depth) is measured.
5. The amount of evaporation per time unit (the difference between the two measured
depths) is calculated. This is the pan evaporation: E-pan (in mm/24 hours).
6. The E-pan is multiplied by a pan coefficient, K-pan to obtain ETo.

Formula:
ETo = K-pan* E-pan.

Where,

ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration.

K-pan = pan coefficient.

E-pan = pan evaporation.

If the water depth in the pan drops too much (due to lack of rain) water is added and the water
depth is measured before and after water added. If the water level rises too much (due to rain)
water is taken off from pan and the water depths before and after are measured.

For class E pan, Kavg = 0.70.

For sunken Colorado pan Kavg = 0.80.

Determination of K-pan:

While using the evaporation pan to estimate ETo, a comparison is made between the
evaporation from the water surface in the pan and the evapotranspiration of the standard
grass.

The value of pan coefficient, K-pan, depends on:

• The type of pan used.

• The pan environment (the pan is placed in a fallow or cropped area).
• The climate (humidity and wind speed).

Value of K-pan is high if:

• The pan is placed in a fallow area.

• The humidity is high.
• The wind speed is low.

Value of K-pan is low if:

• The pan is placed in a cropped area.

• The humidity is low.
• The wind speed is high.
Data Sheet:

Location: Assumed Readings Pan used: ............................

Date/Day Water Depth Difference Rainfall

(mm) (mm) (mm)

27/04/13 155.0 6 _

28/04/13 149.0 6.1 2.1

29/04/13 145.0 7.4 3.2

30/04/13 140.8 7.7 _

01/05/13 133.1 7.4 _

02/05/13 125.7 6.8 _

03/05/13 118.9 7.7 _

04/05/13 111.2 5.9 _

05/05/13 105.3 5.9 _

06/05/13 99.4 4.4 _

07/05/13 95.0 5.0 _

08/05/13 90.0 5.0 _

09/05/13 84.0 6.0 _

10/05/13 79.0 5.0 _

11/05/13 72.0 7.0 _

12/05/13 69.0 3.0 _

13/05/13 62.0 7.0 _

14/05/13 54.5 7.5 _

 Lab. # 7
Title:
Design of contours / Maps using Surfer Program.

Objective:
1. To get familiar with Surfer program.

2. To design contours.

Theory:

Introduction

Surfer is a contouring and 3D surface mapping program that runs under Microsoft
Windows. It quickly and easily converts your data into outstanding contour, surface,
wireframe, vector, image, shaded relief, and post maps. Surfer easily creates a multitude of
map types to visualize your data.
Worksheet

Surfer includes a full-featured worksheet for creating, opening, editing, and saving data
files. Data files can be up to 1 billion rows, subject to available memory. You can use the
Windows Clipboard functions to Cut, Copy, and Paste data within the Surfer worksheet, or
between applications.

Worksheet Features

• Import a database directly into the Surfer worksheet.

• Calculate data statistics.
• Perform data transformations using advanced mathematical functions.
• Sort data based on primary and secondary columns.
• Assign a projection or coordinate system to your data, and convert the data to a new
projection or coordinate system.
• Assign which columns in the worksheet contain the X, Y and Z data.
• Use the Find/Replace function in the worksheet to easily find or replace your data.
• Print the worksheet.
Procedure:

1. Open the worksheet in surfer program from the file tab.

2. Add the data (X,Y,Z).

3. Make the grid formation from grid tab.

4. In plot section, make the contour map using the grid file from the map tab.

5. Similarly you can draw other types of map from the grid file.

You can display contour maps over any contour range and contour interval, or specify
only the contour levels you want to display on the map. And you can also add color fill
between contours to produce dazzling displays of your maps, or produce gray scale fills for
dramatic black and white printouts.
 Lab. # 8
Title:
Introduction to CROPWAT Programme.

Theory:
CROPWAT is a computer programme for the calculation of crop water requirements
and irrigation requirements from existing or new climatic and crop data. Furthermore, the
program allows the development of irrigation schedules for different management conditions
and the calculation of scheme water supply for varying crop patterns.

