Module of Ag Res 1

ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT COLLEGE
POBLACION, AURORA, ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
COURSE PACKET IN
AG RES 1
(METHODS OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH)
Prepared by:
College of Agriculture
2020
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Ag Res 1
(METHODS OF AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH)
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FOREWORD
Welcome to the Zamboanga del Sur Provincial Government College (ZSPGC)

and be part of the College of Agriculture.
The course introduces the students with proper knowledge, skills and attitudes
required in conducting research. It includes the major steps in the design and conduct of
social research/experimental research from problem definition to analysis,interpretation
and write-up of research report.
Various learning experiences are provided to facilitate the students

understanding of the course objectives with relevant references and reprints
provided.The students is encouraged to supplement the learning packets with reading
materials that are available in the internet.Students are required to accomplish all the
assignments,exercises and activites by following the instructions in the course packet.
If there are problems encountered pertinent to the course,please feel free to

contact your instructor or the Office of the College of Agriculture.
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ZSPGC College of Agriculture Vision, Mission and Goal
Vision
The ZSPGC, College of Agriculture visualizes the importance of research as a tool for the development of
appropriate technologies and innovations designed to increase awareness, productivity, agripreneurial skills,
development, and enhancement of the quality of life of the farmers.
Mission
The ZSPGC, College of Agriculture shall wield to produce business-oriented professionals and practitioners
with exceptional leadership qualities in farm management, entrepreneurship, research, and extension services.
Goal
The ZSPGC, College of Agriculture aims to provide quality instructions to produce a globally competitive
graduate, promote research and training on sustainable development, encourage agribusiness, and implement
programs for poverty alleviation and food security.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page Number
Cover page i
Preface/Foreword iii
College Vision, Mission and Goal iv
Table of Contents v
Letter for the students vii
Week 1
Unit 1: Scientific Approach to Research 1
Activity No. 1 : Review Questions 5
Week 2-3
Unit 2: Research Method 5
Activity No. 2 : Research Study Title 18
Week 4-5
Unit 3: Basic Parts of a Thesis or Research Paper 19
Activity No. 3 :Writing Abstract 25
Week 6
Unit 4: Choosing a Thesis Topic 37
Activity No. 4: Preparation of the Thesis Topic 40
Activity No.5 : Self- Test 40
Week 7-8
Unit 5: The Research Problem 41
Activity No.6: Self-Test 48
Activity No. 7:Developing Research Problems and Titles 48
( Title Hearing will be on week 8)
Week 9
Unit 6: Main Body of the Research/Thesis 49
Activity No. 8 :Doing Critique 53
Week 10
Unit 7 : Review of Literature 56
Activity No. 9: Self- Test 60
Activity No. 10: RRL Evaluation 60
Activity No. 11: Developing Review of Relate Literature 61
Week 11
Unit 8: Methodology 62
Activity No. 12: Self-Test 56
Week 12
Unit 9: Advance Statistics in Agriculture 68
Activity No. 13: self- Test 64
Unit 10: Results and Discussion 73
Activity No.14: Self -Test 71
Week 13
Unit 11 : Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 77
Activity No.15 : Self -Test 75
Week 14-15
Research Proposal Making (Chapters 1-3)
Week 16
Submission of Research Proposal and Thesis Proposal Hearing
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ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR PROVINCIAL GOVERNEMENT COLLEGE
Ag Res 1 (Methods of Agricultural Research)
To my student in Ag Res 1 :
Welcome to the first semester of school year 2020-2021 in general and to

this course in Ag Res 1 in particular.
This course introduces with proper knowledge, skills and attitudes required in
conducting research. It includes the major steps in the design and conduct of social
research from problem definition to analysis, interpretation and write-up of research
report. At the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Gain some basic knowledge of the fundamental concepts in social
science /experimental research, the criteria for judging the design of
social/experimental research and the methods of inquiry and
procedures employed in investigating social problems and
behavioral phenomena
2. Develop the ability to design a social science /experimental
proposal
3. Acquire the needed competencies in the collection and processing
of research data, analysis, interpretation and reporting of research
results.
Your course will run for 16 weeks of blended learning which is a combination
of once a week face-to-face learning and the rest of the week for home learning
where you will be aided by this course packet. This course packet contains the
course outline; the weekly lessons and activities; major course requirements; grading
system and the Basic Protocols to be observed during the face-to-face learning
sessions.
At the end of each lesson you are required to work on the activities which you
are expected to submit to the course facilitator at the given time. Moreover, you are
required to take the quarterly examinations on the designated date and time.
If you have questions for clarifications you can text, call or email your course
facilitator.
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To my students:
You are now about to start the first lesson for Week 1.Read and analyze the learning
materials below. Conduct further research to better understand the topic and do the
corresponding activity.
UNIT 1.SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO RESEARCH
Instructional Objectives
After reading this unit, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the source of knowledge

2. Describe the attitudes of researchers and social scientist
3. Explain what is a scientific research
4. Discuss Dewey’s paradigm of inquiry
Introduction
One of the main roles of research is to provide new knowledge. In order to satisfy
this role, we have to understand the research process. Before we pursue further,
let us review some of the basic sources of knowledge.
Sources of Knowledge
Ary (1990) explained five sources of knowledge categorized as 1). Experienced;

2). Authority; 3).deductive reasoning, 4).Inductive reasoning; and 5) scientific
approach.
 Experience. Much of the activities we do in our life are done repetitively.

As we perform these activities, things are learned in the process and
practices are developed. Much of the practices and wisdom passed from
generation to generation are results of accumulated experiences.
Although some of these practices may have escaped logical explanations,
they were considered truths by virtue of the cause and effect through the
ergo propter hoc phenomena. But is has limitations as a source of truth
because different people look at things differently and therefore have
different experiences even for the same circumstances. For example, a
plant “aloe vera “ family has long been considered by our forefathers to be
very effective cure for fresh wounds before the medical world confirmed it.
People with negative experiences with this plant naturally will not agree.
 Authority. One seeks the answer to questions and problems from
someone who has extensive experience or who has similar experience or
who has been trained formally or informally to deal with the question.
Examples of people and authority include those who:
 Had been working in a specialized line of work
 Actually experienced the same phenomena
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 Were educated formally or informally to deal with the problem
 Deductive reasoning. Aristotle and his Greek followers introduced deductive
reasoning. It is a thinking process in which one proceeds from general to specific
statements using prescribed rules of logic. It is a reasoning process following a
logic that if the premises are true, the conclusion is necessarily true.
Syllogism is a major kind of deductive reasoning.
Example:
Rich people have expensive cars with chauffeur.
The Cruz family has expensive cars with chauffeur;
Therefore, the Cruz family is rich.
Deductive reasoning is very useful in the research process because:1) it provides

a means of linking theory to observation and 2) it enables researchers to deduce from
existing theory what to be observed. Deductions from the theory can provide
hypotheses.
 Inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning was introduced by Francis Bacon(

1561-1626). Through the years, inductive reasoning has become the
fundamental principles of all sciences. Observations are made on particular
events, and then on the basis of the observed events, inferences are made about
a whole class.
Exercise: Identify which is deductive and which is inductive.
a. Every mammal has lungs

Carabaos are mammals. Therefore, carabao have lungs.
b. Every carabao observed has lungs, Therefore, carabaos have lungs
 Scientific Approach. Many problems could not be solved by induction alone.

Thus , many scholars have evolved a new approach called inductive-deductive
method or sometimes called the scientific approach.
The scientific approach is described as a process in which investigators move

inductively from their observation to hypotheses and then deductively from
hypotheses to the logical implications.
The use of hypotheses is a principal difference between the scientific

approach and inductive reasoning.
Nature of Science
Science is best described as a method of inquiry that permits investigators to

examine phenomena of interest to them. It is not just any method of inquiry. It is a
method which Babbie (1990) characterized as :
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 Logical .Science is a rational activity and scientific explanation must make sense.
Religion may rest on revelations but science must rest on logical reason.
 Deterministic. Science is based on the assumption that all events have existing
causes that are subject to identification and logical understanding. Nothings “just
happens”- it happens for a reason.
 General. Science aims at general understanding rather than at the explanation of
individual events.
 Parsimonious (stingy).Investigators attempt to understand events using as few
explanatory variables as possible even if they know that more explanatory
variables increases the degree of determination.
 Specific. While scientists might wish to explain the causes of the events in
general terms, they have to be precise and specific in measuring the causes of
the events.
 Empirically verifiable. General laws are useful only if they can be verified through
the collection and manipulation of empirical data.
 Objective. Free from biases.
 Open Modification. Many theories of the past have been replaced by new ones or
have been modified.
The aim of science is to explain natural phenomena ( Kerlinger,1986).Such

explanations are called Theories. According to Kerlinger, instead of trying to explain
each and every separate behavior of children, the scientist seeks general
explanations that encompasses and link together many different behaviors.
Attitudes of Researchers and Social Scientist
In general, scientist possesses unique characteristics and attitudes that

contribute to their success in the search for new knowledge. These attitudes are
expected to be developed in the students:
 Doubters and highly skeptical of the data science. Findings are regarded as
tentative until well verified. They make their own procedures known to others so
that other researchers can verify the findings.
 Objective and impartial. Free from bias. Scientist avoid research work with
political overtones and favors particular interest group.
 Deal with facts. Scientist do not deal with values and beliefs that are non-
verifiable.
 Not satisfied with isolated facts but seek to integrate and systematize their
findings. Before any findings are considered facts, they are subjected to
verification.
Scientific Research
Is all research scientific? Obviously the answer is “no”! What then is a scientific
research? What make a research scientific is described in the following definition
suggested by Kirlinger (1990).
“Scientific research is a systematic controlled, empirical and critical investigation

of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations
among such phenomena”.
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Two points need to be emphasized in the definition. First are worlds systematic
and controlled…to imply the scientific investigations are so ordered that investigators
can have critical confidence in research outcomes.
Second is empirical. If the scientist believes something is so, he must put his
belief to a test. Subjective belief must be checked against objective reality.
Dewey’s Paradigm of Inquiry
The scientific approach is a special systematized form of reflective thinking and

inquiry. In Dewey’s paradigm of inquiry, he outlined the general process as follows:
 Problem-obstacle – idea. First the scientist experiences as obstacle to

understanding, gets bothered by it and get curious why it is so.
 Hypothesis. After intellectualizing the problem, looking back at experience for
possible solutions, observing relevant phenomena he formulates a hypotheses.
 Reasoning-Deduction. The scientist deduces the consequences of the
hypotheses he formulated.
 Observation-Test Experiment. The essence of testing a hypotheses is to test the
relation expressed by the Hypotheses.
Summary of the Research Process
 There is an indeterminate situation that needs answers, explanation or a

solution through a process of inquiry.
 The scientist experiences doubts, emotional disturbance, inchoate ideas about
the indeterminate situation crying out to be determinate.
 He formulated the problem. Getting curious why the indeterminate, situation is
so. The scientist intellectualizes the problem.
 The scientist scans his own experience and studies the literature written by
others,
 Based on this scanning and review of related literature, the scientist formulates a
working hypotheses then deduce the implications.
 He gathers data and information through survey, observation and
experimentation to test the hypotheses.
 He decides to reject or accept the hypotheses on the basis of the test.
Suggested Readings/References
Alkuino,J.M. Jr. (2003).Research Planning and Manuscript Preparation. Leyte State

