Module Methods of Agricultural Research Chapter 1 7 Revised Aug 11 2021

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL SCIENCES
METHODS
OF
AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH
This Instructional Material is for Eastern Samar State University, College of

Agriculture and Natural Sciences- Department of Agricultural Sciences use ONLY.
University Vision
A technologically-advanced university producing professionals and
competitive leaders for local and national development.
University Mission
To provide quality education responsive to the national and global needs
focused on generating knowledge and technology that will improve the
lives of the people.
Core Values
Excellence
Individual commitment to excellence is central to the values that
ESSU promotes. The university will be able to achieve excellence through
adherence to the highest standards of performance and by collaborating
with the very best in the fields of instruction, research, extension, and
production.
Accountability
Every member of the ESSU community has the obligation to account
for his every action, decision or activities and for whatever money or
property the university entrusts to him. He must accept responsibility for
whatever will be the consequences it may bring and to disclose the results
in a transparent manner. Thus, he must act with caution and utmost
consideration for ethics and honesty in the workplace.
Service
Service is the commitment of the university to serve not only its
stake holder to provide quality instruction, research, extension and
production but also to serve the need of every member of ESSU
community to advance their wellbeing.
PREFACE
This course is intended to guide Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (BSA)

students on how to conduct research. It will assist them in making research proposal
in preparation for their thesis which is a major requirement for graduation with the
BSA program.
The course begins with an introduction to science and the scientific method.
Agricultural research is a tool that transformed agriculture from the traditional way to
a more scientific method of farming. Research has no doubt generated a tremendous
amount of relevant information which formed part of the agricultural technologies and
innovation to improve agricultural production. Most of those research were done
through experimentation. Hence, students will be introduced to the elements of
experimentation in conjunction with the different kinds of research methodologies.
Finally, the course will guide the students in writing a research proposal. The
scope and format requirements will be studied, so that the students could come up
with a simple proposal related to their field of specialization. The course also includes
learning the format and mechanics in the presentation of results whether in print or
audio-visual format.
DR. DANILO P. ALURA

Dean, CANS
Dr. Sharon B. Singzon

Dean, Grad School
DR. JUDITH A. ELJERA

Program Head, DAS
Dr. Lito D. Lacaba
Cristita O. Subere, MAS
RINA C. ALDE, MS
Table of Contents
Page Cover i
University Vision, Mission and Goals ii
Preface iii
General Instruction v
Unit 1: Introduction to Research 1
Lesson 1: Comparison between science and common sense 1
Lesson 2: The Scientific Method 3
Lesson 3: Research - Definition, Purpose, Characteristic, Classification 5
Unit 2: Elements of experimentation 12
Lesson 1: Estimates of error (replication and randomization) 12
Lesson 2: Control of error (Blocking, proper plot technique and data
analysis) 14
Lesson 3: Interpretation of results 15
Unit 3: Writing the Title and the Introduction 17
Lesson 1: Writing the Study Title and the Introduction 17
Lesson 2: Formulating Problem / Problem Identification 18
Lesson 3: Statement of Objectives and hypothesis 19
Lesson 4: Research Variable and its Kind 20
Lesson 5: Significance of the Study, Scope of the Study, and Key
Terms 20
Unit 4: Review of Related Literature and Studies 21
Lesson 1: The Value of a Literature Review 21
Lesson 2: Steps Involved in a Literature Search 22
Lesson 3: Writing the Literature Review Report 24
Unit 5: Research methodologies 27
Lesson 1: Qualitative/descriptive and action research 28
Lesson 2: Quantitative research: basic experimental design applicable
to agricultural research 30
Lesson 3: Preparation of Log Frame 34
Unit 6: Data Measurement and Collection 36
Lesson 1: Data collection 36
Lesson 2: Data analysis techniques & interpretation of data 42
Unit 7: Format and Mechanics in the Preparation of Results 49
Lesson 1: Print Format (Scientific journals) 49
Lesson 2: Audio-visual Format (Oral and Poster Presentation) 51
References 56
Course Guide 57
Quality Policy 60
GENERAL INSTRUCTION
 Use this module with care.

 Do not write, highlight, erase, alter or
tear the pages of this module.
 In answering activities or exercises,
use a separate sheet of paper or
refer to your instructor for further or
other instructions.
 This module must be returned after
the end of the semester.
 If lost, the holder of this module will
pay its equivalent value.
If this module is lost and found, please return

to:
EASTERN SAMAR STATE UNIVERSITY

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
Introduction
In this unit, the importance of science and research will be studied. You
(students) will learn the steps involved in the scientific method and learn to apply
these in solving problems related to agriculture. You will also plan and carry out
simple investigations and observation to identify farming related problems and
formulate solution to answer these.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the significance of science in research;
2. Apply the scientific method in solving problems related to agriculture such

as seed selection, fertilizer application, crop rotation, crop management
and animal production; and
3. Explain the importance or research and its characteristics.
Lesson 1: Comparison between science and common sense
Science is an ubiquitous term which has a number of definitions and meanings. It

denotes prestigious achievements as in discoveries and inventions, a systematically
arranged body of knowledge as in various known disciplines, or a term referring to
refined procedures of conducting inquires to seek explanation to some intriguing
problems.
 Science could mean two things: as a method through which a planned

investigation is carried out to generate and accumulate more knowledge and
information, and refers to the outcomes or results of these inquiries. It
therefore encompasses both the methods used in the generation of
knowledge, and the body of knowledge itself.
 Science as a method of inquiry involves systematic, unbiased, critical, and

accurate investigation of phenomena occurring in nature. Science as a
process can be best described by such terms as systematic, empirical,
unbiased, accurate, and critical or analytical.
Systematic implies that science employs a well-planned step by step

procedure in conducting an inquiry to achieve desirable results. The term
may also denote that science as body of knowledge involve classification
and organization of new information.
Empirical investigation implies actual observation or experimentation

guided by practical experience, and existing knowledge. Empirical data are
those that we directly get from field observation. Essentially, science as a
methods should be pursued using procedures that require direct contact
evaluation and examination of the subject of interest.
Unbiased is closely synonymous to the term objective which denotes

impartiality, non-prejudicial, and absence of personal beliefs, preference, or
inclination. Objectivity in science is a procedure or a method of going about
one’s activity using scientific processes. A researcher who is objective or
unbiased in his work avoids personal beliefs but accepts product of pursuits
that have scientific basis.
Accurate indicates an effort to eliminate errors in the process. Although a

total elimination of error is not possible in experimentations, reducing the
size of error and attaining a certain level of precision is a part of scientific
activity. Accuracy denotes the nearness of an obtained value to the true
value of the measure. It implies a deliberate attempt to be precise and exact.
Critical is a term describing an activity which involves analytical thinking

and requires thorough evaluation. Scientific activity needs a meticulous
worker, one who is extra cautious, a keen observer and one who can make
a sound judgement in his work.
Analytical implies that in scientific work, we need to examine our subject of

interest part by part, section by section or component by component.
Functions and Aims of Science
1. Exploration invades the unknown world, which is full of

phenomena which affect our lives, including plants and animals. Science is
a tool to discover or explore the unknown phenomena in nature. It is only the
method of science that could uncover mysteries which still envelope the
universe.
2. Testing relates and provides a particular hypothesis held by an investigator

if the study is true or not. This is made possible through the use of reliable
measurements or identified parameters and variables. The use of statistical
test determines whether the evidences gathered is consistent with the
hypothesis formulated. Then it will allow decision to either accept or reject
the hypothesis.
3. Description essentially it characterizes a particular phenomenon of interest.

After an observation has been made or taken, it should be describe base on
case and the fact observed.
4. Explanation of aims to answer the question "why" which is one of the most
important queries in scientific work. Explanation spells out how the observed
phenomenon came about or what laws of nature possibly explain its
occurrence. It involves the views, ideas and analysis of the investigator.
5. Prediction follows after describing and explaining the observed occurrence.

It involves making or drawing of conclusions or inferences from facts and
evidences observed, based on established principles and laws.
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Prediction and explanation are sometimes regarded as similar
processes of scientific thinking that differs only on the time of presentation.
6. Understanding seems to be the final goal of any scientific work. Scientists

are continuously searching for explanation and fuller understanding of their
subject of interest. It is only through rigorous fact finding process that an
understanding of the problem, be it technological or academic could be
enhanced.
Lesson 2: The Scientific Method
This is the method of Science described as objective, accurate, systematic,

analytical and determinate. Scientific pursuit is a conscious activity making
observation more deliberate and controlled to ensure validity of outcomes. The
method involves logical steps to arranged and enhance the generation of knowledge
in a manner that minimizes or eliminates error and is directed to gather facts of
empirical events.
The scientific method is a method for learning new things and figuring out
how to solve issues. It entails a set of procedures to be followed while making
decisions. It is a very effective method of arriving at the best conclusion and solution
possible depending on the facts given.
Steps in Scientific Method
1. Observation is an important road to knowledge and is most basic step in

scientific inquiry. Problems that squeeze our minds for an answer are
usually products of our observation. It is simply looking at the world and
making assessment or measurement of what is observed. Observation is
largely situational analysis.
2. Problem identification follows after an intelligent observation has taken

place. Analysing the problem should be based on the observation made,
determine its nature and define its scope. Before the problem is taken into
a full grown research project, it is evaluated in terms of its significance and
relative feasibility.
3. Hypothesis formulation is making intelligent guess to explain the observed

occurrence which is done before the problem is subjected to a planned
investigation. Hypothesis is scientific guess because it involves cautious
making of general statement that would likely explain the observed event.
4. Drawing conclusions- it is the last step of the method. With the result
obtained from actual observation and experimentation, conclusions as to
the presence or absence of relationships among factors studied could be
drawn with some degree of confidence. A conclusion is a statement of
decision that helps the reader understand why your research should matter
to them after reading it.
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ASSESSMENT:
1. Enumerate and discuss the foundation of Scientific method.

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2. Give the advantages of using the scientific method.

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3. Home activity: Plant twenty mongo seeds and study their growth.
 Setup two empty bottles put a garden soil on it.
 Sow the seeds on the bottle with soil
 Place one bottle in controlled condition and the other bottle outside where
sunlight can penetrate the sown seeds.
 Adequately water the sown seeds.
 Using the steps in scientific method observe the growth of the plants for 7
days.
 Make a scientific report from your observation.
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Lesson 3: Research - Definition, Purpose, Characteristic, Classification
Research is a term derived from a French word Cerchier which means to seek
or search: the prefix re signifies replication or repetition of the search (Estolas
et.al., 1973).
 Research is understood as method or process which seek to discover, find

out and explain phenomena that are not fully understood or something that
is not known.
 Research is almost synonymous to science as a process. It is defined as a

critical, unbiased, systematic, exhaustive, and empirical investigation of a
hypothetical proposition arising from an observation of natural phenomenon.
 Research leads to discoveries, inventions, and more exploration of the

universe.
 According to Aguinaldo (2002), research is a purposeful, methodical, and

scientific process of acquiring, classifying, arranging, presenting, analyzing,
and interpreting data for the purpose of intervention, truth discovery, and the
preservation and improvement of living quality.
Purpose of research
1. To serve as a tool in the continued search for more knowledge to advance

the frontier of science, and satisfy curiosity inherent to inquisitive minds.
2. To enhance greater understanding of human behavior, environment, and

their relationship and interactions.
3. To generate and develop more efficient technologies and innovations

essential for socio-economics development and improvement.
4. To test, verify, modify, or evaluate new and existing technologies and

innovations in the field of Agriculture and other allied field.
5. To test known theories and hypotheses for their validity.
Characteristics of Research and Researcher
1. Problem solving activity - is an important theory that has driven wide

ranging scientific research and as an important means of training to
empower and provide solution to a particular problem. After a planned
inquiry is conducted, it is expected that this inquiry would bring forth new
knowledge. This knowledge may be a solution to the problem.
2. Development of new principles and generalizations-