Features:

• Monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of ETo.
• Backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database.
• Possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values.
• Decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated calculation
algorithms including adjustment of crop-coefficient values.
• Calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for dry crops and for
paddy & upland rice.
• Interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules.
• Daily soil water balance output tables.
• Easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user defined irrigation schedules.
• Graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and irrigation schedules.

Introduction to Evapotranspiration:

The combination of two separate processes whereby water is lost on the one hand from the
soil surface by evaporation and on the other hand from the crop by transpiration is referred to
as evapotranspiration (ET).

Evaporation:

Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water is converted to water vapour (vaporization)
and removed from the evaporating surface (vapour removal). Water evaporates from a variety
of surfaces, such as lakes, rivers, pavements, soils and wet vegetation.

Transpiration:

Transpiration consists of the vaporization of liquid water contained in plant tissues and the
vapour removal to the atmosphere.

Evapotranspiration (ET):

Evaporation and transpiration occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of

distinguishing between the two processes. Apart from the water availability in the topsoil, the
evaporation from a cropped soil is mainly determined by the fraction of the solar radiation
reaching the soil surface. This fraction decreases over the growing period as the crop
develops and the crop canopy shades more and more of the ground area. When the crop is
small, water is predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is well developed
and completely covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process. At sowing nearly
100% of ET comes from evaporation, while at full crop cover more than 90% of ET comes
from transpiration.

Units:

The evapotranspiration rate is normally expressed in millimetres (mm) per unit time. The rate
expresses the amount of water lost from a cropped surface in units of water depth. The time
unit can be an hour, day, decade, month or even an entire growing period or year.

As one hectare has a surface of 10000 m2 and 1 mm is equal to 0.001 m, a loss of 1 mm of

water corresponds to a loss of 10 m3 of water per hectare. In other words, 1 mm day-1 is
equivalent to 10 m3 ha-1 day-l.

Procedure:
• In a normal CROPWAT session, first make sure that input data are available. This can
be done in one of two ways:
1. by going to each individual data input module and entering new data, loading data
from file, or importing data from other programmes, or
 2. by loading a previously saved session which will automatically load all the input
data that were used in that session.

• Once the required input data are available, go to one of the calculation modules which
will present the calculated data in output tables in the data window. If not all required
data are available the programme will halt calculations and give a warning. For example
when a user goes to the Schedule module while no soil data are available, CROPWAT
will display the message "Soil data are not OK. Calculation of irrigation schedule not
possible".

• Using the Modules Bar, the user can quickly switch from one module to another. For
example the user can switch from the CWR module to the Crop module, change the
planting date, and switch back to the CWR module to see the effects of a different
planting date on the CWR.

• Depending on the active module, the Toolbar provides direct access to the most
important functions which are of relevance to that module, such as loading/saving data,
printing data, setting options, showing charts of the input and output data, etc.

• All functions that can be accessed through the Toolbar, as well as more general
functions such as default file locations, can also be accessed through the main menu of
CROPWAT.

• When ending a session, the user can save the combination of data in a session file, to
allow quick retrieval of exactly the same data-set in a future session.

To calculate ETo:

• Select the Climate/ETo module on the Module bar. A data window will open on the
right for the current default data type for climate/ETo. If the data type is not the one you
want to work with, click on the small arrow of the New button on the Toolbar, and
select the correct data type from the drop down menu.

• You can then either load data from an existing file, or enter new data. As soon as data
for i.e.a specific month are complete, CROPWAT automatically calculates the Radiation
and ETo Penman-Monteith and displays the results in the last two columns of the table.

To calculate Crop Water Requirements:

• To calculate Crop Water Requirements, you first have to make sure that data are
available on climate/ETo, rainfall and crop. If you have previously saved a combination
of these data files as a session you can quickly reload those data through the File>Open
Session menu item. If not, you have to go to each of these modules through the Modules
bar, and either load existing data or enter new data. In the case of rice crop, you also
have to load soil data, since the calculation of crop water requirements for rice include
the requirements for land preparation.