University,Visca, Baybay, Leyte, Philippines.
Sandoval, A.C.Y.(2007).Social Science Research. Visayas State University,Visca,

Baybay,Leyte.
Samie, T. (2005). Research Methods and Writing Research Proposals. Center for
Advancement of Postgraduate Studies and Research in Engineering Sciences. Cairo
University, retrieved from
http://rsucivilengineering.weebly.com/uploads/7/7/6/4/77644974/research_methods_and
_writing_research_proposals_5.pdf
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Activity No.1- Review Questions
1. What are the five sources of knowledge? Discuss each/

2. Explain the differences between deductive and inductive reasoning.
3. What characteristics and attitudes a researcher/scientist should develop to
succeed in his work?
4. Is all research scientific? Why?
5. According to Dewey, scientific approach is a systematized form of reflective
thinking and inquiry. Do you agree with him? Discuss your answer.
Weekly Output:
 Activity # 1
Keep the following output in your Portfolio:
Activity 1 and submit them to your Course facilitator during the face-to-face
session on Week 2.
End of Week 1
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To my students:
You are now about to start the 2nd lesson for Week 2-3 .Read and analyze the learning
UNIT2. RESEARCH METHODS
1. Explain what is research and create own definition

2. Enumerate the purpose of research
3. Describe a good research
4. Differentiate research to the problem solving
5. Discuss the steps in scientific method of research
INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH:
RESEARCH is a key to progress. There can be no progress without research in

almost if all human endeavors. In government, in education, in trade and in commerce,
and in all types and kinds of industries, research is vital and essential. Therefore, the
methods and techniques must be taught and learned in graduate as well as in
undergraduate educational work. This is imperative because the people who have gone
through the college and graduate levels of education are the ones who are most
expected to undertake research activities.
Due to the reason above, it is the purpose of this book to make the study of
research methods and techniques as well as thesis writing easier, more practical and
understandable but comprehensive enough.
Definitions of Research
There are almost as many definitions of research as there are authors writing
about the subject. Fortunately, the different definitions formulated by such authors have
common elements. Samples definitions follow:
Good defines RESEARCH as a “careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, variations in

technique and method according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified,
directed toward the clarification or resolutions (or both) of the problem.” (Good, p. 464)
Aquino has a more detailed definition of research. He says that “research is,
simply, the systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic or problems.
After a careful, systematic search for he eventually faces another essential task – that
of preparing the research report pertinent information or data on a specific topic or
problem, and after the research worker has analyzed and interpreted the data,.”
(Aquino. P. 1)
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Research has been defined as “the process of gathering data or information to
solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner.” (Manuel and Mendel, p. 5)
Parel defines research as a “systematic study or investigation of something for

the purpose of answering questions posed by the researcher.” (Cited by Sanchez, p. 2)
Treeces and Treeces commented that “research in its broadest sense is an

attempt to gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the collection of data in a
rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation.” (Treece and
Treece, p. 3)
Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be defined as a

purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering, analyzing, classifying,
organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem, for
prediction, for inventing, for the discovery of truth, or for the expansion or verification of
existing knowledge all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of human
life.
Purpose of Research (Aims, Objectives, Goals)
The definition of research says that research is purposive. The main or

principal purpose and goal of research is the preservation and improvement of
the quality of human life. All kinds of research are directed towards this end.
“The purpose of the research is to serve man,” and “The goal of the research is
the good life.” (Good and Scates, pp. 9. 14). Due to research, man has attained
great accelerating progress and is enjoying the products of research, such as the fast
and comfortable land, sea and air means of transportation, the wonders of electricity
like the radio, telephone, air conditioning, light in the homes, movies, running
machinery for industry, the computer, the potent drugs that promote health and prolong
life, and many other countless things. “To satisfy man’s craving for understanding,
to improve his judgment, to add to his power, to reduce the burden of work, to
relieve suffering, and to increase satisfactions in multitudinous ways – these are
larger and fundamental goals of the research.” (Good and Scates, p. 15)
For more specific PURPOSES AND GOALS OF RESEARCH, the following may
be mentioned:
1. To discover new facts about known phenomena. (Alcohol is a known

phenomenon and research may turn it into a kind of fuel equal in equality
to gasoline)
2. To find answers to problems which are only solved by existing methods
and information (Cancer is a serious disease which is only partially cured
by present methods, but due to intensive and continuous research, the
disease may be eradicated later on)
3. Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products.
(This goal envisages the invention of new gadgets and machines, food
products and others used by man)
4. To discover previously unrecognized substances or elements. (Previously
we had only 92 elements but due to research we now have more than
100)
5. Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements. (Due to
research, we come to know the dangers from the abusive use of
unprescribed drugs and some poisonous substances)
These are suggested by French (Teece and Treece, Jr., p. 5) And
the stament enclosed in parentheses are examples by the author.
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6. To order related, valid generalizations in systematized science.
Schlotfeldt. (Ibid.) (The result of this purpose of research is the science we
are now studying in school)
7. To provide a basis for decision-making in business, industry, education,
government, and in other undertakings. One approach in decision-making
is the research approach. (Gore and Dyson, p. 65). (This is basing
important decision upon the results of research)
8. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity. (Sanchez, p. 3) (Edison was curious
about how a hen hatches her eggs and made a research on that and he
invented the incubator)
9. To find the answers to queries by means of scientific methods. One
important question that may be asked which can be answered only by
means of research is: in what setting is life expectancy higher, in the city
or in the barrio?
10. To acquire a deeper and better understanding about one phenomenon
that can be known and understood better by research is why a woman is
generally smaller than men.
11. To expand or verify existing knowledge. This usually happens when
researches are replicated. Newly discovered facts may be found to
expand knowledge gained from a previous research or verified if the same
facts are found.
In relation to Purpose Nos. 2 and 3, the following may be added to
the list of purposes:
12. To improve educational practices for raising the quality of school
products. Research surveys often result in the revision of curricula and
instructional innovations to maximize the effectiveness of the learning
process.
13. To promote health and prolong life. This purpose is very obviously
demonstrated in pharmaceutical, nutritional, and medical research.
14. To provide man with more of his basic needs – more and better food,
clothing, shelter, etc. The work of the International Rice Research Institute
in Los Baños, Laguna is a good example of this purpose.
15. To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more
comfortable. Due to research airplanes are made to fly faster, land
vehicles to run faster, labor-saving machines have been invented and
improved, radio and television ring news immediately to the remote areas,
and more wonders of electricity make life easier and better.
Characteristics of Good Research
Crawford, from his definition, has given some characteristics of research as

follows: (Qouted by Aquino, p. 1)
Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing
specialized tools, instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate
solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. Its starts with
problem, collects data or facts, analyze these criticisms, and reaches decisions based
on actual evidence. It involves original work instead of a mere exercise of personal
opinion. It involves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to prove
something, seeking to know not only what but how much, and measurement is therefore
a central feature of it.
Another author, Best, given a summary of the more important characteristics

of a good research as follows: (Cited by Aquino, p. 2).
1. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand

sources. It is not research when one merely restates or merely
recognizes what is already known or what has been written. Research
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places emphasis upon the discovery of general principle. It goes beyond
the specific groups and a situation investigated, and, by careful sampling
procedures, infers qualities of the entire population from those observed in
the smaller group.
2. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation. The
researcher knows what already know about his problem. He proceeds
from this point, carefully planning his procedures. Data are gathered,
procedure, and analyzed with as much accuracy is possible. He uses such
valid data-gathering instruments as he can find or devise, and employs
mechanical means to improve on the accuracy of human observation,
recording, and computation of data.
3. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test to
verify the data collected and the procedures employed. The
researcher constantly strives to eliminate personal feelings and
preference. He resists the temptation to seek only the data that support
his hypothesis. There is no attempt to persuade or to prove. The emphasis
is on testing, rather than on providing hypothesis. The researcher elevates
clear thinking and logic. He suppresses feeling and emotion in his
analysis.
4. Research endeavor to organize data in quantitative terms, if
possible, and express them as numerical measures. Research is
patient and unhurried. The researcher is willing to exert painstaking
effort, suspending judgment to permit the data and logic to lead to a sound
conclusion. He realizes that significant findings do not come as a result of
hurried and careless and procedures. Research requires courage. The
researcher is willing to follow his procedures to conclusion that may be
unpopular and bring social disapproval.
5. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every term is carefully
defined, all procedures are described in detail, all limiting factors are
recognized, all references are carefully documented, and all results are
objectively recorded. All conclusion and generalization are cautiously
arrived at, with due consideration for all of the limitations of methodology,
data collected, and errors of human interpretation.
From the discussion above, the characteristics of research may be