Generalizations that lead to the formation of principles and new theories are
inherent output of research work. Research seeks produce this knowledge
which could be helpful in predicting occurrences in the future; this
knowledge could open up new areas of understanding and serve as the
basis of further investigation.
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3. Empirical observation- research is basically done employing actual
conduct of inquiry to secure first hand experiences and generate empirical
evidences to support or nullify the theory. Empirical observation needs the
process to have a more accurate and factual observation and description in
characterizing a particular event.
4. Collection of Novel Information

Scientific inquiry is conducted to generate new data and information. The
production of new knowledge could give result that makes science grow and
discover things in an unknown world.
5. Requires Time, Resources, and Expertise

Research is an intellectual activity which indispensably requires long
exposures, relevant experiences and expertise. Scholarly research work,
competence and expertise in the field is an absolute requisite.
Time is important, since the researcher makes empirical observations to test

organisms he is interested. It is an unhurried activity that requires time and it
does not allow shortcuts.
Research is also resource-oriented because it requires materials and

financial resources for its smooth and successful implementation.
6. Systematic and Well-planned activity

Research follows the scientific process or else would be subject to doubts
and questionable. It needs scientifically acceptable methods and procedures
formulated through vigorous analysis and rational thinking. Its activities and
observations are carefully recorded, analysed, interpreted and reported.
7. Needs a Virtuous Worker

Research needs no ordinary individuals to carry out the process which
exacts scientifically accepted procedures. Virtuous researcher has to have
following traits like honesty, patience, determination, industry, courage,
stamina and the like.
8. Requires Validation and Testing

Research must be exhaustive in its approach and strives to be objectives
and accurate and precise.
Characteristics of a good researcher
o Punctuality - simply means doing and accomplishing things on time
o Experience - the amount of experience one has can either make or unmake
him as a researcher
o Ability to reason - refers to the actual and potential capability of the

researcher to rationalize, provide insights and reasons on his work or findings
as a researchers
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o Competence - means that the searchers has sufficient knowledge, skill, and
ability to do things where he claims proficiency
o Health - Research involves energetic and tedious activities both for the body
and the mind. For a researcher to achieve his aims, he must be physically
and mentally healthy stable, and has the ability to sustain endurance and
hard work.
o Originality-Coming up with a new thing or idea is just one of the objectives of

the researcher. He must be imaginative, innovative, creative, or inventive. and
must always attempt to create an authentic or novel work in his field of
concern. By being original means the work and the findings the researcher
claims his own have been generated by none other than himself.
o Resourcefulness- Problems often arise as one pursues for research

activities. A good researcher must be able to cope and meet these problems
with speedy and appropriate solutions. A resourceful researcher must be able
to render quick action to problems and not be handicapped or short-sighted in
meeting exigencies.
o Conciseness- This trait refers to one’s ability to write or express ideas in the
least number of words possible. Technical writing where research falls
requires brevity or conciseness – a skills in writing which is very important to
researchers. Writing direct to the point is the rule of thumb in this case.
o Honesty- Research work needs a person who possesses a high moral

standard and wholesome attitude towards this kind of work. Above all things,
a good researcher must be intellectually honest. Truth and facts can only be
uncovered through honest, objective, and impartial inquiry. Indeed, there is no
substitute for the virtue of honesty in scientific undertakings
o Interest- Research work is itself a big challenge to one’s capability. It

demands industry, devotion, commitment, and above all, interest. A
researcher must therefore be zealous and must have ardent and self-
motivating interest to keep him active as a researcher and problem solver.
o Diligence- This refers to one’s true dedication to his work. A goods

researcher must possess sustained efforts and provide a steady attention to
his activities. Diligent workers are industrious, persevering and determined to
accomplish goals.
o Selflessness- this trait tells of one’s concern for other’s welfare instead of
oneself. A truly good researcher does not do research for materials reward
and recognition; he does it not necessarily to bring him good things in return
but to others who need his findings to enhance their understanding of
aspects/issues around him, or improve their lives.
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Classification of Research
There are two categories of research under purposive and descriptive

nomenclatures. They are briefly described as follows:
1. According to Purpose
There are three types of research under this category.
a. Fundamental research also known as Basic or Pure research - is the

starting point in the search for new knowledge. It is done to discover some
generalization that serve as basis of information for further research study.
It aims to improve scientific theories, and understand and predict certain
phenomena. Basic research fuels applied science innovations.
b. Applied Research- refers to scientific research and study that aims to solve
real-world problems. It is used to solve problems in everyday life, treat
illnesses, and develop new technology.
Applied research in all areas of sociology, education, agriculture, and other

related fields aimed at developing more efficient technologies or ways of
doing things.
c. Action research – refers to research theory and methodology that is

commonly used in the social sciences. It attempts transformative change
by combining the processes of taking action and conducting study, which
are linked by critical reflection.
Action research is primarily concerned with the production of results for

immediate utilization or application.
2. According to Methods
a. Historical research- seeks to document and describe past events. It

investigates records, analyses and interprets event and conditions that
occurred in the past and then a critical inquiry into the truth of what has
occurred. Data are gathered through the collection of original documents
or interviewing eye witnesses.
b. Descriptive research - usually attempts to find out existing relationships

among socio- economic variables, and to develop some generalizations.
Both historical and descriptive research do not involve the control and
manipulation of independent variables.
As evidenced by theses, dissertations, and institutional research reports, it

is the most extensively utilized research design. The use of questionnaires,
personal interviews with the aid of a study guide or interview schedule are
all standard methods of gathering information.
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The current condition is the topic of the research. It includes a component
of interpreting the meaning of what is described, with a focus on the
discovery of new ideas and insights.
Examples:
o Case studies
o content analysis
o ethnographic studies and
o quantitative methods
 survey research
 cross sectional survey
 trend study
 correlational research
c. Experimental Research—it explains what will happen. It's a problem-

solving method that predicts what will happen in the future when variables
are carefully controlled or changed. Experimental research, according to
John Dewey (1959), is defined as "directed observations guided by the
objective of the study and understanding of the conditions."
The treatment is given to the experimental group, but not to the control
group. Experimenters attempt to establish a link between the independent
variable (presumed cause) and the dependent variable (dependent
variable) (presumed effect). They forecast the outcomes of future events
under comparable circumstances based on the results of the experiment.
What is the nature of experimental research?
Experimental research deals with variables or experimental factors that

are deliberately manipulated so that their effects to the test materials can
be isolated for the purpose of measurement and analysis. It strictly
adheres to scientific research design and its approach is to scrutinize the
cause and effect relationship between variable and other factors.
Important terms in experimental research:
 Variables - refers to a result of some forces or is itself the force that

causes change in another variable
o Independent variable - this variable will be manipulated or

treated. It is sometimes called as “cause” or treatment variable.
(Exposure variable, control variable, explanatory variable and
manipulated variable)
o Dependent variable-this variable is the “effect” or outcomes it

must be measurable. A dependent variable is being tested and
observed.
(Outcome variable, controlled variable, explained variable and
response variable)
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 Experiment - refers to an act or operation carried out under conditions
that is being determined by the experimenter to discover some
unknown principles associated with factors under study.
o Experimental group - it is the group that receives the treatment.
o Control group - is the group that remains fixed, and at the end,
it is compared to experimental group.
Law of single variable
 It is the basic tenets of experimentation.
 The law states that if two situations are alike in every respect and one
element is added, modified, or removed, in any difference that
develops is the effect of the added, modified, or removed elements.
 Any difference between the two situations can be traced to the

independent variable if the two situations are identical in every way
except one.
Example:
Application of complete fertilizer to a rice paddy to promote growth
yield: the other paddy is treated with fertilizer while another serve as
control or no application. Any difference in the growth or yield of rice
between the two paddies is attributable to the factor (fertilizer) which
was modified in the experiment. Any modification in the field
experimentation could develop a more comprehensive and functional
result.
Components of Experimental Procedure
1. Choosing the suitable experimental materials

2. Determining the desired data to be gathered
3. Specifying the methods to measure the desired data and observation.
4. Specifying the methods on how to test the hypothesis of the study.
What is the characteristic of a good experiment?
 The process used essentially follows the scientific process and the
outcomes are valid when subject to verification
1. Make sure that you have strong focus point that you can study
upon for a couple of days.
2. Take good notes and make sure it is needed
3. Be sure you have all the materials and resources before it will be
started
4. Set a good hypothesis
5. Have an independent and dependent variables
6. Incur tolerable size of experimental error
7. The study must observe simplicity, set a desirable level of
precision and has a good range of validity.
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8. Good conclusion that ties back the hypothesis.
Assessment
1. Classify the following variables on the table below whether it is Independent

or Dependent variables.
a. Rice varieties g. Plant height and grain yield

b. Method of weeding h. Number of tubers in sweet potato
c. Grain yield and biomass i. Plant densities of peanut
d. Chlorophyll development j. Breeds of swine
e. Method of planting rice k. Body weight and carcass weight
f. Number of productive tillers l. Light intensities
Independent variables Dependent variables

a. Rice varieties c. Grain yield and biomass
b. Method of weeding Plant densities of peanut
Method of planting rice Number of productive tillers
Breeds of swine Body weight and carcass weight
Number of tubers in sweet potato Plant height and grain yield
Light intensities Chlorophyll development
2. Give their relationship according to its cause or effect.

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3. Make your own justification on their relationship.

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UNIT 2: ELEMENTS OF EXPERIMENTATION
Introduction
Experimental studies or experiments involve deliberate manipulation by the

researcher of the independent variable or experimental factor to ascertain the
measurement of its influence on the dependent variable. Manipulation and control of
condition are the most important features of experimental studies.
In experiments, the researcher exercises control over the conditions needed

in the experiment to elicit the occurrence of events. Thus, making empirical and
accurate observations at the time expected to occur.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Understand the elements of experimentation
2. Explain replication, randomization, and blocking
Lesson 1: Estimates of error (replication and randomization)
 Observations made on experimental units vary considerably.
 Variations are caused in part by the deliberate modification of factors of interest

known as treatments, which are built-in and modified in the experiment to explore
their effects.
 Aside from the recognized sources of variance in observations, there are many
unknown sources of variation, such as uncontrolled variation in extraneous
elements connected to the environment, genetic variants in the experimental
material other than those attributable to treatments, and so on. They are
inescapable and integral to the experimentation process itself. These changes
are referred to as experimental error, implying that they are not arithmetical errors
but variances caused by a set of unknown circumstances beyond the control of
the experimenter.
 Extraneous variables may contribute errors into experimental observations that

are either regular or random in their occurrence. Systematic errors include those
caused by equipment such as a spring balance that goes out of calibration after
repeated use or errors caused by observer tiredness. In a separate experiment,
however, the unanticipated change in the amount of leaves gathered in litter traps
under a particular treatment is random.
 Any number of repeated measurements would not be enough to overcome

systematic inaccuracy, but repeated measurements would almost certainly
cancel out random mistakes.
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(From Design and Analysis of Experiments at http://www.fao.org/3/x6831e/X6831E07.htm)
Watch video on “Understanding Replication and Randomization” by Nebraska On-

Farm Research at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mufk0ZJVqQY
Based on what you saw and heard from the video, write below in your own words
what you understand about the following words:
Replication
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Randomization
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Blocking
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For the succeeding lesson, refer to the article of Casler (2014) entitled Fundamentals
of Experimental Design: Guidelines for Designing Successful Experiments. This can
be retrieved from
https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.2134/agronj2013.0114
Four basic pillars of experimental design:

1. Replication
2. Randomization
3. Blocking
4. Size of experimental units
Key Terms:
Replication is the practice of applying each treatment to multiple and mutually
independent experimental units
Randomization is the practice of assigning treatments to experimental units such

that each unit is equally likely to receive each treatment
Experimental error is the variance among experimental units treated alike, often
symbolized as δ2 or δ e2.
Sampling error is the variance among observational units within experimental units;
there can be multiple levels of sampling error
Replication
 Four functions of replication in comparative experimentation
1. It provides a mechanism for estimating experimental error, which is required
for effective hypothesis testing and estimator confidence ranges.
2. It gives a mechanism for increasing an experiment's precision.
3. Experiment replication broadens the field of inference.
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4. Replication effects control of error.
 Replicate observations must take place on a spatial and temporal scale that
corresponds to the treatment's application.
 First and foremost, replication must be applied at the level of the experimental
unit.
 Because of the intrinsic variability that exists within biological systems,
replication at the proper size is required to prevent confounding treatment
differences with other factors that may vary among experimental units.
Randomization
 The principle of randomness applies to the proper conduct of experiments at two

levels:
1. The experimental materials and facilities that will be used in the experiment
should be sampled appropriately to guarantee that they are accurately
represented.
2. Every treatment is equally likely to be applied to each experimental unit in a
properly randomized experiment.
 Randomization provides two key services in experimental designs:

(i) an unbiased estimation of treatment means and experimental errors; and
(ii) a safeguard against a potential disturbance.
Lesson 2: Control of error (Blocking, proper plot technique and data analysis)
Blocking
In experimental designs, blocking is used for one or both of the following reasons:
(i) for precision, to create groups of experimental units that are more homogeneous
than would be the case if the entire population of experimental units were
randomly sampled; or
(ii) for convenience, to allow different sizes of experimental units when larger plots or
larger experimental areas are required for the application of one factor compared
to other factors.
Proper Plot Technique
All other factors, aside from those regarded treatments, must be maintained
uniformly for all experimental units in practically all types of experiments. For
example, in variety trials when the only treatments are the test varieties, all other
environmental parameters such as soil nutrients, sun energy, plant population, pest
incidence, and an almost endless number of other elements must be maintained
equally throughout all plots in the experiment. Clearly, meeting the condition is nearly
difficult. Nonetheless, the most crucial ones must be continuously monitored to
ensure that variability between experimental plots is kept to a minimum. A good plot
technique's principal concern is this. Soil heterogeneity, competitive effects, and
mechanical mistakes are key sources of variability among plots treated similarly in
field experiments with crops.
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Data Analysis
When blocking alone isn't enough to keep experimental error in check, the
correct data analysis can help a lot. Covariance analysis is the most popular way for
this. By measuring one or more covariates—characters whose functional links to the
main interest character are known—the analysis of covariance can reduce the
heterogeneity among experimental units by lowering their values to a common value
of the covariates. The beginning weights of the animals in a feeding study, for
example, are frequently different. The final weight after the animals have been
exposed to various meals (i.e., treatments) can be adjusted to the values that would
have been attained if all experimental animals had started at the same weight using
this initial weight as a covariate. On the other hand, in a rice field experiment where
rats destroyed some of the test plots, covariance analysis using rat damage as the
covariate can adjust plot yields to the levels that they should have been if no rat
damage had occurred in any of the plots.
Lesson 3: Interpretation of results
A major characteristic of experimental design is the ability to evenly retain all

environmental factors that are not part of the treatments being studied. The
homogeneity of a controlled experiment is both a gain and a drawback. While
maintaining uniformity is necessary for assessing and lowering experimental error,
which is critical in hypothesis testing, it also limits the applicability and generalization
of the experimental data, which is a limitation that must be taken into account when
interpreting the results.
Consider the experiment conducted by a plant breeder to compare cultivars A
and B. (Figure 1). It goes without saying that the management measures used (such
as fertilization and weed control) as well as the location and crop season in which the
trial is done (such as wet or dry conditions) will have a significant impact on the
relative performance of the two kinds. In rice and maize, for example, it has been
demonstrated that when both are grown in a good environment and with good
management, the newly developed, improved varieties are vastly superior to the
native varieties; however, when both are grown using traditional farmer's practices,
the improved varieties are no better, if not worse.
Clearly, the results of an experiment can only be applied to settings that are
identical to or comparable to the ones in which it was conducted. Because most
agricultural research is undertaken on experiment stations with higher average
production than typical farms, this constraint is particularly problematic. Furthermore,
the environment in which a single experiment takes place can't even come close to
replicating the variety of space and time found on commercial farms. As a result, crop
field experiments are often conducted over several crop seasons and years, both at
research stations and on farmers' fields, to ensure that the results are applicable in a
range of circumstances.
15
Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3 Plot 4 Plot 5 Plot 6 Plot 7 Plot 8
A B A B A B A B
Figure 1. A systematic arrangement of plots planted to two rice varieties A and B.

This scheme does not provide a valid estimate of experimental error
Assessment Questions
1. What are the features of good experiment?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. What is the purpose of experimentation in agriculture?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
3. What will happen when there is an occurrence of experimental error?

__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
16
UNIT 3. WRITING THE TITLE AND INTRODUCTION
Introduction
The title is the key to technical report. The title attracts prospective readers
and serves as the basis for indexing and listing the part. It is suggested therefore that
it must be specific, clear, and as concise as possible. The title often lasts longer in
the literature than abstract of papers. On the other hand, the introduction should
contain the importance or significance of the research to the current needs of the
country in the solution of pressing problems which may eventually lead to some
practical applications.
Learning Outcomes
1. Formulate an appropriate research title and introduction
2. Identify a relevant research problem
3. Create objectives and hypothesis according to their chosen research study
Lesson 1: Writing the Study Title and the Introduction
A. The Study Title
The title should reflect and capture the nature of the research problem.
Hence, it must:
 Be brief and in phrase form that essentially encompasses the whole
subject matter
 Be informative, descriptive, comprehensive and must identify the factor of
study
 Be consistent with clarity
 Be broad enough to include all aspect of the subject matter to be studied.
 Encapsulate the heart of the research topic.
 Be interesting and has a name recall.
 Be written like an inverted pyramid.
The title is a self–relating part of the proposal which transmits to the reader
the scope and substance of the proposed research work.
Suggestions (ASA, CSSA and SSSA, 1976)

 Titles for technical journals should not be more than 10 words, except in
unusual instances
 Titles containing fewer than 5 words should be expanded
 Common chemical names can be used in titles. If the title is long,
elemental abbreviation will be used.
 Common names of crops will be used in titles. If the crop is not common,
the genus and species (scientific name) will be used.
 Microorganisms and other plant and animals species that are unfamiliar to
the reader should be identified by their scientific names.
17
B. Writing the Introduction
Unit I of the thesis is in essence an introduction of the research study.

As the initial part of the research paper, its content must be informative,
integrating fresh information which can be used in the research study. It
introduces the topic, create some content and background of the study. It
introduces the readers to the general direction of the thesis, the context wherein
which it was conceptualized and the motivation behind the researcher’s
decisions to choose the particular research.
 Introduction is the “eye opener” of the study
 State your rationale, tell your readers the research plan
 Explain the importance of conducting the research and state your
hypothesis
 Use simple words and statement, avoid flowery and literary phrases
Lesson 2: Formulating Problem / Problem Identification

Characteristic of research problem
Specific. The issue should be mentioned clearly.

Measurable. It is simple to quantify by gathering data using research
instruments like as questionnaires, tests, and other methods.
Achievable. To arrive at an accurate answer, the data is obtained using proper
statistical approaches.
Realistic. The actual outcome is not tampered with.
Time Bounded. Every task requires a time frame since the faster the activity is
completed, the better.
Criteria in selecting research problem

1. Interesting - It draws the investigator's attention to the problem and
encourages him or her to investigate it further.
2. Relevant to the needs of the people - Researchers must remember that they
are not working for themselves, but for the benefit of others.
3. Innovative - A good research problem does not have to be brand fresh. It

could be a restatement and rearrangement of an existing study in order to
make it new and relevant to a larger group of individuals.
Lesson 3: Statement of Objectives and hypothesis
The Objectives of the study define the focus of the study and clearly identify the
research variables to be measured. It indicates the various steps and process
involved. It also establishes the limitation of the study.
The hypothesis is a very important element of research since it provides a

"temporary" or "provisional" statement of relationship that exists between the
independent and dependent variables.
18
Hypothesis predicts relations between the independent and dependent variables or
between the experimental factor and the observed parameter.
Relationship can be:

o Positive - an increase in the units of X results to an increase in the units of Y,
proportionally or otherwise
o Negative - the result is reversed
o No relations at all - the variables are unrelated to each other
This relationship between the independent (X) and dependent (Y) variables is
shown in Figure 1.
Y Y
Y
X
x x
Positive Relation Negative Relation No Relation
Figure 1. Graphical presentation of the relationship between the independent (X) and
the dependent (Y) variables
Importance of hypothesis:
 Provide direction to the study
 Defines the coverage of the study
 Suggests the appropriate research design
 Serves as reference for starting conclusions related to original purpose.
Types of hypothesis:
a. Null Hypothesis (Ho) – a hypothesis that predicts an absence of relationship

between among variables. This is a negative declarative statement of the
guess or tentative solution to the research study.
Null hypothesis denotes that there is no significant difference between

specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or
experimental error.
b. Alternative Hypothesis / Research hypothesis (H a): It is the hypothesis that

differ from null hypothesis, the researcher believes on the outcome on an
experiment or study. Simply the inverse or opposites of null hypothesis.
19
Statistical hypothesis state that there is existence of difference between
parameters and specific value. It states that there is a statistically significant
relationship between two variables.
Lesson 4: Research Variable and its Kind
In agricultural research as differentiated from social research, variable

generally refer to the materials and methods applied to the experiment or the
observable response of such organism of the methods or materials applied.
There are two kinds of variables:
1. Independent variables are the conditions, materials or methods that the

experimenter controls or manipulates and applies to the test organism to
elicit a particular response for measurement. In agricultural experiments,
this variable is technically called experimental factor or treatment and is
indicated as the X factor indicating it as a cause of the observed
response.
2. Dependent variable is the manifested or expressed characters or traits of

the organisms resulting from the application of treatment. In agricultural
research, we simply call this as "effects,’’ thus designated as the Y factor.
Lesson 5: Significance of the Study, Scope of the Study, and Key Terms
 Scope and Limitation of the Study- it focuses on the specific variables and
participants, specific site or a research. Its limitations aims to identify the
boundaries or parameters of the study. Limitation is used, to those conditions
beyond the control of the researcher, such as environmental condition and
other natural occurrence.
 Time and Place of the Study- this part merely specify the place and time
“where” and “ when “ the study will be conducted.
o Locale of the study is an area where research is conducted.
o Time of the study refers to the duration of the study: when to start and
when to end the research study
 Definition of Terms - it includes the most important term used in the study
where it is defined based on their use in the study. Defining the terms which is
necessary to delimit its scope, specify its actual application in the study to
avoid confusion as to its usage. Terms should be operationally defined in the
study.
Activity:
1. Make at least three titles related to Agriculture

2. Let your title be approved by your professor.
3. Upon approval of your title make the Unit I outline of your research.
20
UNIT 4. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
Introduction
A thorough review of pertinent literature is very important. An extensive
review of available literature is necessary to avoid wasteful duplication and to enable
the researcher to decide on the most logical, most plausible, and productive
approaches, techniques and tools for the problem at hand.
Learning Outcomes
1. Relate the value of literature review
2. Outline the steps in literature search
4. Discuss the guidelines in writing literature review report
Activities
1. Read Unit 2 (review of related literature and studies) sample of research
manuscript that will be provided to you by your professor.
2. List down your observations with regards to its content, the manner it is
written, and its function to the entire research manuscript.
Analysis
1. What do you think are the reasons of providing review of related literature and
studies in the conduct of research?
2. How researchers gathered this information? From what sources? What are
the bases?
3. How these gathered citations are put into a single comprehensive report?
Abstraction
In essence, Unit 2 of your research proposal is the review of related literature
and studies. A literature review is a summary of what has been published on a given
topic by reputable academics and researchers. Your goal is to show your reader
what information and concepts have been formed on a certain issue, as well as their
strengths and shortcomings. The literature review, as a piece of writing, must be
directed by your aims or the difficulties you'll be addressing.
Lesson 1: The Value of a Literature Review