• Once the relevant input data are available, select the CWR module on the Modules bar.
If the input data are OK, CROPWAT will calculate the crop water requirements and
show the results in the data window. If there is a problem with the input data,
 CROPWAT will show an error message indicating which data are not correct or
incomplete.

• To view a chart of the crop water requirements select the Chart button on the toolbar.

To calculate an Irrigation schedule:

• To calculate irrigation schedules you first have to load the relevant input data, as
described above. For irrigation scheduling you need data on climate/ETo, rainfall, crops
and soils.

• Once the relevant input data are available, select the Scheduling module on the Modules
bar. If the input data are OK, CROPWAT will calculate the irrigation schedule based on
the current settings for scheduling options and show the results in the data window. If
there is a problem with the input data, CROPWAT will show an error message
indicating which data are not correct or incomplete.

• While in the irrigation scheduling module, you can quickly change the scheduling
options through the Options button on the toolbar. You can also manually adjust the
schedule by editing the net irrigation gifts in the scheduling output table, and you can
save the adjusted schedule to file through the Save button on the toolbar.

• To view a chart of the irrigation schedule select the Chart button on the toolbar.

To calculate a Scheme Supply:

• To calculate a Scheme Supply, it is first necessary to have data available

on Climate/ETo, Rain and Crop pattern modules. If you have previously saved a
combination of these data files as a session you can quickly reload those data through
the File>Open Session menu item. If not, you have to go to each of these modules
through the modules bar, and either load existing data or enter new data.

• Once the relevant input data are available, select the Scheme module on the modules
bar. If the input data are OK, CROPWAT will calculate the scheme supply and show the
results in the data window. If there is a problem with the input data, CROPWAT will
show an error message indicating which data are not correct or incomplete.

To import data:

CROPWAT does not have special import modules for data files. For crop, soil and cropping
patterns, entering new data in CROPWAT is a quick process that doesn't need special import
procedures. Tables with climate/Eto and rainfall data can be imported quickly by copying the
table in the original application (Word, Excel, etc.) and then pasting the table into
CROPWAT. Since CROPWAT stores all data in ASCII files, it is possible to import data by
storing them in ASCII files using the same format as the CROPWAT files. This format can
checked by opening CROPWAT data files in simple text editors such as Notepad.
 To export data and charts

There are two ways in which you can export CROPWAT data (both input data and results of
calculations) for use in other programmes:

• Via the clipboard by choosing Copy table from the Edit menu. This is only possible for
data presented in tables such as a table with climatic data or the results of a crop water
requirements calculation.
• By specifying in the print screen that you want to print data to an ASCII file, either with or
without comma separation.

Charts can also be exported in two ways:

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 Lab. # 9
Title:
Demonstration of Lysimeter.

Theory:
A lysimeter is a measuring device which can be used to measure the amount of
actual evapotranspiration which is released by plants, usually crops or trees. By recording the
amount of precipitation that an area receives and the amount lost through the soil, the amount
of water lost to evapotranspiration can be calculated.

A lysimeter is actually a large container with soil in which crops are grown; water losses and
gains can be measured. The container is fitted with suitable inlets for irrigation and outlets for
drainage. The lysimeters are buried in the field and are surrounded by the same crop as is
grown inside. The size of lysimeter varies from small oil drums to large size and deep
lysimeters.
Lysimeters are of two types: Weighing and non-weighing.
Weighing lysimeter:

Weighing lysimeters can provide precise information on soil moisture changes for
daily or even hourly periods. The lysimeter is placed inside another tank which is in contact
with the surrounding soil. The inside container is free for weighing by scales. Also, the
lysimeter tank can be floated in water; a suitable heavy liquid (ZnCl 2 ) is used whereby the
change in liquid displacement is a measure for the water gain or loss to or from the lysimeter
tank.