summarized as follows:
1. Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential procedure
that leads to the discovery of truth, solution of a problem, or whatever is
aimed to be discovered.
2. Research is controlled. All variables except those that are tested or
being experimented upon are kept constant (not allowed to change or
vary) so that the changes made on the subjects of the study can be
attributed only the experimental variable. This is especially true in an
experimental research.
3. Research is empirical. All the procedures employed and the data
gathered are perceived in the same manner by all observers. For
instances, one says that there are five persons in the room, all agree to
the existence of the five persons. However, if one says that there are five
ghosts in the room one or none at all may be believed it because not all
people believe in ghosts. Ghosts are example of data that are not
empirical.
4. Research is analytical. There is a critical analysis of all the data used so
that there is no error in their interpretation.
5. Research is objective, unbiased, and logical. All the findings are
conclusion are logically on empirical data and no effort is made to alter
the results of the research.
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6. Research employs hypothesis. This is to guide the investigation
process. In experimental studies, hypotheses are expressly stated, but in
descriptive studies, the specific sub-problems or specific questions serve
as the hypotheses and the hypotheses are tested and not proved.
7. Research employs quantitative or statistical methods. Data are
transformed into numerical measures and are treated statistically to
determine their significance or usefulness.
8. Research is original work. Except in historical research, data are
gathered from primary sources or first-hand sources and not from
secondary sources (usually printed materials such as books, or these,
etc.)
9. Research is done by an expert. The researcher uses valid data-
gathering instrument, and valid data. He subjects his data to expert
scrutiny.
10. Research is accurate investigation, observation and description. In
fact, every research activity must be done accurately so that the findings
will lead to the formulation of scientific generalizations. All conclusions is
based on actual evidences.
11. Research is patient and unhurried activity. This is to ensure accuracy.
Research that hurriedly done or conducted carelessly due to racing
against them may be lead to shaky conclusions and generalizations.
12. Research requires an effort-making capacity. No research can be
conducted without the exertion of much effort. No one without any effort-
making capacity can conduct a research because the research involves
much work and time.
13. Research requires courage. Research requires courage because the
researchers oftentimes undergo hazardous, discomforts and the like. At
times the researcher encounters, public and social disapproval. Also,
disagreements with colleagues may arise.
Differences Between Research and Problem-Solving
The researcher must be able to distinguish between research and problem-

solving. His supposed research problem may only be good for problem-solving. The
difference between the two are summarized as follows: (Treece and Treece, Jr., pp. 47-
48)
Research Problem-solving
1. There may not be a problem, only 1. There is always a problem to be

interest in answering a question or solved.
a query.
2. A research problem is more 2. A problem to be solved is less
rigorous and broader scope. rigorous and less broad.
3. The research problem is not 3. The problem to be solved has to
necessary defined specifically. be defined specifically and
4. All researches are intended to identified definitely.
solve some kinds of problem, but 4. Problem-solving does not
this is not the primary aim. always involve research.
5. Research is conducted not 5. Problem-solving is always
primarily to solve a problem but this intended to solve a problem.
is not the primary aim.
6. Research is concerned with broad 6. Problem-solving is concerned
problems, recurrent phenomena, with a specific problem and
and wide application through once the problem is solved that
generalization. It is concerned with is the end of it.
defining and outlining the properties
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of phenomena, with forecasting
future occurrences so that they
may be predicted and controlled,
and with describing the relationship
or phenomena by explaining how
and why certain events occurred or
could have occurred. In this
process research also generates
more problems to explore. (Folta
and Deck)
Kinds and Classifications of Research
There are MANY KINDS OF RESEARCH which are classified according to their
distinctive features. Some of the CLASSIFICATIONS are as follows:
1. According to purpose. Trow identifies three broadly different kinds of research,

namely, predictive, and illuminative. (Treece and Treece, Jr., p. 5)
a) Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the

future operation of the variables under investigation with aim of controlling
or redirecting such for the better. “Predictive research proposes to given
the result from one specific educational practices or pattern and seeks to
establish a close statistical connection between characteristics of students
and a prediction of educational outcome.”
b) Directive research determines what should be done based on the
findings. This is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition if there is any.
Example: action research based on the findings from a study,
c) Illuminative research is concerned with the interaction of the
components of the variables being investigated, as for example.
“Interaction of the components of educational system and aims to show
the connections among, for example, student characteristics,
organizational patterns and policies, and educational consequences.”
Another example: for agricultural researches such as factorial
experiments where there are 2 or more factors, the interaction effects are
emphasized.
2. According to goal. According to goal, research may be classified as basic or

pure research and applied research.
a) Basic or pure research is done for the development of theories or

principles. It is conducted for the intellectual pleasure learning. Much of
this kind of research has been done in psychology and sociology. (Manuel
and Medel, p. 18)
b) Applied research is the application of the results of pure research. This is
testing the efficacy of theories and principles. For instance, a principle
says that praise reinforces learning. To determine if this is true, one
conducts an experiment in which there are two classes. In one class, he
uses praise but in the other class there is no praise at all. All other are
kept equal. At the end of the experimental period, he gives the same test
to the two classes. If the scores of the pupils in the class with praise are
significantly higher than those in the class without praise, then the
principle is true.
3. According to the levels of investigation. French categorizes research

according to the levels of investigation into exploratory research, descriptive
research, and experimental research.
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a) In exploratory research, the researcher studies the variables pertinent
to a specific situation.
b) In descriptive research, the researcher studies the relationship of the
variables.
c) In experimental research, the experimenter studies the effects of the
variables on each other. (Treece and Treece, Jr,. p. 6)
4. According to the type of analysis. According to the type of analysis, Weiss

classifies research into analytic research and holistic research.
a) In the analytical approach, the researcher attempts to identify and

isolate the components of the research situation.
d) The holistic approach begins with the total situation, focusing attention
on the system first and then on its internal relationships. (Treece and
Treece, Jr,. p. 6)
5. According to scope. Under this category is action research. This is type of

research is done on a very limited scope to solve a particular problem which is
not so big. It is almost problem solving.
In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem solving or research

used by teachers, supervisors, and administrator; it seeks more dependable and
appropriate means of promoting and evaluating pupil growth in line with specific
and general objectives and attempts to improve educational practices without
references to whether findings would be applicable beyond the group studied.
(Good, p. 464)
6. According to choice of answers to problems. Ackoff divides research that is

concerned with findings answers to problems into evaluation and developmental
research.
a) In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are specified and

identified and the researcher tries to find the most advantageous.
b) In developmental research, the focus is on finding or developing a more
suitable instrument or process than has been available. (Treece and
Treece, Jr,. p. 6)
7. According to statistical content. Under this type may be mentioned

quantitative research and non-quantitative research.
a) Quantitative or statistical research is one in which inferential statistics

are utilized to determine the result of the study. Inferential statistics such
as correlation, chi-square analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the
hypothesis. This type research usually includes comparison studies,
cause-and-effect relationship, etc.
b) Non-quantitative research. This is research in which the use of quantity
or statistics is practically nil. This is especially true in anthropological
studies where description is usually used. Descriptive data are gathered
rather than quantitative data.
8. According to time element. According to time element, best classified research

as historical, descriptive, and experimental.
a) Historical research describes what was

b) Describe research describes what is.
18
c) Experimental research describes what will be. (Treece and Treece, Jr,.
p. 6)
Historical, descriptive, and experimental are the three major research

methods. All other methods, kind, and types of research whatever they are
called fall under these three major methods.
Other types and kinds of research are named according to the area or
field of activity. Hence, we have sociological research, social research,
psychological research, anthropological research, physical research,
chemical research, industrial research, economic research, health research,
nursing research, curriculum research, educational research, and countless
‘others.
Some Hindrances to Scientific Inquiry (Errors in Personal Judgment)
Babbie gives the following as some on the hindrances to scientific inquiry. They are
mostly errors in personal judgment. (Babbie, pp. 6-16)
The Explanations are made for local adaptation.
1. Tradition. This is accepting that customs, belief, practices, and superstitions

are true and are parts of the daily lives of men. No effort is exerted to find out
whether they are true or not. For example, there is traditional belief among
some women that women who are conceiving should avoid eating dark or
black food such as black berries because their children will become dark also.
This may be true or not, but many women believe and practices it without
verifying its truth. People have the idea that when everybody does a thing, it
is true. This belief is a hindrance to scientific investigation.
2. Authority. This accepting without question, an opinion about certain subject

which is given by someone who is considered an authority on the subject. If
an ordinary person says that kissing transmits colds, he is not believed much,
he may even be laughed at. On the other hand, when a doctor says the same
thing, he is believed without question. Suppose, a doctors commits a mistake
and it is a fact that some doctors commit mistakes sometimes. Worse,
sometimes person with big names in the community make pronouncements
about things outside their own expertise and they are believed because of
their big names. They are believed without any scientific inquiry about the
truth of their pronouncements. For instance, a well-known athlete is made to
announce that to drink a certain brand of liquor is good because it makes the
body strong. Big stars in the movies are often made to sponsor the sales of
certain products, especially beauty enhancing things or articles, and they are
believed without the slightest semblance of any scientific investigation.
3. Inaccurate observation. This is describing wrongly what is actually

observed. For instances, in the dead of a moonlight night, a man sees a
shadow in the form of a person and the man concludes at once without any
investigation that he has seen a ghost. When a meteor streaks the
atmosphere, people who see it says they have seen a flying saucer. When
one sees a man lying unconscious in the street after he is hit by a speeding
car, he concludes at once that the person is already dead even if he is not.
He does not investigate anymore.
4. Overgeneralization. This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances. For