A. Functions of the review of related literature
1. It provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the planned research.
As such, it will provide the direction of the entire research process. It will
likewise provide the foundation of your research hypothesis.
21
2. It gives you the information about past researches and its connection to the
intended study. This process prevents unintentional duplication of these past
researches and leads you into what needs to be investigated.
3. It offers you a feeling of confidence since by means of the review of related
literature you will have on hand all the constructs related to your study. You
are therefore are an authority on the subject as far as mastery of information
is concerned.
4. It gives you information about the research methods, the population and
sampling considered, the instruments used in gathering the data, and the
statistical computation of the previous research.
5. With a comprehensive review of literature, not very much guidance from your
adviser is necessary since the review of related literature can answer all the
questions that you need to ask related to the foregoing stages in research.
6. It aids in the discussion and interpretation of results. If the researcher’s
findings are in agreement with the results of other studies, he may have
greater confidence in the conclusion. When results differ from others’ data,
the researcher will be stimulated to find out in what respects they differ and to
explain possible reasons for the discrepancies.
7. It provides findings and conclusions of past investigations which you may
relate to your own findings and conclusions.
Lesson 2: Steps Involved in a Literature Search

Literature Search
In reviewing literature related to the study, notes may be organized by classifying the
material gathered under each of the topic heading. A way to do this is to take notes
on index cards. Put the source at the top of the card, and in the right-hand corner,
put the topic heading. You may either quote or paraphrase the information from the
source on the index card. You will find it easier to organize your notes if you put
each fact or piece of information on a separate card. In this way, you will simply
organize your note card into the order of you outline as you write your review.
Various information can be sourced out from books, journals, encyclopedia,
unpublished thesis/dissertation and the most commonly used today (especially that
we are in pandemic) is to retrieve literature through the internet. However, it is
advised that as much as possible for agricultural researches, use literature from
scientific journals (research-based and peer-reviewed articles).
Whether you are using the index card or entering the citations directly to your laptop
or computer, you should retrieve the following information as indicated in the
succeeding illustrations because it will facilitate in reporting your literature review and
in organizing your references or bibliography. Proper citation guarantees the
readers that the work is thoroughly researched and avoid plagiarism.
a. From books __________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.
Author/s:_________________________________
Title of the Book:__________________________
22
Place of Publication:_______________________
Publisher:_______________________________
Year of Publication:_______________________
b. From journals
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______.
Author/s:_________________________________
Title of the Article:_________________________
Title of the Journal:_________________________
Volume_____ Number__________
Place of Publication:______________________
Publisher:______________________________
Year of Publication:______________________
c. From encyclopedia
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________.
Title of Encyclopedia:_________________________
Volume_____ Number__________
Place of Publication:______________________
Publisher:______________________________
Year of Publication:______________________
d. From unpublished thesis/dissertation (note: not so advisable)
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_________________________.
Author/s:___________________________________
Research Title:______________________________
Name of College/University____________________
Year Completed:_____________________________
23
e. From the internet
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_____________________________.
Author/s:______________________________________
Title of the Article:______________________________
Year of Publication:_____________________________
Website______________________________________
Date of Access_________________________________
Take note, you should refrain from committing errors in reviewing literature
such as:
1.) misquoting investigators ideas
2.) omission of names of investigators and quoted researchers
3.) quoting out of context
4.) ignoring the continuity of the research with earlier work, and
5.) failure to give important details out of desire to be concise.
Lesson 3: Writing the Literature Review Report

Guidelines in Writing the Literature Review
You should take note that the review of literature must be more than a
reportorial or topic-by-topic presentation but there should be continuity and logical
organization. Hence, reviewing related literature calls for reading critically,
determining outstanding points as well as flaws, and assessing the relevance and
contributions of materials of the study. A thorough review leads to a better-designed
study and increases the chances of getting meaningful results. Hereunder, are some
guidelines in writing related literature.
1. Systems of Organization/Classification.
Depending on the prescribed format of the University, literature review
can be written and presented in different ways:
a. Chronological – this is done by organizing the literature or citations
from the most recent.
b. Thematic – the researcher organizes the literature or citations by
topic. If this is followed, one should consider the specific variables
indicated in the statement of the problem as theme or topic.
c. Locale – the researcher classifies the literature into foreign and
local literature.
24
d. Classifying the literature cited into related literature and related
studies. Related literature includes citations usually taken from
books, encyclopedia, dictionaries, etc. while related studies are
extracted from the findings of previous researches.
2. Include only the updated literature. Preferably, literature that has been
written or conducted in the last 5 years.
3. As the term implies, all related literature cited should have a direct link or
connection to the present investigation. You must exercise some
discriminatory choice in determining what to include.
4. Citing authors for the review of literature or in any other parts of the
research manuscript, one is governed with the style followed by the
University. It is either the MLA style (MLA stands for Modern Language
Association) or the APA style (APA is the acronym for American
Psychological Association). For ESSU, the university follows the APA
style.
5. Try to document sources following the name-date technique as illustrated
in the following rules:
a. Enclose in parenthesis the surname(s) of the author(s) and year of
publication of the material near the information cited, quoted, or
paraphrased.
i. For single author
……..(Cruz, 2019).
ii. For two authors
……..(Cruz and Reyes, 2020).
iii. For more than two authors
…….(Reyes, et al., 2019).
b. Enclose in parenthesis the year of publication after the name(s) of
the author(s) in the sentence or when mentioning the name of the
authors at the beginning of the sentence.
i. …..based on the work of Cruz (2018)…..
ii. Reyes (2020) mentioned that …….
c. Arrange references in alphabetical order when citing similar works
done by different authors:
i. ….genetically modified plants were found high yielding
(Campo, 2017; Llanaza, 2018; Ogario, 2020).
25
Assessment
1. Based from the research problem that you have formulated, conduct literature
search using available resources in your locality.
2. Organize your literature review into related literature and related studies (refer
to the model given by your professor).
3. Present your review of related literature and studies for checking by your
professor
26
UNIT 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Introduction
In selecting an experimental design, the research objectives should be
considered. However, the general rule would be to choose the simplest design which
is likely to provide the needed precision.
The design of the experiment is the most critical part of research planning.
Improperly designed research usually ends up with results which are difficult to
interpret and defend statistically. If the research design is faulty, the research cannot
stand the scrutiny of other scientists and results may be unacceptable.
The researcher should see to it that research designs are subject to
examination and evaluation by other competent persons. Those who find flaws in the
experimental design can give constructive criticisms and suggestions that will
improve the approach and operational procedures of the research activity.
Learning Outcomes
1. Compare the different research methods as regards to their utility
a. Historical method
b. Descriptive method
c. Experimental method
2. Explain the concept of action research
3. Discuss focus group discussion (FGD) as a way of gathering data
4. Describe the different experimental designs applicable for agricultural
researches
5. Illustrate the layout of experimental designs applicable for agricultural
researches.
Activities
1. From the discussion you have

read under ELEMENTS OF
EXPERIMENTATION, critique or
evaluate this thesis of BSA
students.
27
Photo credit: Thesis of BSA
students of ESSU Salcedo
28
Analysis
a. Why is it that pechay plants are established in labeled plots or boxes?

b. What do you think these labels in each plot represent?
c. Why do experimental plots have equal or similar sizes?
d. Why do plots are equally spaced and arranged in rows?
e. What could be the reason of using plastic acetate as shed?
Abstraction
Basically, all types of research be it basic, applied or developmental follow a
well-defined research method. As BSA students, experimental designs applicable for
agricultural researches are the main concepts that you should have mastered in
preparation for your thesis and other experiments that you will be conducting in the
future. Further, this module introduces as well the basic ideas of historical,
descriptive and action researches which you can apply depending on the prevailing
research problem that you want to answer.
Lesson 1: Qualitative/descriptive and action research

A. Research Methods
1. Historical Research – It is focused with explaining historical events or facts

in a critical manner in order to discover the complete truth. It broadens our
horizons and makes us more appreciative of our humanity and individuality.
Steps
a. Formulating your research problem
b. Gathering your source of materials.
c. Criticizing your source of materials
d. Writing the historical report
Elements in Writing Historical Research

a. Mastery of materials
b. Working outline
c. Art of narration
d. Dramatization, rhetoric and style
2. Descriptive Research – The main goals of this method are to explain the
nature of a situation as it is at the moment of study and to investigate the
causes of certain events. It entails gathering data in order to test hypotheses
or answer questions about the current state of the study's subject. It
determines and reports the current state of affairs. Personal interviews or
questionnaires can be used to collect data.
29
Types of Descriptive Research
1. Case Study – when you make a detailed study about one person or unit
over a considerable period of time.
2. Surveys – if you intend to gather relatively limited data from a relatively
large number of cases. This method involves determining information
about variables rather than about individuals.
3. Developmental Studies – this investigates progression along a number of
dimensions. The longitudinal technique examines a group of people over
a long period of time. The cross-sectional method entails examining
multiple features of participants at the same time.
4. Follow-up studies – when you want to look into the participants' progress
after they've received a specific therapy or condition.
5. Documentary analysis – if your study involves gathering information by
examining records and documents.
6. Trend analysis – it is employed in studies which aim to project the
demands or needs of the people in the future.
7. studies – when you want to see how participants respond to a specific
treatment or condition after they've received it.
3. Experimental Research – An experimental research is one wherein the

variable dealt with can be controlled so that the experimental factor is isolated
for measurement of its change (please refer to unit II on the elements of
experimentation for detailed discussion).
4. Action Research – is a type of self-reflective inquiry carried out by

participants in social circumstances in order to improve the logic and fairness
of their own activities and the situations in which they are carried out.
The key aspects of the action research involve the following:

1. It aims to explain social issues while bringing about change.
2. It is problem-oriented, context-specific, and future-oriented.
3. Everyone in the group is actively participating in the change process.
4. Its goal is to be both educational and empowering.
5. It's a method that connects problem identification, planning, action, and
assessment.
Evaluation of change
Implementation
Planning of intervention
Identification of problem
30
Figure 1. The Spiral of Action Research
Community Participatory Action Research (CPAR)
CPAR is a type of action research in which a problem is described by the individuals

who believe and feel it is a problem. How they approach fixing it will be determined
by how they view the problem and the resources they have available to help them do
so. In other words, people come up with their own explanations and solutions to the
situation. Data is frequently obtained and analyzed using this method, which involves
focus group talks (FGD).
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) as a way of collecting data has the following
features:
1. Focus groups are useful in accessing group norms, meanings and

processes.
2. This should be used, above all, to study interaction between participants.
3. Careful preparation and planning can maximize their potential both to
generate relevant data and to facilitate analysis.
4. Sampling is the key to comparative potential of focus groups, but ethical
considerations are also of paramount importance.
5. Topic guides and stimulus materials should be carefully developed and
selected and it also pays to pilot these.
6. Anticipate the analysis through attentive moderating.
7. Draw judiciously on study design possibilities in order to maximize the
comparative and analytical potential of your focus group data.
8. Identify and interrogate patterning in analysis of focus group data.
9. Consider the potential of second-state sampling and development of new
materials to further explore any emergent explanations or theories. 3
Lesson 2: Quantitative research: basic experimental design applicable to

agricultural research
Hereunder are the basic experimental designs applicable to agricultural researches.