Evapotranspiration ET from weighing lysimeters can be computed from weight changes ΔS,
rainfall R, irrigation I and percolation water P (ET = R + I - P - ΔS) and compared with
calculated ET. Lysimeters with controlled suction at the lower boundary allow estimation of
deep water percolation on short time scales, thus giving hints about the occurrence and the
extent of preferential flow.
Non-weighing lysimeter:

In non-weighing lysimeters, changes in water balance are measured volumetrically

weekly or biweekly. No accurate daily estimates can be obtained. Irrigation water is applied
to the lysimeter, A layer of pebbles is placed at the bottom to facilitate easy drainage. Excess
water is collected from below at a suitable distance. A number of crops can be grown in a
concentric pattern around a central drainage chamber. A simple lysimeter can be built at low
cost from a petrol drum. A tube with a small diameter is placed through the soil to the layer
of pebbles. Excess water is removed at frequent intervals by using a thin metal tube open at
the bottom which is connected to a receiver bottle in which suction can be applied using a
reversed handpump.

Drainage Lysimeter Suction type Drainage Lysimeter

Use:

A lysimeter is most accurate when vegetation is grown in a large soil tank which
allows the rainfall input and water lost through the soil to be easily calculated. The amount of
water lost by evapotranspiration can be worked out by calculating the difference between the
weight before and after the precipitation input.
For trees, lysimeters can be expensive and are a poor representation of conditions outside of
a laboratory as it would be impossible to use a lysimeter to calculate the water balance for a
whole forest. But for farm crops, it can represent field conditions well since it is done outside
the laboratory. A weighing lysimeter, for example, reveals the amount of water crops use by
constantly weighing a huge block of soil in a field to detect losses of soil moisture.
 Lab. # 10

Title:
Estimation of the design run-off.

Theory:
Run-off:

Run-off is that portion of the precipitation that makes its way towards stream channel,
lakes, etc. as surface flow or sub-surface flow. Before run-off occur, the precipitation must
satisfy the demands of Evaporation, Interception, Infiltration and Surface storage.

Run-off will occur only when the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which water may
infiltrate into the soil. The water after satisfying initial detention or depression storage starts
moving towards streams on the surface of the land. Such type of run–off is known as surface
run-off.

Sub-surface run-off is that portion of infiltrated water which penetrates shallow depths,
travels laterally and is intercepted by channels or emerges on the surface. Appreciable
amount of sub-surface run-off relative to the total storm run-off occurs where permeable
surface soil lies over less permeable soil or impervious horizon at shallow depths.

Factors effecting run-off:

The factors effecting run-off may be divided in factors associated with the
precipitation and the factors associated with water shed:

Precipitation factors:

Rainfall duration, intensity and aerial distribution influence the rate and volume of
run-off. The storm of the same intensity but of long duration will result in run-off. The
intense storm may actually decrease the infiltration rate because of its destructive action on
the structure of the soil surface.

Watershed factors:

The factors which effect run-off are size, shape, topography, nature and extent of
vegetative cover over the surface. Both run off volume and rate increases as water shed size
increases. Long and narrow water sheds are likely to have lower run-off rates than more
compact watersheds of the same size. Watersheds having extensive flat areas or depressed
areas without surface outlets have lower runoff than areas with steep, well defined drainage
patterns.
Estimation of the design run-off:
To design soil conservation structures with the proper capacity to meet the needs of
their respective conditions it is necessary to estimate peak run-off rates. The rational method
is commonly used in predicting peak run-off rate of small watersheds.

Q = 0.0276 CIA.

Where,

Q = Design peak run-off rate in cum/sec.

C = Run-off coefficient.
I = Rainfall intensity in centimetres/hour for a duration equal to time of concentration.
A = Watershed area in hectares.
The values of C per different soils under different slopes can be had from a table.

The rational method is based on the following assumptions:

1. Rainfall occur at uniform intensity for a duration at least equal to time of concentration
of watershed.
2. Rainfall occurs at a uniform intensity over the entire area of watershed.
3. This method is applicable to watersheds of less than 1300 hectares.