instance, when one sees one or two Ilocano husband who is hardworking,
responsible and trustworthy then he concludes that Ilocano husbands are
19
hardworking, responsible and trustworthy. When one happens to travel in a
rough road in a certain province he forms the impressions that the roads in
that province are rough. He does not take the pains anymore to see if the
other roads in the province are also rough.
5. Selective observation. This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from

an overgeneralization and ignore other pertinent patterns. For example, one
sees for the first time one or two prosperous Chinese stores beside a poor,
struggling Filipino store. He forms the conclusion that the Chinese are
shrewder and more competitive than Filipinos. So whenever he sees Chinese
and Filipinos stores he always has that idea that Chinese are better
businessmen than Filipinos ignoring the fact that there are also poor Chinese
businessmen and there are also very good and more competitive Filipinos
businessmen.
6. Made-up information. This is making up information to explain away

confusion. Supposed a buyer buy from a store, goods worth P50.00 and gives
to the storekeeper a P100.00 bill. The storekeeper mistakenly gives a change
of P40.00. The buyer goes away without counting the change but when he
gets home he finds that the change is short of P10.00. Instead of going back
to the store to find out why he has a wrong change, he concludes that the
storekeeper is a cheater and the members of his family are also cheaters.
Then, he buys again from the store but accidently leaves his wallet when he
is paying for the goods. A son of the storekeeper goes to the buyer’s house
returning the wallet. Instead of thinking that after all the storekeeper is an
honest fellow and perhaps also his family members, he imagines that maybe
the boy went to his house purposely not to return the wallet but to see his
house for possible burglary.
Another example of made-up information is wrongly interpreting the

findings of a research material.
7. Illogical reasoning. This is attributing something to another without any

logical basis. For instance, because of the extended good weather it may rain
at the weekend. Or, because it is sunny it will not rain that day. Or, when a
woman is believed to be a sorcerer. These are beliefs without any logical
basis and no effort is exerted to verify them.
8. Ego-involvement in understanding. This is giving an explanation when one

finds himself in an unfavorable situation. For instance, when foreigners make
a slur on Filipinos, the latter counter that, that is racial discrimination without
investigating whether the slight is true or not. When a student gets a low
grade, he says that he got a low grade because his teacher has a personal
grudge against him and he is a victim of vindictiveness. He does not make
any effort to examine his abilities, his habits of study, etc.
9. Mystification. This is attributing supernatural power, the phenomena that

cannot be understood. This is accepting that there are things which are
beyond human intelligence to understand and which are reserved only to a
supernatural being. Thus, no effort is exerted to make a scientific inquiry
about these phenomena.
10. To err is human. This is an attitude that admits the fallibility of a man. When
a man renders wrong decision or commits a mistake, he merely leans on the
saying “To err is human.” He does not make any effort anymore to study why
20
he committed the error, the implications of his error, how he can correct his
error and how to make sound decision in the future.
11. Dogmatism. This is addition. This is an unwritten policy of certain institutions

and governments prohibiting the study of topics that are believe to run
counter to the established doctrines of such institutions or government. Thus
in communistic state, it is unlikely that one studies and writes about the
beauty of democracy. The same is true in a democracy. There is a veiled
prohibition to the study and write about the beauty and adoption of
communism. It may be remote possibility that a research student in a
Christian church-related school can make a study about the non-existence of
God. It is unlikely also that one advocates the adoption of polygamy in
Christian community because his study findings say that polygamy is good.
The above are some methods hindrances to scientific investigation.
The Scientific Method of Research
One of the characteristics of good research is that, it is systematic. It follows the

scientific method of research which includes the following sequential steps: (Treece and
Treece, Jr., p. 47)
1. Determine (recognizing) the problem;

2. Forming a hypothesis;
3. Doing the library search;
4. Designing the study;
5. Developing the instruments for collecting data;
6. Collecting data;
7. Analyzing data;
8. Determine implications and conclusions from the findings;
And
9. Making recommendations for further research.
It should be borne in mind that the researcher goes through all the nine steps
when he does his research and when he writes his research report. If the standards
format of thesis writing is followed, the first two steps will be included in Chapter 1, “the
problem and setting”; the third step will be in Chapter 2, “Related Literature and
studies”; the fourth, fifth and sixth steps will be discuss in Chapter 3, “methods of
research and procedure”, the seventh step will be presented in Chapter 4, “Analysis,
presentation, and interpretation of data”; and the last two steps placed in Chapter 5,
“Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendations”.
Principles of the scientific method. (Ibid., p. 50) the principles of scientific method
are:
1. Rigid Control,
2. Objectivity,
3. Systematic organization, and
4. Rigorous standards.
Rigid control refers to manipulations of the research variables. Variables are

those things that vary in quantity and quality which are to be manipulated by the
researcher. Examples of variables are age, sex, population, adequacy, efficiency, etc.
there are variables which should be controlled rigidly, that is, kept constant or equal in a
certain research work.
21
Objectivity means that there should be no bias or partially in treating the result of
the inquiry. The results should not be tampered with, whatever they may be.
Systematic organization refers to proper and accurate tabulations of data as well

as presenting them in statistical tables ready for interpretation.
The fourth principle refers to setting up the standards or principles which serve
as bases for evaluating the findings of study, such standards should not be change to
suit the expectations of the researcher. The principle also refers to the accurate
statistical computation and interpretation of qualified data.
Designing the Study
Designing the study must follow the scientific methods or research. Aside from
choosing the right problem, forming the hypotheses, and library research, designing the
study also designing the methods of research to be used, the study population, the
instrument for gathering data and its preparation, the sampling design, statistical
treatment of data, and analysis and presentation of data.
Following are discussion and explanations of each of these aspects of the

research procedure. After carefully studying these discussions and explanations, the
researcher can already make a workable design of research for his investigation.
There are three major research methods with their respective variations from which
the researcher may choose the methods he wants to use depending upon the nature of
his investigation. These are the historical, descriptive, and experimental methods of
research.
Discussed and explained also are the different methods of collecting data such as
the interview, questionnaire, observation, tests, and others as well as the preparation of
their respective instruments.
Sampling design such as pure random, systematic, stratified, cluster and other
types are also well elaborated on.
Other activities involving in conducting research inquiries in writing research reports

are also given clear explanations with illustrations for better understanding. How to write
the research report or thesis has been given very ample explanations and illustration,
chapter by chapter for the better understanding of the whole process of research
reporting or thesis writing.
Suggested Readings / References


Baybay,Leyte.
Samie, Tayie. (2005). Research Methods and Writing Research Proposals. Center for
22
Activity No.2- Research Study Title
1. Please do your share by researching or making at least one (1) TITLE of a

RESEARCH STUDY (published research article/or unpublished thesis or
dissertation) per kind or classification, as follows:
a. Directive research
b. Basic or pure research
c. Applied research
d. Descriptive research
e. Experimental research
f. Development research
g. Quantitative research
Weekly Output:
 Activity # 2
session on Week 4.
End of Week 2 and 3
23
To my students:
You are now about to start the 3rd lesson for Week 4-5 .Read and analyze the learning
UNIT 3. BASIC PARTS OF A THESIS OR RESEARCH PAPER
1. Identify the characteristics of a researcher.

2. Enumerate the basic parts of a thesis or research paper.
3. Define what is abstract.
4. Develop an abstract based on a sample research
CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCHER
Calmorin and Calmorin (1996) as cited by Prado et al (2011) enumerated at least 10

characteristics or qualities of a good researcher. These are in acrostics:
R- Research
E- Efficient
S- Scientific
E- Effective
A- Active
R- Resourceful
C- Creative
H- Honest
E- Economical
R- Religious
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Prado et al (2011) cited the following as the key ethical principles or standards
that should underlie any research endeavor (Trochim, 2001; Best and Kahn, 1998; APA,
1992):
1. The Principle of Voluntary Participation.
2. The Principle of Informed Consent.
24
3. The Principle of No Risk of Harm.
4. The Principle of Privacy
4.1.The Principle of Confidentiality
4.2. The Principle of Anonymity
5. The Principle of Equality of Service.
6. The Principle of No Deception
7. The Principle of Knowledge of Outcome
BASIC PARTS OF A THESIS OR RESEARCH PAPER
I. PRELIMINARY PAGES
a. Title Page
b. Approval Sheet
c. Transmittal of Thesis Outline
d. Biographical Sketch
e. Acknowledgment
f. Table of Contents
g. List of Tables
h. List of Figures
i. List of Appendix Tables
j. List of Appendix Figures
k. Abstract
I. MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT
Introduction
a.1. Background of the Study
a.2. Statement of the Problem
a.3. Objectives of the Study
a.4. Significance of the Study
a.5. Scope and Limitations of the Study
a.6. Definition of Terms
a. Review of Literature
b. Materials and Methods
25
c.1. Time and Place of the Study
c.2. Materials
c.3. Methods
c.3.1. Experimental Design and Treatments
c.3.2. Experimental Lay-out
c.3.3. Cultural Management and Practices/Management Practices
c.3.4. Data to be Gathered/Gathered
c.3.5. Statistical Analysis
d. Results and Discussion
e. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
f. Literature Cited
g. Appendices
IN WRITING ABSTRACT OF A RESEARCH PAPER/THESIS
ABSTRACT:
1. It is an abridged version of the most important results and conclusion reported in

the research study, thesis or dissertation. It is written in not more than 200 words
including numbers and articles (Pechora, 2013); and varies according to journal
requirements, sometimes not more than 300 words..
2. It is the first part of the article seen or read, it is usually the last part that is
finalized.
3. It summarizes the important points of the paper. It is the shortened part of the
summary, conclusions and recommendations, such as called ‘informative
abstract’ (Bondad, 1976 as cited by Bautista and Bondad, 1997).
4. It is as short as possible. It should cover or answer the objectives of the work. Be

informative and interpretative; give numerical and statistical information, not
abstract generalization.
MAKING THE ABSTRACT:
1. Start the abstract with an opening statement which fully describes the nature,
importance, applications and the extent of the outcomes of the whole study and
in the study.
2. One or two sweeping statements about the method, experiment, location and/or
objective, if these are necessary to present a clear picture of the work.
3. For the body of the abstract:
26
a. List the important or major results
b. Organize the list to present an understandable and unified picture
c. Condense and combine where possible to show the information in a few

compact sentences
d. Give the conclusion, if applicable.
4. It contains of the name of candidates, university/school, date of graduation, title

of thesis in bold letters and the name of the major professor.
5. It should not contain tabular or graphical material, references, or unusual

abbreviations.
6. It should be written that it can be read and understood without consulting the
paper to which it relates.
7. Major findings should answer the objectives indicated in the introductory chapter.
IN WRITING KEY WORDS OR INDEX WORDS
KEY WORDS/INDEX WORDS - words or phrases which describe the content of the
study . They help to ‘tag’ relevant information within an article, and provide a researcher
with useful clues to potential important and useful information (Dan Merriam, 2013).
Characteristics:
1) They consist between 3 to 7 words only.
2) They are arranged alphabetically or based from the degree of importance just
below or after the abstract.
3) They are written either in italics or not, and start with capital letter on the first
word.
4) They could be presented per word or phases separated by commas
Examples:
1.)GROWTH PERFORMANCE OF WEANLING PIGS AS AFFECTED BY

DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ACTIVE DRY YEAST SUPPLEMENTATION
ABSTRACT
In recent years, there has been an increase in bacterial resistance to

antibiotics in both human and animal populations, as well as an increasing
consumer concern for animal drug residues in meat. As concerns are being
considered in other countries including, the Philippines, non-antibiotic
alternatives with the same efficacy must be evaluated. Yeasts are promising
alternatives to antibiotics, as they have been shown to improve growth
performance and stimulate the immune system of animals. The objective of this
study was to determine the effects of active dry yeast on the growth performance
of growing pigs, which include initial weight, final weight, total weight gain,
average daily gain, and feed conversion ratio as well as determine the optimum
27
level of yeast supplementation on growing pigs that gives best results.
Twelve(12) growing pigs were randomly distributed to 4 treatments with 3
replications following the Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with dietary
treatments as follows: T1- 0% active dry yeast, T2- 0.2% active dry yeast, T3-
0.3% active dry yeast, and T4- 0.4% active dry yeast . The results of the study
revealed a no significant difference in all the parameters being studied, although
treatments with active dry yeast supplementation gave a better final weight and
feed conversion efficiency. The feed conversion efficiency of the pigs improved
by 10 to 13%. However, at 0.4% supplementation of active dry yeast in the
ration, the return above feed cost of the pigs was lower compared to those
receiving 0% of yeast . Based from the results, it can be concluded that
supplementing active dry yeast at 0.3% of the diet of pigs could potentially
improve the growth performance of the animals in terms of final weight and feed
conversion efficiency without adverse effects on the measured parameters.
Key words – Weanling pigs, feed cost, feed conversion efficiency, yeast
2)GROWTH, YIELD AND CARBON DENSITY OF BAGRAS (Eucalyptus Deglupta

Blume) IN SMALLHOLDER TREE-BASED AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN
NORTHERN MINDANAO, PHILIPPINES
ABSTRACT
Agroforestry systems using Eucalyptus deglupta Blume for timber and

biomass production are essential options for smallholder agroforestry farms in
northern Mindanao, Philippines for the reason that they amalgamate timber and
food production . In this study, the multiple linear regression analysis was used
to develop an appropriate prediction models for estimating height, yield, biomass
expansion factor (BEF) and climate change impact from soil chemical properties
(i.e. pH, OM, P, K), physiographic characteristics (i.e. elevation, slope, aspect),
stand attributes (i.e. age, site index, spacing, basal area, provenance), rainfall,
temperature, biomass inventoried volume (BV) of bagras planted in alley
cropping . Results showed strong association of independent variables with the
dependent variable based on the output of multiple regression analysis in all site
index, yield prediction and biomass expansion factor models. It was found that
about 68% of the total variance of height for alley cropping can be explained by
age, OM, P and elevation. Likewise, it was observed that about 96.2%
proportion of variance of yield can be predicted from site index, age, basal area
and rainfall. Comparison of yield and aboveground biomass accumulated by
Bagras from alley cropping to boundary planting and woodlot equations was in
order woodlot > boundary planting > alley cropping. Future climate scenario had
positive and negative effects on the yield of bagras depending on the type of
agroforestry system. Decreasing rainfall was predicted to diminish yield of
bagras planted in alley cropping (decrease with decreasing rainfall). Finally,
model for corn-based alley cropping agroforestry system in Northern Mindanao
were validated using independent data set from the same provinces. Validation
showed that there were no significant differences between the predicted and
observed height and yield for bagras at 5% level.
Keywords – Bagras, agroforestry farms, alley cropping, biomass, site index
28
3) RESPONSE OF COFFEE (Coffea robusta L.) STEM CUTTINGS TO
VARYING LEVELS AND DIPPING TIMES OF SEAWEED CONCENTRATE
UNDER MODIFIED CONDITION
Abstract
Mass production of coffee stem cuttings could be enhanced using rooting

hormones . This study was conducted to determine the response of coffee stem
cuttings to levels and dipping times of seaweed concentrate under modified
condition at MOSCAT Horticulture Nursery in Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the
Philippines from November 11, 2011 up to January 31, 2012. The study was
laid-out in a 4 x 4 factorial arrangement in Completely Randomized Design
(CRD) and replicated three times. Stem cuttings dipped in 0.5 tbsp/liter H2O
produced the first shoot, dipped at 1.5t tbsp/liter H2O with longest root (1.95 cm),
2 tbsp/liter H2O with 2.17 roots and 1.24 shoot, at 0.5 tbsp/liter H2O with 2.42
leaves and 1.5tbsp/liter H2O produced (0.83 shoots). Stem cuttings dipped at 5
minutes produced the first shoot and longest root, most number of roots and
leaves. Those at 25 minutes produced the longest shoot, while in 35 minutes
produced the most number of shoots. No significant interaction effect found
between the two factors except for the longest shoot. The best combination was
on the interaction between 2 tbsp/liter H20 and 25 minutes, producing the longest
shoot (1.53). Those between 0.5tbsp/li H20 with 5 minutes and 1.5tbsp/Li H20
with 25 minutes obtained the least (0.80 shoots). Thus, dipping the coffee stem
cuttings between 1.5 to 2 tbsp seaweed concentrate /liter H20 for 5, 25 and 35
minutes had the best growth performances of the cuttings.
Keywords/ Index Words - Coffee stem cuttings, dipping time, interaction effect,
levels of seaweed concentrate, modified condition
References


Baybay,Leyte.
29
Name: _____________________ Date Submitted:________

Course & Year: ______________ Subject: _______
Activity No. 3
WRITING ABSTRACT OF A SAMPLE RESEARCH

Title
Introduction
Objectives:
1. To develop abstract from a sample full research paper, and

2. To produce an abstract following the proper format and style from a research
paper.
Methodology
1. Given the attached sample full research paper containing the TITLE,
INTRODUCTION, MATERIALS AND METHODS, RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION, AND SUMMARY/CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS;
develop the necessary ABSTRACT in the Result Section in not more than
150 words.
2. Follow the guidelines in developing the ABSTRACT.
3. Write the necessary KEYWORDS or INDEX WORDS.
4. Cite your references as well.
Result Section
References
Weekly Output:
 Activity # 3
session on Week 6.
End of Week 4 and 5
30
Sample Research Paper:
VARIETAL TRIAL OF DIFFERENT RADISH (Raphanus sativus sp.)

VARIETIES UNDER CLAVERIA CONDITION
INTRODUCTION
Radish (Raphanus sativus) is an herbaceous plant belonging to the mustard family