Most of the texts and figures were copied from the book of Gomez and Gomez
(1984) in their book titled “Statistical Procedure for Agricultural Researches” 2 nd
edition. For this module, only the commonly used designs were included.
Single-Factor Experiment
This a type of experiment in which a single factor varies while all others are kept
constant. In such experiments, the treatments consist solely of the different levels of
the single variable factor. All other factors are applied uniformly to all plots at a single
prescribed level. Single factor can be complete block or incomplete block design.
Complete Block Design is suited for experiments with a small number of treatments
and is characterized by blocks, each of which contain at least one complete set of
treatments.
31
Three types of complete block design:
a. Completely Randomized Design (CRD). This is one in which the treatments are
given fully at random, giving each experimental unit an equal chance of receiving
any one of them. Any difference between experimental units receiving the same
treatment is regarded as experimental error by the CRD. As a result, the CRD is
only suitable for investigations involving homogenous experimental units, such as
laboratory experiments, where environmental effects are easily controlled. The
CRD is rarely employed in field trials because there are considerable differences
in environmental parameters such as soil between experimental plots.
1 2 3 4 Plot no
B A D B Treatment
5 6 7 8
D C A B
9 10 11 12
C D D C
13 14 15 16
B C A C
17 18 19 20
A B A D
Figure 2. A sample of CRD layout
b. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). In agricultural research, this is

one of the most regularly used experimental designs. The design is particularly
well adapted to field experiments with a small number of treatments and a known
productivity gradient in the experimental region. The existence of equal-sized
blocks, each of which contains all of the treatments, is the key differentiating
element of the RCB design.
Rep 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 Rep 4
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22
C E A C F A E A
2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23
D B E D D B C F
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
F A F B C E D B
Figure 3. A sample of RCBD layout
32
c. Latin Square Design. The latin square (LS) design is notable for its ability to
accommodate two known causes of variation among experimental units at the
same time. It uses the sources as two separate blocking criteria, rather than the
single criterion used in the RCB architecture. In an LS design, the two-directional
blocking, also known as row-blocking and column-blocking, is achieved by
ensuring that each treatment is applied only once in each row-block and once in
each column-block. This program allows you to estimate variation between row-
blocks and column-blocks, as well as remove some error.
Column number
1 2 3 4 5 Treatment
E C B A D Row number
1 1 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5
A D C B E
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5
C B D E A
3 3 3 3 3
1 2 3 4 5
B E A D C
4 4 4 4 4
1 2 3 4 5
D A E C B
5 5 5 5 5
Figure 4. A sample LS layout (each treatment appears in every
column and in every row)
Two-Factorial Experiment
Unlike the single-factor experiment which only investigates a single factor (ex.
levels of fertilizer) at a given period, a two-factor experiment studied two factors at
the same time (ex. Levels of fertilizers and varieties of a certain crop). The effect of
each factor and their interactions are being analyzed and interpreted.
a. Factorial Experiment – this is an experiment which consists of all possible

combination of the selected levels in two or more factors. Example with six (6) levels
of nitrogen and four (4) varieties of crops will result in 24 treatment combinations.
Example: Factor A =Levels of Nitrogen Factor B = Varieties
N1 V1
N2 V2
N3 V3
N4 V4
N5
33
N6
How to combine these factors? Use either tree diagram or table.
With the use of table:
Variety V1 V2 V3 V4
Nitrogen
N1 N1V1 N1V2 N1V3 N1V4
Combining the factors will result in 24 treatments and should be randomly

distributed in each block or replication.
Replication 1 Replication 2 Replication 3
N6V2 N2V3 N1V4 N4V1 N4V4 N1V2 N6V1 N3V3 N1V2 N4V4 N3V3 N3V1
Figure 5. A sample of 6 x 4 experimental layout

Note: should you plan to include a third factor, this design can be expanded
as a three-factor experiment.
b. Split Plot Design – is specifically suited for a two-factor experiment that has more
treatments than can be accommodated by a complete block design. One of the
elements is designated as the main plot in a split-plot design. The main-plot factor is
the allocated factor. The main storyline is broken into subplots, each of which is
allocated the second factor, known as the subplot factor. As a result, each primary
34
narrative serves as a block for subplot treatments (i.e. the levels of the subplot
factor).
When using a split plot design, the precision of measuring the impacts of the main
plot component is compromised in order to improve the precision of measuring the
effects of the subplot factor. The main influence of the subplot component, as well as
its interaction with the main plot element, can be measured more precisely than with
a randomized complete block design. The measurement of the effects of the main-
plot treatments, on the other hand, is less exact than with a randomized full block
design. The major plots (N) are represented by the level of nitrogen (N), while the
sub-plots (V) are represented by the varieties (V).
N4 N 3 N 1 N 0 N5 N2 N 1 N 0 N 5 N 2 N4 N5 N 0 N1 N 4 N 5 N3 N2
V2 V1 V1 V2 V4 V3 V1 V4 V3 V1 V1 V3 V4 V3 V3 V1 V2 V1
Replication 1 Replication 2 Replication 3

Figure 6. A sample layout of Split-Plot Design
Note: Should you decide to include a third factor, this will constitute the sub-subplot
factor and you will follow the split-split-plot design which is an extension of the
split-plot design.
Lesson 3: Preparation of Log Frame

In preparing the log frame of your thesis, you can present this in tabular
format considering the following variables.
1. Objectives of the investigation
2. Parameters or Indicators that can be objectively verified or measured
3. Means or methods of verification or measurement
4. Assumption or risk factors
Objectives Verifiable Means of Assumption/

Parameters or Verification Risk Factors
Indicators
35
Application
1. Evaluate your research title, what do you think is the appropriate research
method to answer your problem?
2. If you will follow experimental method, what specific research design you are
going to apply?
3. Illustrate the layout of the experimental design applicable to your research
problem.
4. Prepare the log frame of your proposed research.
36
UNIT 6. DATA MEASUREMENT AND COLLECTION
Introduction
Research in agriculture involves collection and/or measurement of data using

the appropriate tools, equipment and techniques. Failure to use the correct tools and
methods would result to misleading output and findings. This unit shall therefore
present several examples of data collection methods applied in agriculture research.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the semester, the student is expected to:

1. Differentiate various kinds of data (quantitative vs qualitative, primary vs
secondary);
2. Identify the different data collection methods used in agricultural research;
3. Compare the different tools used in data analysis; and
4. Know that format and mechanics in preparing papers for publication and for
presentation in scientific meetings.
Lesson 1: Data Collection
Types of Data
A. Based on forms:
 Quantitative data are in numerical in nature and can be measured.
Examples: age, weight, height
 Qualitative data are descriptions of the basic nature or characteristics of
things under investigation. Examples: color, texture, behaviour
Figure 6.1. The levels of measurement of data

(Source: https://medium.com/@rndayala/data-levels-of-measurement-
4af33d9ab51a)
37
Figure 6.2.Examples of four kinds of data
(Source: https://www.slideshare.net/NingDing/001-lesson-1-statistical-
techniques-for-business-economics)
B. Based on source:
 Primary data are gathered directly from the subject of the study
 Secondary data are those which were previously collected, compiled and
stored somewhere and may be made available to the researcher
How can we ensure the validity of data collection methods?

 critically evaluate whether a method is appropriate for their intended use
 methods published in a refereed journal had undergone critical evaluation
Conventional Data Collection Methods for Experimental Research

 To avoid influences of spatial variability as errors or biases, the following is
done in experimental designs:
a. Replication
b. blocking
c. randomization
 But conventional experimental design have limitations:

a. small plots
b. b. treatments oversimplification
c. c. brief duration
d. may not represent a realistic cropping system
 In field experiments effects and quantification of variation are measured
through sampling
 Sampling density depends on several factors (objectives, field variability,
costs), ranging from one sample for several hectares to a more detail
coverage of the field. Conventionally, samples are obtained for whole
fields or parts of fields to provide average values.
Sampling methods
a. Simple random (Figure 6.3a): Locations are randomly selected, so it may not
capture the variation structure of the attributes of interest.
38
b. Stratified random (Figure 6.3b): The field is divided into several areas
according to its characteristics (e.g. topography). Sampling locations are
selected randomly and then composite, reducing the influence of local
heterogeneity.
c. Systematic sampling (Figure 6.3c): The field is divided in grids and samples
are collected randomly within each cell and then composite.
d. Grid sampling (Figure 6.3d): Position the center point on grid intersections.
Samples are collected randomly within a 3 m radius and then composite.
e. Stratified-systematic (Figure 6.3e): Each cell is divided into smaller cells to
overcome the bias introduced by systematic sampling.
f. Judgmental (Figure 6.3f): Sampling locations are based on observation of a
specific problem (e.g., low yield) and is not statistically accurate.
Figure 6.3. Commonly used sampling methods characterized by destructive

sampling . (Source: https://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C10/E5-
17-05-02.pdf)
On-Farm Trials
 It could either be replicated treatments or demonstration plots
 Used to evaluate hybrid performance and fertilizer responses across certain
locations
39
Advantages:
 Researcher need not purchase equipment or borrow from campus sources if
farmer has own equipment for the field work;
 On-farm trial plots sizes are commonly large because equipment is farm
scale; and
 Research on a producer's farm can lend additional credibility to the data and
facilitate the adoption of new technology by other farmers
Yield Measurements
 Yield is the most frequent parameter measured in agricultural field trials.
 Direct harvest is the most accurate method of measuring yield.
 Needs equipment for harvesting and weighing
 The following are indirect methods to estimate yield:
o Determine the yield from small plots or subsampled yield from larger plots
by direct harvest of plant material from a specified area
o Harvest from a specific area using a frame made of PVC or wood, or along
a measured linear distance for row crops
o Use a sickle, mower or manual clippers to harvest plant material from small
plots.
o Then weigh the tissue and calculate the yield from the weight and harvest
area.
 Grain plots can be harvested by hand and a representative sample of heads
or ears shelled by hand.
 Canopy height and leaf area index measurements have been correlated to
direct harvest yield measurements for various forages
 Yield for direct harvested agricultural experiments may be affected by
variations in tissue water content. Forages vary in water content among
species and at different times of the season.
o assumption of average and constant moisture content may result in errors
in dry matter yield estimates
o Rapid (10 minute) sample drying using a microwave oven is comparable to
drying in a forced air oven at 55 degrees C for 24 hours
Weed Control Effectiveness
Evaluation of weed control methods and ratings of crop herbicide injury through:
 visual rating scales (e.g., percent control) and
 weed counts per unit area
Plant Nutrient Status
a. Chlorophyll meter is used for:

 rapid assessment of the green color of leaves of various plant species
 comparing treatments such as nitrogen or iron rates
 relationships between meter reading and nutritive status or yield have
been developed for certain plants
40
Applications:
 Visual rating scale (1=yellow through 9=green) to monitor turfgrass color
and response to nitrogen or iron treatments (Wehner & Haley, 1990).
 Four-point scale to evaluate tree leaf color in response to iron treatments
(Messenger, 1984)
 Color index scales may be improved by using standardized colors from
sources such as the Munsell color chart for plant tissues (Wilde & Voigt
1952; Harrell, Pierce, Mooter, & Webster, 1984).
b. Portable meters or test strips related to traditional colorimetric methods is
used for the rapid analysis of plant sap (Prasad & Spiers, 1984).
Other Measures of Plant Performance