Brassicaceae. It is grown as a biennial or annual crop. The family contains species of great
economic importance, providing much of the world vegetables. Radishes have numerous
varieties, varying in size, color, shape, and duration of required cultivation of time.
Radish has been cultivated since Pre-Roman times. Its taste offers a unique culinary
experience and today radishes are grown and consumed throughout the world. They are used
for foods, medicinal purposes, and in industry for their oil. They are good source of vitamin B,
riboflavin, magnesium, copper, and calcium. They are low in calories with the bulb of radish
usually eaten raw, most often of salad (Herbst, 2001).
According to PCARRD (2007), radish is one of the top priority vegetable crops in the
country that should be given importance. It is as well potential for export in countries like Japan,
Malaysia, Brunei, and some other Southeast Asian countries. With the cost and return analysis
in one hectare basis, a return on investment (ROI) of 45-75% can be derived from its
production.
The demand for radish is increasing nowadays (PCARRD, 2007). Only few of the
farmers are venturing into its production with given less importance in research and
development. Aside from growing of primary food crops such as rice and corn, growing radish is
of great significance especially to small and large-scale farmers to maximize its production.
Claveria, a landlocked town of Misamis Oriental is famous for its cool climate. The
climatic conditions are favorable for growing radishes. It is likewise strategically located nearby
the cities of Cagayan de Oro and Gingoog where the demands for vegetables are at stake.
With so many varieties of radish emerging in the market nowadays, farmers are not
guided as to what specific best variety to be used for production. Some are just planting the
same variety planted by their neighbors and friends. Others are given from seed sources like
DA or agriculturists.
Although it has always been the aim of farmers to increase crop productivity so they can
achieve self-sufficiency, they always fall short of attaining it. Among their problems are how to
maximize production, unfavorable climatic conditions, lack of market access and poor access to
quality varieties.
In this study, four newly released varieties of radish such as Speedy, Diwata, Milky and
Valiant from East-West, Haverson and Ramgo Seed Companies were subjected for field trial
under Claveria condition. They were compared with the existing check variety as control or
farmers’ variety in terms of horticultural characteristics, yield components, and the cost and
return analysis.
Statement of the Problem
The researcher would like to find out which of the different radish varieties will give the
best result among the horticultural parameters and as well as the yield under the prevailing
condition of Claveria.
31
Significance of the Study
The result of this study will provide information to students, and most especially those
who want to engage in radish production. It will guide them what radish variety to be used that
would give higher yield.
Scope and Limitation of the Study
This study was limited only to varietal trial of different radish varieties. Specific
horticultural parameters, yield components and cost and return analysis were among the data
collected. Its cultural management and practices covered from land preparation to harvesting.
The study was terminated when plants reached the age of 40 days from planting.
Objectives of the Study
This study was conducted to evaluate the growth and yield performance of different
radish varieties under Claveria condition. Specifically, it aimed to:
1. Determine the horticultural parameters such as the plant height, number of leaves and
resistance to insect pests and diseases;
2. Determine the yield and its components such as the length and diameters of tubers,
weight of ten tubers and tuber yield; and
3. Evaluate the cost and return analysis.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Time and Place of the Study
This study was conducted at the Agro Forestry Complex of Misamis Oriental State
College of Agriculture and Technology (MOSCAT), Claveria, Misamis Oriental from November
2010 to January 2011.
Materials
The different materials used in this study were the harrow, plow, bolo, seeds of radish,
ruler, calculator, sheets of paper, weighing balance, working animals and fertilizers.
Methods
Experimental Design and Treatments
This study was laid-out following a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with
four treatments and four replications. The different treatments will be as follows:
T1 -Speedy Variety (control)
T2 –Diwata Variety
T3 –Milky45 Variety
T4 – Valiant Variety
Cultural Management and Practices
1. Soil sampling
Soil samples were taken in the area for pH, N, P and K analysis.
2. Land preparation
32
The experimental area of 71.25 square meters was plowed and harrowed. The
set-up was laid-out with 16 plots. Each plot was measured 1.5 meters long and 1 meter
wide with the distance between plots of 0.5 meter.
3. Planting and thinning
Three seeds per hill were sown directly to each plot with a planting distance of 20
cm between hills and 20 cm between rows with 1 cm deep. Thinning was done as soon
as seedlings could already establish in the area bearing at least 3 leaves. One seedling
per hill was maintained throughout the study.
4. Fertilization
One and one-fourth kilogram chicken dung was evenly incorporated in the soil
per plot before planting. One half teaspoon of complete fertilizer (14-14-14) was applied
per plant 25 days after planting.
5. Irrigation
Irrigation was applied to the plants in the absence of rain. The frequency of
application was depending on the necessity of plants. A sprinkler was used for irrigation.
6. Weeding and cultivation

The growth of weeds was checked from time to time. Weeds competing with the
plants were controlled through hand weeding to facilitate proper aeration and growth of
experimental plants.
7. Labeling
Labeling the experimental plants on treatment combinations was done for easy
identification of the set-ups.
8. Pests and diseases and their control
Cultural control methods, including cultivation and hand weeding was used to
prevent the occurrence of pests and diseases. However, the use of pesticides was the
last resort to be used.
9. Harvesting
Harvesting was done between 40 days after planting and when the tubers could
attain their sizes of 1.5cm to 3cm in diameter.
33
Experimental Lay-out
This study utilized an area of 71.25 sq. meters as indicated:
1.5
.5
Fig 1. Experimental Lay-out of Study Area
.5
7.5 1m
m
9.5
Data Gathered
The different data gathered in this study were categorized into horticultural parameters,
yield and its components and the cost and return analysis.
1. Horticultural Parameters
A. Average Plant Height
This was determined by measuring the height of the plant in centimeters from the
base to tip most part of the plant in centimeter for all the plants and divided by the
number of samples per replication per treatment during the termination of the study.
B. Average Number of Leaves
This was taken by counting the number of leaves produced per plant for all the
samples per replication per treatment during the termination of the study. The average
was determined by dividing the number of leaves per the number of plants per
replication per treatment.
C. Resistance to insect pests and diseases
This was obtained on the symptoms exhibited by the plants. Resistance was
measured by using the following rating scales:
1 No damage of pest and diseases (Resistant)

2 Slightly damage shown in some parts of the plant caused by pest and
diseases (Moderately resistant)
3 Moderately damage shown in some parts of plants caused by pest and
diseases (Susceptible)
34
2. Yield and Its Components
a. Length of Tubers
This was determined by measuring the length of tubers in centimeters from the
base up to the tip most part of tubers.
b. Diameter of Tubers
This was determined by measuring the diameter of tubers in centimeters for all
the plants per replication per treatment during the termination of the plant of the study.
c. Tuber Yield
d.
The tuber yield was determined by using the formula:
plot yield (kg) 10,000 (sq.m) 1 ton

Yield (ton/ha.) = x x
plot area (sq.m) 1ha 1000 kg
3. Cost and Return Analysis
The cost and return analysis was computed based on the actual records of the cost and
the gross sales with the prevailing price of tubers in the market.
Statistical Analysis
The Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used to solve for the analysis of
variance and to test the level of significance. The Tukey’s Test was then used to test significant
differences among treatment means.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil Analysis
Table 1 shows the result of soil analysis of the experimental area on organic matter,
phosphorus, potassium and pH.
Results revealed that the area had adequate organic matter content, phosphorus and
potassium. The pH of 5.66 is slightly acidic which is suited for tropical crops such as radishes.
Though nitrogen was not included in the analysis, however, the analyzed data showed that the
said condition of the area is good enough for the growth of said plants.
Table 1. Soil Analysis result of the experimental area

Soil Test Data Result Interpretation (Olsen Method)
Organic Matter (%) 1.8 Adequate
Phosphorus (ppm) 19 Adequate
Potassium (ppm) 182 Adequate
pH 5.66 Slightly acidic
(Source: Regional Soil Testing Laboratory, Regional Field Unit No. 10, Department of Agriculture, Oct.
29, 2010)
Rainfall Data
Data on rainfall of the experimental area are presented in Figure 2. For 3 years (2008-
2011) in a row with 3 months (November to January), higher rainfalls were registered in the
35
months of November 2009 and January 2009 with 19.41 mm and 21.13 mm, respectively. Least
rainfall was registered in November 2009 with 2.93 mm.
During the conduct of this study, from November to December 2010, rainfall was just
minimal and tolerable as it registered 9.92 mm in November and only 6.65 mm in December.
The growth of radish as can be observed in tables 1 to 3, plants grew healthy because in some
days in the absence of rain, a supplementary injection to the plants was done.
Source: MOSCAT Agromet Station
Temperature Data
Temperature is another factor that influences growth and development of plants. Based
from the data in Figure 3 for 3 straight years (2008-2011) in 3 months (November December),
November 2003 experienced a bit higher temperature at 27 0C while the rest of the months
registered a regular range from 23 0C to 240C in Claveria altitude. The month of January in 3
years registered the lowest or coldest compared to November and December.
Growth of radishes as cool season crop is tolerable in said temperature ranges as they
can be best grown in high altitude with temperature ranging from 100C to 180C and in the
younger stage from 150C to 300C (UBRDC, 2005).
36
Source: MOSCAT Agromet Station
Average Plant Height and Number of Leaves
Table 2 presents the average plant height and number of leaves of radish varieties.
Diwata variety in Treatment 2 obtained the tallest height (32.48 cm) with Milky 45 variety
as the shortest (26.88 cm), 40 days after planting. The Speedy variety as the control in
Treatment 1 exhibited 31.69 cm. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed highly significant
result with Diwata variety being statistically different from treatment 3 (Milky 45) and 4 (Valiant),
except for the control variety.
Diwata, Milky 45 and Valiant are newly released varieties of East-West and Harvert
Companies with Speedy variety as check variety being widely used by farmers in Claveria,
Misamis Oriental.
On the average number of leaves, the control treatment obtained the most with 16,
followed by treatments 2 and 4 with 15 and treatment 3 with 14. Further, the number of leaves
among treatments did not statistically differ from each other.
Table 2. Average plant height (cm) and number of leaves of radish varieties on adaptability trial
under Claveria condition.
Average Average
Treatments
Plant Height Number of Leaves
T1 (Speedy-control) 31.69ab 16
T2 (Diwata) 32.48a 15
T3 (Milky 45) 26.88c 14
T4 (Valiant) 29.76b 15
c.v. (%) 3.02 14.71
Level of significance ** n.s.
Means within the same column followed by common letters are not significantly different at 5% using Tukey Test.
37
Mean Resistance to Insect Pests and Diseases
The mean resistance to insect pests and diseases of radish varieties is shown in Table
3.
Diwata variety showed resistance to insect pests and diseases with a scale of 1.25 or
1.0. Speedy, Milky 45 and Valiant varieties were moderately resistant with only leaf rusts
attacking in some parts of the leaves of the plants. However, non-significant result was obtained
among treatments.
Generally, almost all the experimental plants were observed to have grown vigorously
and very health. The newly released Diwata variety of East West Seed Company stood out from
the rest with only some damages caused by insect pests and diseases.
Table 3. Mean resistance to insect pests and diseases of radish varieties on adaptability trial
under Claveria condition.
Mean Resistance
Treatments
to Insect Pests and Diseases
T1 (Speedy-control) 1.50
T2 (Diwata) 1.25
T3 (Milky 45) 2.0
T4 (Valiant) 1.5
c.v. (%) 41.93
Level of significance n.s.
Rating Scale: 1 – no damage of pests and diseases (resistant), 2 – slight damage shown in some parts of
plants (moderately resistant) and 3 – moderate damage shown in most parts of plants
(susceptible)
38
Average Length and Diameter of Tubers
On the average length, Treatment 1 obtained the longest tuber of 19.4 cm followed by
Treatments 2, 3 and 4 with 18.3, 18.2 and 18.0 cm., respectively (Table 4). However,
Treatment 1 did not significantly differ from the rest of the treatments with the coefficient of
variation of an acceptable 9.25%.
On the average diameter, Treatment 1 still garnered the largest diameter of tubers with
3.93 cm. Treatment 4 got the narrowest with 3.35 cm. Non-significant result was shown among
treatments.
The Speedy variety was consistent in the said two parameters by obtaining the highest
averages. Though, with their statistical insignificance, the new varieties are still emerging high
with comparable tubers from the farmer’s check variety.
Table 4. Average length and diameter (cm) of tubers of radish varieties on adaptability trial under
Claveria condition.
Average Average
Treatments
Length of Tubers Diameter of Tubers
T1 (Speedy-control) 19.4 3.93
T2 (Diwata) 18.3 3.59
T3 (Milky 45) 18.0 3.43
T4 (Valiant) 18.2 3.35
c.v. (%) 9.25 10.14
Level of significance n.s. n.s.
Mean Weight of Ten Tubers
Table 5 presents the mean weight of ten tubers and the mean yield of radish varieties.
The two parameters obtained non significant results among treatments.
Speedy variety (T1) got the heaviest weight of 2.01 kg, followed by Diwata, Milky 45 and
Valiant with 1.71, 1.65 and 1.61 kg., respectively. With the consistent highest averages for both
length and diameter of tubers, Speedy variety (T1) proved to obtain the heaviest weight among
all the treatments compared. Valiant (T4) was among the lightest (1.61 kg.) which in turn
obtained very low averages on the length and diameter of tubers (Table 4).
Thus, the yield of all varieties compared showed Speedy variety leading with 13.42
(tons/ha), followed by Diwata, Milky 45 and Valiant having 11.42, 11.00 and 10.75 tons/ha,
respectively. This is likewise consistent with the results of their mean weights of ten tubers. The
higher yield results of all the treatments could be attributed to the utilization of all areas in
hectare basis having no allotted spaces for pathways in a commercial production. Besides, this
goes to show that all the newly introduced varieties can still be comparable with the control
variety of Speedy.
The said varieties (T2-T4) once felt by hands showed immaturity may be due to
harvesting them very early than desired time. They are late maturing varieties than the control.
The control, however, had attained its desired physiological maturity upon harvesting.
39
Table 5. Mean Weight (kg) of ten tubers and tuber yield (tons/ha) of radish varieties on
adaptability trial under Claveria condition.
Mean Weight Mean Yield

Treatments
of Ten Tubers
T1 (Speedy-control) 2.01 13.42
T2 (Diwata) 1.71 11.42
T3 (Milky 45) 1.65 11.00
T4 (Valiant) 1.61 10.75
c.v. (%) 14.89 15.01
Level of significance n.s. n.s.
Cost and Return Analysis
The cost and return analysis is presented in Table 6 which also include the gross sales,
expenses, net income and the return of investment (ROI) for radish production in hectare basis.
Treatment 1 (Speedy) obtained the highest gross sales of P161,040, followed by

Treatment 2, 3 and 4 with P137,040; P132,000; and P129,000; respectively. With equal cost of
expenses among treatments, however, Treatment 1 likewise got the highest income with
P68,829 or an ROI of 74.64% while Treatment 4 (Valiant) garnered the lowest with P36,789
(ROI of 39.90%) as shown in Figures 4 and 5.
This means that the control variety (T 1) used by farmers are still the best variety
outshining the newly released ones.
Table 6. Summary on cost and return analysis (PhP) of radish per hectare on varietal trial under
Claveria condition.
Return of
Total
Treatments Gross Income Net Return Investment
Expenses
(%)
T1 (Speedy-control) 161,040.00 92,211.00 68,829.00 74.64
T2 (Diwata) 137,040.00 92,211.00 44,820.00 48.61
T3 (Milky 45) 132,000.00 92,211.00 39,789.00 43.15
T4 (Valiant) 129,000.00 92,211.00 36,789.00 39.90
80 75 80 75
70 70
60 60
49 49
50 50 43
43
40 40
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
Figure 5. Return on investment (%) per Figure 5. Return on investment (%)

hectare per hectare
40
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study was conducted at the Misamis Oriental State College of Agriculture and
Technology (MOSCAT) Agroforestry Complex, Claveria, Misamis Oriental from November 18,
2010 to December 28, 2010. This study was laid-out in Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBD) with four treatments and four replications.
The different objectives of the study were: (1) to determine the horticultural parameters
such as the plant height, number of leaves and resistance to pests and diseases; (2) to
determine the yields and its components such as the length and diameter of tubers, weight of 10
tubers and tuber yield; and (3) to evaluate the cost and return analysis of different radish
varieties under Claveria condition.
Results revealed that the growth of radish varieties was highly affected by their different
heights. Other parameters like the number of leaves, resistance to pests and diseases, length
and diameters of tubers, weight of tubers and tuber yield showed no significant differences
regardless of varieties, given the adequate results on the soil analysis for organic matter,
potassium, phosphorus and pH of the experimental area.
The cost and return analysis showed the control variety (T 1) obtaining an ROI of 74.64%
(or a net income of P468,829/ha) as the highest and T4 with 39.90% (or a net income of
P36,789/ha) as the lowest 40 days of growing radish with the four treatments having equal
expenses.
Based from the result of the study, farmer’s check variety of Speedy (T 1) is still the best
variety outshining the newly released ones attributing to its number of leaves; length, diameter,
weight and yield of tubers. The Diwata variety (T2) is still a promising variety being the tallest
and resistant to insect pests and diseases.
41
To my students:
You are now about to start the 4th lesson for Week 6 .Read and analyze the learning
UNIT 4.CHOOSING A THESIS TOPIC
1. State the four criteria in the selection of a thesis topic

2. Screen the topics to be rejected from a list of possible topics
3. Prepare at least three possible topics for final selection
Introduction
Students are often confused on what to do in almost all aspects of thesis

research from the selection of the topic to writing the manuscript. This is symptomatic of
a problem which can be attributed to various factors that could range from the inability
of the instructors to operationalize the theories, concepts and learning experiences in
the classroom to the deteriorating quality of agriculture students.
The purpose of this section is to help students select topic that best suits their
needs and satisfies the requirements of the course.
Criteria in the Selection of a Thesis Topic
Four common criteria are suggested in selecting a thesis topic. These include the
following:
 Currently debated issue. This refers to issues in agricultural sector that are
currently debated in journals, magazines, newspapers and by colleagues in the
field. Even issues that are political in nature may have some direct bearing on the
on the economics of agriculture. Almost everything discussed on TV, radio and
newspapers have economic relevance.
 Narrow and specific. A potential topic should be specific and narrow in scope
rather broad, indefinite and superficial. This will allow the researcher to make an
in – depth investigation of the topic.
 Interest of the student and adviser. The topic should be of interest both the
student and adviser. The researcher’s own interest on the topic must be strong
enough so that he can visualize readily what he is looking for. On the other hand,
potential advisers have their own fields of specialization and interest. On the
other hand, potential advisers have their own fields of specialization and interest.
A student must select the adviser whose field of specialization is similar to his
field of interest. In this manner, the student can maximize his own learning
experiences and pick up techniques that the adviser can share. More can be
42
gained if both the student and the adviser are interested in the topic being
proposed.
 Resource capability of the researcher. The student must know his/her resource
capabilities not only in terms of his time and logistics but also in terms of what he
learned in agriculture theory. First, the student must not undertake a research
that requires a large amount of time and budget beyond his means. A student
who learned little will always feel inadequate to conduct a research on the
subject. So, he must be honest with himself. If he lacks the necessary tools, he
must review his books. He must remember that a thesis is designed to
demonstrate his research competencies using the necessary learning
experiences gained from his four years stay. The kind of thesis he will make will
show the kind of thesis he/she will show the kind of graduate he is.
Characteristics of Thesis Topics for Rejection
It is advised that the students prepare list of potential topics and present these
topics to the adviser or any member of the advisory committee. The list can be
narrowed down eliminating those that:
 Are of little interest to the researcher/adviser

 Have little significance and use
 Have been studied thoroughly before
 Are not within ones area of competence
 Are not researchable (data are not readily available)
Criteria for the Final selection of the Topic
Once the list is narrowed down, the researcher can finally select the topic on
the basis of the following criteria:
 Urgency and timeliness. Issues may need to be studied immediately and findings
needed right away.
 Significance. Results are very useful in policy making or programming of future
activities.
 Time needed to complete the study. Can be finished by the time required.
 Availability of resources. Within the resource capability of the researcher.
Probably one of the most important criteria to consider in the election of the
final topic is the significance and use of the expected results. The following questions
may be help the students arrive at a satisfactory conclusion:
 Will the findings be of practical value to policy and decision makers, field workers
or ordinary citizens?
 Will the solution to the problem advance knowledge in the field?
 What is the range of applicability of the solution to the problems in terms of time
and area?
It is also better to select problem that requires less time to complete and has
available resources.
43
Suggested Reading / References


Baybay,Leyte.
44
Activity No.4- Preparation of Thesis Topic
Prepare a list of possible topics for your thesis. From the list choose the likely
topics using the above criteria. Submit three topics for final selection to your instructor.
The instructor shall help you decide which one you may develop as your theses topic.
Activity No. 5- Self- Test
1. Explain the four common criteria in selecting a thesis topic

2. What are the characteristics of topics for rejection?
3. Explain briefly the final criteria in selecting a thesis topic.
Weekly Output:
 Activities number 4 and 5
Activities number 4 and 5 and submit them to your Course facilitator during
the face-to-face session on Week 7.
End of Week 6
45
To my students:
You are now about to start the 5th lesson for Week 7-8 .Read and analyze the learning
UNIT 5.THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. State what is research problem