 Plant height to evaluate different varieties or treatment effects on plant growth
 Stand counts to evaluate effects of treatments or other variables on seed
germination and plant population
 Yield component analysis, including tillers/area, ear or head number/plant,
and seed counts, to evaluate performance among varieties or treatments
 Moisture and weight test using available equipment for seed samples
 Rating scales or estimates of percent lodging and disease occurrence are
simple methods for gaining quantitative data from field experiments
Data Collection Methods for Non-experimental or Social Research
A. Observation
 Use of the researcher’s various senses: seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting and
smelling, in the study of an individual or group of individuals in various natural
settings
Categories:
o Participant observation. Researcher participates in whatever activity the
individual or group being studied is engaged in.
o Non-participant observation. Researcher observes without participating in
the activity of the individual or group being studied
o Structured observation. Researcher knows what aspects of the group
activity are relevant to his purposes, thus focuses observations to relevant
behaviors and activities of the subject
o Unstructured observation. Researcher observes and records behaviors,
events and situations guided only the problem and objectives of the
investigation. It is open and flexible
B. Interview
 A “face-to-face interpersonal role situation” in which the interviewer asks a
person – an interviewee or respondent – questions which are meant to obtain
information pertinent to the research problem.
Types:
o Structured or standardized interview
 The questions’ sequence and wordings are fixed; carefully thought
out and organized and must be strictly followed.
 Interview schedule is used that consists of a set of carefully
prepared and logically-ordered questions which the researcher
41
asks the respondents and with adequate space for the interviewer
to write down the responses
o Unstructured or un-standardized interview
 The questions’ content, sequence and wordings depends on the
interviewer based on the research problem and objectives
 Interview guide is used that consists of a list of topics or issues to
be covered during the interview process
C. Use of questionnaire
 A set of carefully prepared and logically ordered questions
 It is accomplished by the respondent who reads the questions and writes
down the answers on the space provided
D. Administration of test
 There are several types of objective tests that could be administered:
o Multiple-choice type is used to find out individual’s knowledge,
understanding and judgment on certain issues
o Scale type involves respondents rating themselves or their behaviour
either numerically or with the use of symbols to determine their position in
a rating scale
 Rating scales. The rater assigns a person or object to a scale point
in a continuum or to one of an ordered series of categories; each
scale point or category in a continuum has numerical value
 Rank-order scale. When investigator is more concerned with the
order of items rather than with the quality of scale, respondents
rank the items in the order of importance as perceived by them
and on the basis of certain guidelines
 Q-Sort. A large number of statements relevant to the topic being
investigated are sorted into specified number of groups or piles on
the basis of some attitude of an individual toward the object under
consideration
 Semantic differential scale. It is used to rate a concept on bipolar
scales, using certain criterion such as the quality of positiveness
and negativeness as basis.
 Attitude scale. It is used when the aim is to find out the inclinations
and feelings, prejudices or biases, preconceived notions, ideas,
fears, threats and convictions of persons about something
 Thurstone scale. It is a device designed to appropriate interval
scales with known distances between points on the measuring
instrument and the equal numerical distances represent equal
distances along the continuum being measured.
 Likert scale. It uses the method of “summated ratings” with
respondents indicating their degree if agreement or disagreements
with statements by checking any of the scales in a continuum of
five or seven
42
 Guttman scale. It is used to find out whether the attitude or
characteristic being studied actually involves only a single
dimension.
Lesson 2: Data Analysis Techniques & Interpretation Of Data
Data analysis is the examination of gathered and organized information in terms of

the:
 characteristics
 patterns,
 trends
 differences or similarities, and
 relationships
so as to answer research questions or meet study objectives
Data analysis consists of computations of the desired indicators stipulated in the

specific objectives of the study. The output of the analysis enables the researcher to
readily interpret the results of his study and answer the sub-problems.
Statistics is an important tool to measure and examine the gathered quantitative

data.
Two types of statistics:
 Descriptive statistics
o used in descriptive studies as a means of describing the nature and
resear of the event under investigation
o involves collecting, organizing, presenting and analyzing data without
drawing any conclusion or inference
o consists mainly of computations of indicators
o mean, standard deviation, median and mode
 Inferential statistics
o the method of analysis used in analytic studies
o consists of computation and comparison of indicators and test for
significance of observed differences and determination of degree of
association
o involves making decision-making in the face of uncertainty, i.e.,
making the best decision on the basis of incomplete information
available from sample data or experimental data. When only a sample
is taken from a population about which inferences are to be made,
probability is important in the statistical decision-making.
Selection of statistical tool to be used

The choice of statistical test to use depends on the following:
 Study objectives
 Statistical Design – survey or experimental
 Scale of measurement
o Nominal – classifies subjects into one of a number of
qualitative classes (ex. sex, coat color, practicing vaccination
or not)
43
o Ordinal – similar to nominal but classes can be ranked (ex.
sweetness score, scouring index, product preferences)
o Interval – the exact distance between two categories can be
determined but zero point is arbitrary (ex. temperature)
o Ratio – similar to interval but the zero point is fixed (ex. weight,
consumption, mortality)
 Number of groups or populations involved – one, two, three or more
 Relationship of variables:
o dependent (measurement) or independent (treatment)
o continuous or discrete
Table 6.1 presents the different kinds of statistical tests that could be used depending
on purpose and type of data used and Table 6.2 is a summary of statistical
procedures based on type of objective, research design, type of analysis, scale of
measurement, number and relationship of population.
Table 6.1. Statistical tests, purpose and example of problem to be analyzed

Statistical Test Purpose Example
Z-test of one population Determine whether or not an Has the average

mean obtained sample mean or coconut farm size of two
average of scores is a random hectares before
sample from a population with Typhoon Yolanda
known parameters increased five years
later?
Z-test of independent Determine whether or not Are the proportions of
proportion there is a significant difference pigs seropositive for
between two Toxoplasma different in
independent/different groups coastal areas and in the
on situations that call for two forested areas?
types of responses.
Z-test of dependent Determine whether or not Is there a difference in
proportion there is a significant difference the average time spent
between pairs of observations on backyard gardening
from a single group, or to by husbands and wives
determine if the responses of during the Enhanced
the members of the group on Community Quarantine?
two situations are correlated
T-test of independent or Compare the mean of one Is there a significant
uncorrelated means sample with the mean of difference in body
weight of cattle given
another sample to see if there
feed supplement than
is a statistically significant
cattle that not given the
difference between the two
feed supplement?
T-test of dependent or Determine whether or not Is there a significant
correlated means there is a significant difference difference in the weight
between the scores in terms of gain of goats before and
means of two dependent or after being fed a special
correlated groups diet?
44
One way Analysis of Determine whether or not Is there a significant

Variance there is a significant difference difference in crop yields
among means of three or more due to three different
groups fertilizers applied?
Two way Analysis of Determine the main and Find out if fertilizer type
Variance interactions effects of two (1, 2, or 3) and planting
independent variables of the density (1 = low density,
interval type 2 = high density) have
an effect on average
crop yield.
Chi-square Test of Determine whether or not Is there a significant
Goodness of Fit there is a significant difference difference in the result
between the observed of a cross between two
distribution and the expected pea plants that yielded a
distribution population of 880
plants: 639 green seeds
& 241 yellow seeds and
the predicted 3:1 ratio
(green:yellow) of
offspring from the
cross?
Chi-square Test of Determine whether or not Determine if the type of
Independence there is a significant correlation French fries (skinny,
or relationship association curly, steak) sold across
between two variables of the the country independent
nominal type of the location (north,
east, south, central,
west) of the country.
Spearman-Rank Order Determine whether or not Is there a relationship

Correlation there is a significant correlation between the heart girth
or relationship between two measurement and the
variables of the ordinal type weight of native pigs?
Goodman-Kruskal’s Determine whether or not Estimate correlations

gamma (G) or Gamma there is a significant correlation between farmers’ socio-
Coefficient or relationship between two demographic factors
ordinal variables and adoption of soil
conservation
technologies
Pearson’s r Determine whether or not Assess which soil

there is a significant correlation variables are important
or relationship between two to crop production by
variables of the interval or ratio correlating soil
type variables- soil reaction,
organic matter, total
nitrogen, available
45
phosphorus, potassium
and soil texture with
crop yield data
Correlation ratio Determine whether or not Determine whether

there is a significant correlation farmers who utilize
or relationship between the more farming
interval and the nominal data
technology can farm
larger field sizes
Regression Analysis Predict the value of one Based on what farmers
dependent variable from the made in years past,
corresponding value of the they can estimate their
independent variable of the total earnings for the
interval type following year
Multiple regression if a number
of independent variables are
involved
Table 6.2. Summary of Statistical procedures

TYPE OF RESEARCH TYPE OF SCALE OF NUMBER OF RELATION- RECOMMENDED REMIN-
OBJECTIVE DESIGN ANALYSIS MEASURE- POPULATIONS SHIP OF THE STATISTICAL TEST DER
MENT POPULATION
Describe Descriptive Descrip- Nominal/ One, two or - Rates, Proportions,

tive Ordinal many Frequencies
statistics
Interval/ One, two or Related or Mean, Variance,
Ratio many independent Standard deviation,
CV
Compare Analytic Inferential Nominal One - Chi-square test Before
statistics
Two Related Mc Nemar’s Test doing
(before and
after) any
statistical
Independent Chi-square test
analysis,
Three or more Related Cochran’s Q-test
Independent Chi-square test
PLEASE
Ordinal One - Kolmogorov- CHECK
Smirnov one sample
test THE
Two Related Wilcoxon matched ASSUMP
pairs signed ranks- TIONS
test
OF
Independent Mann Whitney U
THE
test
TEST
Three or more Related Friedman’s two-way
ANOVA
46
TYPE OF RESEARCH TYPE OF SCALE OF NUMBER OF RELATION- RECOMMENDED REMIN-
OBJECTIVE DESIGN ANALYSIS MEASURE- POPULATIONS SHIP OF THE STATISTICAL TEST DER
MENT POPULATION
Independent Kruskall Wallis One-

way ANOVA
Interval/ One - z-test (large sample
size)
Ratio
- t-test (low sample
size)
Two Related Paired t-test
Independent Independent t-test
Three or more Related F-test ANOVA;
ANACOVA
Pairwise mean
comparison;
Linear contrast;
Trend comparison;
Independent F-test ANOVA;
ANACOVA
Pairwise mean
comparison;
Linear contrast;
Trend comparison;
Associa- Analytic Inferential Nominal contingency
tion of statistics coefficient test
variables
Ordinal Spearman rank
correlation
Interval/ Pearson’s
correlation
Ratio
Regression
47
ASSESSMENT
1. Describe the following types of data and give at least two examples:
Type of Data Characteristic Example
Quantitative
Qualitative
Primary
Secondary
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
2. Describe by citing an example on when do you use ANOVA, regression and

correlation?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
48
UNIT 7. FORMAT AND MECHANICS IN THE PREPARATION OF RESULTS
Introduction
The ultimate goal of research is to be able to share its findings so that it could
be used by those who need it. Preparing and writing the results is a very important
task of the researcher. For scientific research, the report format should also be
written in scientific format.
A key component of scientific research is presenting research results to the

scientific community. Research results are presented in 3 main formats:
1. oral presentation;
2. poster presentation; and
3. written paper
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the semester, you are expected to:
1. Know the basic requirements in preparing the research report in print and
audio-visual format
2. Prepare a written paper and oral presentation of research
Lesson 1. Print Format (Scientific journals)
For Lesson 1, the student should refer to the training manual entitled “Scientific
Writing for Agricultural Research Scientists” (Youdeowei, A., Stapleton, P. and
Obubo, R., 2012). Detailed guidelines and tips on how to write scientific paper is
presented in the ebook.
Types of paper
The paper that you will submit for possible publication in a scientific journal can be
classified as follows:
 Original articles
 Review articles
 Case reports
 Short communications
 Research notes
 Special reports
Destination
This is where you have to identify your target journal. Your main considerations are
as follows:
 Agriculture journal, crop science journal, animal science journal…
 Submission is free of charge or with submission charges
 Local vs. international publication
 Internationally accredited (e.g. Thomson Scientific, SCOPUS) or nationally
accredited (e.g. CHED)
49
Content of Research Paper
Introduction
 Provides background information on the problem to be investigated
 Describes the current state of knowledge about the problem
 Concludes with a clearly stated study hypothesis and its experimental
expectations
Methods
 Describe the procedures used in testing the study hypothesis
 Describe in sufficient detail that they can be repeated by others:
o materials, equipment,
o analytical and statistical procedures
Results
 Summarize the experimental outcome of the study
 Concise verbal description of the outcome as well as tables and figures,
showing statistical results and experimental error
 Tables and figures should include legends explaining what they are
summarizing
Guidelines for Results:

• Summarize overall data trends without making any comments, biases, or
interpretations.
• Describe the statistical tests you used to analyze your data.
• While data can be presented in figures and tables, a vocal description of the
findings is recommended.
• All results, including those that do not support the hypothesis, should be
presented, and the wording should be understandable to someone who has
not seen your figures and tables.
• The results in the figures and tables must back up the statements made in the
text.
• Following a verbal description, the results of statistical tests can be reported
in parentheses.
Discussion
 Results are interpreted and conclusions are drawn
 Compare the findings to those of other studies and discuss their overall
importance.
 Limitations of the study, sources of mistake, and future work plans are
frequently presented.
Guidelines for Discussion:

 The Discussion is usually the hardest part of the paper to write.
 Analyze the data and relate them to other studies
 The Discussion has three elements:
o Support or reject the original hypothesis based on the results.
o Comparison of findings with those of prior studies
o Hypothetical reasons for unexpected findings and observations
50
 Trends that are not statistically significant cannot be made the basis for
conclusions.
 In the Discussion, do not repeat comprehensive discussions of the data and
outcomes.
 For shorter, simpler articles, combine the Results and Discussions sections.
 Summarize the main topics at the end of the discussion.
 If you think it will help, propose a specific future study.
 Summarize your findings and contributions.
Reminder: Writing the Results and Discussion section of analytical reports in

effective and convincing ways requires doing the following:
 Use text and visual aids properly
 Interpret results
 Use headings and sub-headings
 Use language of reporting appropriately
 Refer to figures correctly
ESSU’s Research Journal
At the Eastern Samar State University (ESSU), students and faculty researchers are
encouraged to publish in the University’s journal as well as in national and
international journals. The Asia-Pacific Research Digest (APRD) is the official
university scientific publication of ESSU.
To be accepted for publication, authors must comply strictly with the requirements in
the guidelines of each scientific journal that they plan to publish the research result or
article.
Below is the summary for preliminary acceptance for review in the APRD, particularly
in preparing the manuscript.
Preparation of manuscript
1. All manuscripts submitted to APRD should be original and there must be no prior
submission undertaken. APRD and ESSU will not be held responsible for any
infringement related to publication of unoriginal and fraudulent articles submitted
by the authors.
2. Manuscripts should be in English and with no more than 7000 words. Longer
articles would be considered in exceptional cases.
3. Follow the format in writing international journals. Refer to International IMRAD

(Introduction, Materials, Results and Discussion) format.
4. Manuscripts must be prepared in MS Word files, text is single-spaced between

lines and uses 11 point Calibri font, including quotations, notes, and references.
Underlining must only be done when it is required and necessary. The following
section headings must be provided and in bold font:
 Introduction
51
 Materials and Methods
 Results, Discussion and Conclusion
 References
5. Only include notes, tables, figures and illustrations that are important and should
be kept to a minimum. Sources for tables, figures, and illustrations must be given
in full. Credits must be given if the study is sourced and/or funded by a project or
any other research funding, including the grant ID number.
6. The paper must conform to the publication manual, American Psychological

Association (APA), 6th or 7th Edition.
7. The author must facilitate plagiarism-grammarly check prior to submitting the

article for initial review. Do not include plagiarized, obscene, libelous, or
defamatory material.
8. Cite all relevant references. Where available, URLs for the references have been
provided.
Lesson 2. Audio-visual Format (Oral and Poster Presentation)
Oral presentation
 An oral scientific presentation should follow the same format as a scientific
article.
 It should include the following sections: introduction, methods, results,
discussion, and acknowledgements.
Tips for giving oral presentation

 Maintain a professional appearance.
 When speaking, address your audience. To structure your presentation, use
note cards or text on slides (talking points).
 Practicing your presentation in front of your mentor or his/her research
associates is a good idea.
 At least 3 minutes should be set out for questions.
Preparing an Effective Presentation

 Organize your thoughts. Start with an outline and make sure the
transitions between parts are smooth. Emphasize the relevance of your
study in the actual world.
 Have a strong opening. Why should your audience pay attention to you?
Starting with a question, whether you expect an answer, is an excellent
way to catch their attention.
 Define terms early. Introduce any terms that may be unfamiliar to the
audience early in your presentation. It's quite tough to get an audience
back on track once they've become lost in foreign terms.
 Design PowerPoint slides to introduce important information. Consider
giving a presentation that isn't based on PowerPoint. Then think about
the points you won't be able to make without slides. Create only the
slides that are required to improve your audience communication.
52
 Time yourself. Do not leave timing your presentation till the last minute.
You only have a few minutes to talk, so you'd like to know as soon as
possible if you're approaching that time limit.
 Create effective notes for yourself. Make sure you have notes that you
can read. Use an outline or other brief reminders of what you want to
say instead of writing out your entire speech. Check to see if the text is
large enough to read from a distance.
 Practice, practice, practice. You will feel more at ease in front of an
audience if you practice your presentation. Ask a friend or two for
criticism once you've practiced in front of them. Make a recording of
yourself and critically listen to it. Make it better and repeat the process.
PowerPoint Tips
 Use a large font. As a general guideline, avoid text less than 24 point.
 Use a clean typeface. On a screen, sans serif styles like Arial are
simpler to read than serif typefaces like Times New Roman.
 Use bullet points, not complete sentences. The text on your slide serves
as a roadmap for what you're going to say. There is no need for the
audience to listen to you if the whole text of your presentation is on your
slides. The 6/7 rule states that each slide should have no more than six
bulleted items and no more than seven words per item.
 Use contrasting colors. Use a dark background with a light text or a light
background with a dark text. Avoid color combinations that appear to be
the same. Color blindness is the most frequent type of color blindness,
thus avoid red/green combos.
 Use special effects sparingly. Using animations, cool transition effects,
noises, and other special effects to ensure that the audience recognizes
your slides is an excellent approach to ensure that they are noticed.
Unfortunately, this indicates that they are not paying attention to you.
Only use special effects when they are necessary to convey a message.
Presenting Effectively
 Be excited. You're talking about something fascinating. Your audience
will sense your enthusiasm and become more interested as a result if
you remember to be passionate.
 Speak with confidence. When you speak, you are the expert in your
subject, but don't act as if you know everything. If you don't know the
answer to a question, admit it. Consider passing the question along to
your mentor or offering to investigate the topic further.
 Make eye contact with the audience. Your goal is to communicate with
your audience, and people are more likely to pay attention if they feel
like you're speaking directly to them. Allow several seconds for your
eyes to settle on one person before moving on to the next. You don't
have to make eye contact with everyone, but you should make sure you
connect with everyone equally.
 Avoid reading from the screen. Reading from a screen, for starters,
hinders you from making eye contact with your audience. Second, you
put it on your slide because you want people to read it, not because
they should.
 Blank the screen when a slide is unnecessary. A slide that has nothing
to do with what you're talking about can easily distract the audience. A
53
dark screen emerges when you press the letter B or the period key,
allowing the listener to focus solely on your words. Continue hitting the
same key to restore the display.
 Use a pointer only when necessary. If you're using a laser pointer, be
sure it's turned off unless you're highlighting something on the screen.
 Explain your equations and graphs. When displaying equations, be sure
to explain them completely. Make a list of all the constants, as well as
the dependent and independent variables. Explain how graphs support
your argument. Demonstrate how the graph advances from left to right
by explaining the x- and y-axes.
 Pause. Your presentation will have audible structure thanks to pauses.
They accentuate key ideas, make transitions clear, and allow time for
the audience to catch up between points and view new slides. Speakers
always perceive pauses as being considerably longer than listeners.
Between points, practice counting silently to three (slowly).
 Avoid filler words. Like, you know, and a lot of other things. These are
signs to an audience that you don't know what to say; you sound
uneasy, and they become uncomfortable as well. Before moving on,
speak slowly enough that you can collect your thoughts. If you're at a
loss for words, pause silently until you do.
 Relax. It's difficult to relax while you're nervous, but if you are, your
audience will be lot more at ease.
 Breathe. It's quite acceptable to be nervous. In fact, all good speakers
should be frightened whenever they are in front of an audience. Apart
from a lot of preparation beforehand, the most efficient technique to
keep your anxiety in check is to remember to breathe deeply throughout
your presentation.
 Acknowledge the people who supported your research. Thank the
persons who helped you complete your research, such as your mentor,
research team, colleagues, and other funding and support sources.
Poster Presentation
 Thank the persons who helped you complete your research, such as your
mentor, research team, colleagues, and other funding and support sources.
 The data is provided as blocks of text and graphs.
 From upper left to lower right, arrange blocks in columns, ending with
acknowledgements.
 The reader should be able to follow the flow of your poster naturally.
 Avoid making the same mistakes you've made in the past.
 Don't use more than two font kinds o Don't use bold or wacky color
schemes
 Don't utilize ALL CAPITAL LETTERS in your writing.
 Avoid using wacky typefaces like Comic Sans.
 Make your figures pleasant to the eye and self-explanatory. If consumers
have to read a lot of text to find out what the figure symbolizes, they will lose
interest.
 Don't pack too much information onto your poster. The use of blank space
makes the poster appear less sophisticated and more approachable, which
helps draw attention to it. You can use white space to draw attention to key
aspects of the poster (e.g., the conclusion). As the saying goes, less is more.
54
Poster presentation
 Greeting bystanders by standing in front of the poster and saying, "Hello."
Hello, my name is... I am a student who comes from... Do you want to learn
more about my research?”
 Without reading, explain things in your own words.
 Give context, a hypothesis, and key findings and conclusions.
 Describe the visuals and graphics.
 "I would be pleased to answer any questions you might have," said to
bystanders.
 Attendees are encouraged to provide feedback.
ASSESSMENT:
Present your research proposal following the proper research

presentation.
55
REFERENCES
Barbour, R. Introducing Qualitative Research (A Student’s Guide) 2nd edition. Sage

Publication Ltd., London. 2014.
Bates College. 2011. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style
Scientific Paper. Retrieved from http://jrtdd.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/How-to-
Write-a-Paper-in-Scientific-Journal-Style-and-Format.pdf
Chan, Peggie._____. Chapter 4. Writing Research Results. NUS, Singapore.
Retrieved from http://www.nus.edu.sg/celc/research/books/cwtuc/chapter04.pdf
Creswell,J. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluation
quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River,NJ:Pearson
De Leon, S., Claudio, V., Ruiz, A. Term Paper and Scientific Writing (with Guidelines
for Research Methods and Theses), 4th edition. Merrriam & Wbester Bookstore, Inc.
2012.
Garcia, A.M. (1990). Guide to thesis writing .Published by Rex Book Store Inc.
Gomez, K. and Gomez, A. Statistical Procedure for Agricultural Research, 2nd
edition. John Wiley & Sons. New York, Chicester, Brisbane, Toronto and Singapore.
1984.
Gregorio, G.L. (2000).Research methods and technical writing in Agriculture.
Published by Rex Book Store Inc.
Prado, H.A. et.al ( 2010). Computational methods for Agricultural Research:
Advances and applications. Igi publishing
PSAS Governing Council 2012-2013. PSAS Writeshop Manual on Scientific Writing.
Writeshop Series by The Philippine Society of Animal Science
Richard T. Koenig, Marlon Winger and Boyd Kitchen. 2000. Simple, Low-Cost Data
Collection Methods for Agricultural Field Studies. Journal of Extension. Available at
https://www.joe.org/joe/2000april/a1.php
S. Shibusawa and C. Haché. 2009. Data Collection and Analysis Methods for Data
from Field Experiments. Systems Analysis and Modeling in Food and Agriculture
edited by K.C.Ting, David H. Fleisher, Luis F. Rodriguez. Available at
https://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C10/E5-17-05-02.pdf
Sahu, P.K.(2013). Research Methodology: Guide for researchers in Agricultural
Science, social science and other related field. https: //www.springer.com
Sendhil R, Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh, Ajay Verma, Karnam Venkatesh and Vikas
Gupta (2017). Data Analysis Tools and Approaches (DATA) in Agricultural Sciences.
ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research. pp 1-126. Available at
https://www.academia.edu/35434229/Data_Analysis_Tools_and_Approaches_DATA
_in_Agricultural_Sciences?auto=download&email_work_card=download-paper
Sevilla, C., Ochave, J., Punsalan, T., Regala, B., Uriarte G. Research Methods. Rex
56
Book Store, Quezon City. 2001.
TIM N. MOTIS. 2003. Statistical Analysis of Simple Agricultural Experiments.
Available at https://assets.echocommunity.org/publication_issue/7e664d70-6b5b-
4381-9518-6e373c16621a/en/tn-50-statistical-analysis-of-simple-agricultural-
experiments.pdf
Youdeowei, A., Stapleton, P. and Obubo, R., (eds.) 2012. Scientific Writing for
Agricultural Research Scientists – A Training Resource Manual, Wageningen, The
Netherlands: CTA. Retrieved from
http://www.coraf.org/documents/CTA116_scientificwritingbook%20FINAL%20nov
%202012.pdf
57
COURSE GUIDE
Course: Methods of Agricultural Research Semester: 1st School Year: 2021-2022

Class Schedule: MW (1:30-2:30 pm, Lec Instructor:
and 2:30-4:00 Lab) Rina C. Alde
Course Description
Qualitative and quantitative methods in the conduct of agricultural research
SCHEDULE TOPIC
Unit 1: Introduction to Research
Lesson 1: Comparison between science and common sense
Week 1-2
Lesson 2: The Scientific Method
Lesson 3: Research - Definition, Purpose, Characteristic, Classification
Unit 2: Elements of experimentation
Lesson 1: Estimates of error (replication and randomization)
Week 3-4 Lesson 2: Control of error (Blocking, proper plot technique and data
analysis)
Lesson 3: Interpretation of results
Unit 3: Writing the Title and the Introduction
Lesson 1: Writing the Study Title and the Introduction
Lesson 2: Formulating Problem / Problem Identification
Week 5-6 Lesson 3: Statement of Objectives and hypothesis
Lesson 4: Research Variable and its Kind
Lesson 5: Significance of the Study, Scope of the Study, and Key
Terms
Unit 4: Review of Related Literature and Studies
Lesson 1: The Value of a Literature Review
Week 7 -8
Lesson 2: Steps Involved in a Literature Search
Lesson 3: Writing the Literature Review Report
Week 9 Midterm Examination
Unit 5: Research methodologies
Week 10-11
Lesson 1: Qualitative/descriptive and action research
Lesson 2: Quantitative research: basic experimental design applicable
Week 12-13 to agricultural research
Lesson 3: Preparation of Log Frame
Unit 6: Data Measurement and Collection
Week 14-15 Lesson 1: Data collection
Lesson 2: Data analysis techniques & interpretation of data
Unit 7: Format and Mechanics in the Preparation of Results
Week 16-18 Lesson 1: Print Format (Scientific journals)
Lesson 2: Audio-visual Format (Oral and Poster Presentation)
Week 19 Final Examination
Course Requirements
ESSU-ACAD-501|Version 4 Page 1 of 4
Effectivity Date: June 10, 2021
 Assessments and major examinations
Course Learning Outcomes Course Learning Outcomes
CLO1. Explain the importance of conducting CLO1. Term paper on a research in
research in the light of current agriculture
research issues in agriculture CLO2. Problem solving on statistical
CLO2. Identify and use appropriate methods and research designs that
research and statistical methods and shall guide the collection and
research designs that shall guide the observation of data
collection and observation of data CLO3. Analysis of data using appropriate
CLO3. Analyze data using appropriate tools tools
CLO4. Prepare/write research proposals, CLO4. Research proposals
scientific or technical reports in CLO5. Presentation of research proposal
agriculture
CLO5. Follow appropriate format for
presentation in scientific meetings
and/ fora
Course Policies Grading System
1. To ensure successful completion of
this course, students are expected to There will be 2 rating periods:
arrive for class on time and to remain Mid-Term and Finals.
in class until the end of the class
session. The grades for each rating period shall
2. All students are expected to behave be computed as:
with academic honesty. It is not
academically honest to misrepresent 60% -Assessments/
another person’s work as your own, Requirements
to take credit for someone else’s 40% -Major Examination
words or ideas, to obtain advanced 100% - Grade for the corresponding
information on confidential test rating period
materials, or to act in a way that
might harm another students’
chances for academic success. Average grade = (Mid-term Grade +Final
These students will automatically Grade)/2
have a grade of 5.0 after three (3)
offenses of academic dishonesty.
Assignments should be submitted on
the set deadline. Late assignments
will be deducted accordingly.
3. All forms of cheating are STRICTLY
PROHIBITED. Anyone who will get
caught doing so will be subject for
appropriate disciplinary action.
References
1. Barbour, R. Introducing Qualitative Research (A Student’s Guide) 2nd edition.

Sage Publication Ltd., London. 2014.
2. Bates College. 2011. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style
Scientific Paper. Retrieved from http://jrtdd.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/How-
to-Write-a-Paper-in-Scientific-Journal-Style-and-Format.pdf
3. Chan, Peggie. Chapter 4. Writing Research Results. NUS, Singapore. Retrieved
from http://www.nus.edu.sg/celc/research/books/cwtuc/chapter04.pdf
4. Creswell,J. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluation
quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River,NJ:Pearson
5. De Leon, S., Claudio, V., Ruiz, A. Term Paper and Scientific Writing (with
Guidelines for Research Methods and Theses), 4th edition. Merrriam & Wbester
Bookstore, Inc. 2012.
6. Garcia, A.M. (1990). Guide to thesis writing .Published by Rex Book Store Inc.
7. Gomez, K. and Gomez, A. Statistical Procedure for Agricultural Research, 2nd
edition. John Wiley & Sons. New York, Chicester, Brisbane, Toronto and
Singapore. 1984.
8. Gregorio, G.L. (2000).Research methods and technical writing in Agriculture.
Published by Rex Book Store Inc.
9. Prado, H.A. et.al ( 2010). Computational methods for Agricultural Research:
Advances and applications. Igi publishing
10. PSAS Governing Council 2012-2013. PSAS Writeshop Manual on Scientific
Writing. Writeshop Series by The Philippine Society of Animal Science
11. Richard T. Koenig, Marlon Winger and Boyd Kitchen. 2000. Simple, Low-Cost Data
Collection Methods for Agricultural Field Studies. Journal of Extension. Available at
https://www.joe.org/joe/2000april/a1.php
12. S. Shibusawa and C. Haché. 2009. Data Collection and Analysis Methods for Data
from Field Experiments. Systems Analysis and Modeling in Food and Agriculture
edited by K.C.Ting, David H. Fleisher, Luis F. Rodriguez. Available at
https://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C10/E5-17-05-02.pdf
13. Sahu, P.K.(2013). Research Methodology: Guide for researchers in Agricultural
Science, social science and other related field. https: //www.springer.com
14. Sendhil R, Anuj Kumar, Satyavir Singh, Ajay Verma, Karnam Venkatesh and Vikas
Gupta (2017). Data Analysis Tools and Approaches (DATA) in Agricultural
Sciences. ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research. pp 1-126.
Available at
https://www.academia.edu/35434229/Data_Analysis_Tools_and_Approaches_DA
TA_in_Agricultural_Sciences?auto=download&email_work_card=download-paper
15. Sevilla, C., Ochave, J., Punsalan, T., Regala, B., Uriarte G. Research Methods.
Rex Book Store, Quezon City. 2001.
16. TIM N. MOTIS. 2003. Statistical Analysis of Simple Agricultural Experiments.
Available at https://assets.echocommunity.org/publication_issue/7e664d70-6b5b-
4381-9518-6e373c16621a/en/tn-50-statistical-analysis-of-simple-agricultural-
experiments.pdf
17. Youdeowei, A., Stapleton, P. and Obubo, R., (eds.) 2012. Scientific Writing for
Agricultural Research Scientists – A Training Resource Manual, Wageningen, The
Netherlands: CTA. Retrieved from
http://www.coraf.org/documents/CTA116_scientificwritingbook%20FINAL%20nov
%202012.pdf
Consultation Schedule:
10:30 -1:30pm/F
Prepared by: Approved:
RINA C. ALDE DR. JUDITH A. ELJERA

INSTRUCTOR PROGRAM HEAD
Quality Policy
We commit to provide quality instruction,
research, extension and production grounded on
excellence, integrity and accountability as we
move towards exceeding stakeholders’ satisfaction
in compliance with relevant requirements and well-
defined continual improvement measures.

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BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL SCIENCES

This Instructional Material is for Eastern Samar State University, College of

This course is intended to guide Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (BSA)

DR. DANILO P. ALURA

Dr. Sharon B. Singzon

DR. JUDITH A. ELJERA

Dr. Lito D. Lacaba

Cristita O. Subere, MAS

 Use this module with care.

If this module is lost and found, please return

EASTERN SAMAR STATE UNIVERSITY

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the significance of science in research;

2. Apply the scientific method in solving problems related to agriculture such

3. Explain the importance or research and its characteristics.

Lesson 1: Comparison between science and common sense

Science is an ubiquitous term which has a number of definitions and meanings. It

 Science could mean two things: as a method through which a planned

 Science as a method of inquiry involves systematic, unbiased, critical, and

Systematic implies that science employs a well-planned step by step

Empirical investigation implies actual observation or experimentation

Unbiased is closely synonymous to the term objective which denotes

Accurate indicates an effort to eliminate errors in the process. Although a

Critical is a term describing an activity which involves analytical thinking

Analytical implies that in scientific work, we need to examine our subject of

Functions and Aims of Science

1. Exploration invades the unknown world, which is full of

2. Testing relates and provides a particular hypothesis held by an investigator

3. Description essentially it characterizes a particular phenomenon of interest.

5. Prediction follows after describing and explaining the observed occurrence.

6. Understanding seems to be the final goal of any scientific work. Scientists

Lesson 2: The Scientific Method

This is the method of Science described as objective, accurate, systematic,

Steps in Scientific Method

1. Observation is an important road to knowledge and is most basic step in

2. Problem identification follows after an intelligent observation has taken

3. Hypothesis formulation is making intelligent guess to explain the observed

1. Enumerate and discuss the foundation of Scientific method.

2. Give the advantages of using the scientific method.

 Research is understood as method or process which seek to discover, find

 Research is almost synonymous to science as a process. It is defined as a

 Research leads to discoveries, inventions, and more exploration of the

 According to Aguinaldo (2002), research is a purposeful, methodical, and

1. To serve as a tool in the continued search for more knowledge to advance

2. To enhance greater understanding of human behavior, environment, and

3. To generate and develop more efficient technologies and innovations

4. To test, verify, modify, or evaluate new and existing technologies and

5. To test known theories and hypotheses for their validity.

Characteristics of Research and Researcher

1. Problem solving activity - is an important theory that has driven wide

2. Development of new principles and generalizations-

4. Collection of Novel Information

5. Requires Time, Resources, and Expertise

Time is important, since the researcher makes empirical observations to test

Research is also resource-oriented because it requires materials and

6. Systematic and Well-planned activity

7. Needs a Virtuous Worker

8. Requires Validation and Testing

Characteristics of a good researcher

o Punctuality - simply means doing and accomplishing things on time

o Ability to reason - refers to the actual and potential capability of the

o Originality-Coming up with a new thing or idea is just one of the objectives of

o Resourcefulness- Problems often arise as one pursues for research