2. Enumerate and discuss the elements of a research problem
3. Differentiate dependent variables to independent variables
4. Describe what a title is.
5. Enumerate guidelines in writing a title.
6. Create at least three (3 ) thesis titles.
Definition
A PROBLEM is (1) any significant, perplexing and challenging situation, real or

artificial, the solution of which requires reflective thinking; (2) a perplexing situation after
it has been translated into a question that help determine the direction of subsequent
inquiry. The foregoing definition according to Dewey. (Good, p. 414)
Elements of a Research Problem
The term research problem implies that an investigation, inquiry or study is to be

conducted, or that the problem is ready for investigation, inquiry or study. There are
certain elements that a problem must possess before it becomes a research problem
ready for investigation. These elements are:
1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This answers the

question “Why?” why is there an investigation, inquiry or study?
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answers the question
“What?” what is to be investigated or studied?
3. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted this answers
the question "where?" Where is the study to be conducted?
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be
gathered. This answers the question “When?” when is the study to be carried
out?
5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected. This
answers the question “Who?” or “From whom?” who are respondents? From
whom are the data to be gathered?
With the elements of a research problem (air or purpose, subject matter or topic,
place or locale, period or time and population or universe) correspond with the
questions WHY, WHAT, WHERE WHEN and WHO or from WHOM.
46
The elements could also be summed-up having the MAJOR COMPONENTS:
1. Dependent variables – elements which vary accordingly depending upon how

the cause, method, aim or purpose is done characterized by the over-all outputs
or effects. It is a variable (often denoted by x ) whose variation does not depend
on that of another. They are also classified as the data to be gathered.
Examples: effects, yield and performance, growth parameters, demographic

profiles (age, sex, marital status), etc.
2. Independent variables – elements or variables (often denoted by y ) whose

value depends on that of the dependent variables. They are usually classified as
the treatments.
Examples: varying levels of vermicast, levels of active dry yeast

supplementation, observed processes, etc.
EXAMPLE of research problem:
1. “To determine the status of teaching science in the high schools of province A
during the school year 1989”
LIMITATIONS:
 In formulating the title of a research inquiry, the AIM or PLACE is

sometimes omitted
Example: “The Teaching of Science in the High Schools of

Province A During the School-Year 1989-1990”
 Important elements such as the dependent variable/s and independent
variable/s are conceived:
Examples: dependent variable: the strategies of teaching

Independent variable: effect of teaching
2. “Growth, Yield and Chemico-Nutritional Compositions of Stevia (Stevia

rebaudiana Bert.) In Response to Methods of Clonal Propagation and Growing
Media
Evaluating the elements:
Study I Study II
Elements
(Social Research) (Experimental Research)
AIM or To determine the status Growth, yield and chemico-
PURPOSE/dependent nutritional compositions of
variable stevia
SUBJECT MATTER or The teaching of science Methods of clonal
TOPIC/independent propagation and growing
variable media
PLACE or LOCALE In the high school of
Province A
PERIOD or Time During the School Year
1989-1990
POPULATION The respondents are
implied to be either the
teachers or the pupils or
both
47
Guidelines/Criteria in the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic
1. The research problem or topic must be chosen by the researcher himself. This is
to avoid blaming others or offering excuses for obstacle encountered.
2. It must be within the interest of the researcher. This is to make sure that the
researcher will focus his full attention on the research work.
3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher. This will in some way make
the work easier for him because he is working on familiar grounds. Besides, this
may improve his specialization, skill and competence in his profession.
4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle. The researcher must
know the method of researcher And other research procedures applicable to his
problem and he must know to apply them. He must have a workable
understanding of his study.
5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance, otherwise he must be
able to find funding for his research. Research involves not a small amount of
expense and the researcher must be able to foot the bills until his study is
completed. There must be a budget, which he must be able to shoulder.
6. It is researchable and manageable, that is:
a. Data are available and accessible.
b. The data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability.
c. Answers to the specific questions (subproblems) can be found.
d. The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted or
rejected.
e. Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give valid and
reliable results.
f. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time unless it is a
longitudinal research which takes a long time for its completion.
g. It is significant, important and relevant to the present time and situation,
timely, and of current interest.
h. The results are practical and implementable
i. It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking to solve it.
j. It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher, but big or large
enough to give significant, valid, and reliable results and generalization.
k. It must contribute to the national development goals for the improvement of
the quality of human life.
l. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge.
m. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or problems
intended to be solved.
n. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the people.
o. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of
violence but by peaceful means.
p. There must be a return of some kind of the researcher, either one or all of the
following, if the researcher:
1. Monetary, either increase in salary or publication of the results in which
there is some kind of royalty.
2. Advancement of position, promotion. Generally, after finishing a graduate
course, there is a promotion, especially in the educational system.
3. Improved specialization, competence, and skill in professional work
especially if the research subject is related to the profession.
4. Enhanced prestige and reputation.
5. Satisfaction of intellectual curiosity and interest, and being able to discover
truth.
q. There must be a consideration of the hazards involved, either physical, social,
or legal.
48
TITLE:
 introduces the work of a reader.

 it should an impression that the contents are desirable and deserve a deeper
look.
 helps the reader to know whether the contents are within his range of interest
and that he should take time to read the paper.
Guidelines/Characteristics/Techniques In Writing the TITLE
1. It is formulated before the start of the research work. It may be revised and
refined later if there is a need.
2. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter studied or to
be studied. It contains the subject matter of the study as well as the dependent
and independent variables.
3. It summarizes the main idea of the paper in not more than 15 words.
4. It should not contain abbreviations, symbols or expressions requiring
superscripts, subscripts, or other special notations.
5. It should as brief and concise as possible. It is better to use italics in writing the
binomial nomenclature than underline them. Avoid use of dangling words and
compressed everything into simple ones.
6. List the most important findings and compose the findings into a short eye-
catching title.
7. It can be expressed either in terms of the scope of the work or the results.
Examples:
Original Title Purpose Improved Title

Mulching Effects of Reflecting the most Presence of Growth
Sugarcane Bagasse on important finding Regulatory Substances in
Tomatoes Sugarcane Bagasse
Growth and Development of Reviewing the Growth and Development of
Cucumber Mulched With grammar and Sawdust-Mulched Cucumber
Sawdust removing some of the
words without
changing the meaning.
Stating in terms of the Sawdust Mulch Modified
results Growth and Development of
Cucumber
Disease Evaluation of Compressing the Disease Incidence During
Potatoes in Storage at Sto. words to be brief and Storage of Highland-Grown
Nino, Cagayan de Oro City concise Seed Potatoes for Lowland
Planting
Compatibility of Chemicals for Stating and Flowering and Fruit-Setting of
Mango Production emphasizing key Mango Sprayed with
words Potassium Nitrate-Pesticide
Mixture
An Evaluation of the Coffee Reviewing the Yield of Coffee Grown on
Environment in the Philippine grammar and Different Soil Types
Soil removing some of the
words without
changing the meaning.
The Teaching of Science in Reviewing the The Teaching of Science in the
49
the High Schools of Province grammar and High Schools of Province A
A as Perceived by the removing some of the
Science Teachers and words without
Students During the School- changing the meaning.
Year 1989-1990
Assessment of the Quality of Reviewing the Milk Quality of Dairy Cows
Milk of Dairy Cows Under grammar and Under Different Feeding
Different Feeding Schemes removing some of the Schemes
words without
changing the meaning
An Ecological Survey of the
Dominant Aquatic Flora As
Related to Pattern of Waste
Disposal in Some Important
Lake Areas in the Philippines
THE BY-LINE
 refers to the line giving the names of the authors

 should contain only the names of persons who actually contributed
materially to the production of the scientific work.
 Determine whether the adviser, chairman, advisory committee member,
project leader, assistant, laborer, etc. contributed substantially to the
conceptualization, overall design, implementation, completion and writing
of the work.
 Includes the addresses of the authors indicated in publications which
establishes the identity of the author, especially when only the initials of
the first and second names. It facilitates communication with the authors
Examples:
[1]
Effects of artificial defoliations on the growth
and yield of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench.)
cv ‘Smooth Cayene’ under mid-elevation condition
Eric Randy R. Politud
Department of Agriculture, Misamis Oriental State College of Agriculture
and Technology, Claveria, Misamis Oriental, Philippines;
Corresponding Author: E.R.R. Politud,
erpolitud@yahoo.com
[2]
Efficacy of varying levels and brewing durations
of vermitea foliar spray applications on the growth
and yield of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.)
Eric Randy R. Politud and Rodulfo R. Pabellan, Jr.
1
Department of Agriculture, Misamis Oriental State College of Agriculture and Technology,
Claveria, Misamis Oriental, Philippines:
2
Department of Agriculture,Kinoguitan, Misamis Oriental, Philippines
Corresponding Author: E.R.R. Politud,
erpolitud@yahoo.com
[3]
Effects of plant density and transplanting date on
herbage, stevioside, phenol and flavonoid yield of
50
Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni
Negar Taleie1, Yousef Hamidoghli1, Babak Rabiei1, Saeid Hamidoghli 2
1
Department of Horticultural Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
2
Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil,
Iran
Corresponding author email: Hamidoghli@guilan.ac.ir
_____________________________________


Baybay,Leyte.
51
Activity No.6-Self Test
1. Describe what a research problem is.

2. What are the elements of research problem? Discuss each.
3. Differentiate dependent variables to independent variables. Give an example
each.
4. What are the criteria in the selection of a research problem or topic? Give at
least and discuss each.
52

Course & Year: __ __________ Subject: ______________
Activity No.7
DEVELOPING RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND TITLES

Title
Introduction
Objectives:
1. To conceptualize at least FIVE (5) research problems in line with your field of
specialization, and
2. To develop corresponding research titles based on conceived research
problems
Methodology
1. Think very deeply and make research on at least 5 research problems

relative to your field of interest for a study.
2. In the result section, tabulate these research problems corresponding to
their possible titles.
3. Follow the general guidelines in doing these items.
Result/Discussion
References
Weekly Output:
 Activities number 6 and 7
Activities number 6 and 7 and submit them to your Course facilitator during
the face-to-face session on Week 9.
End of Week 7 & 8
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To my students:
UNIT 6. MAIN BODY OF THE RESEARCH/THESIS
1. Describe what is introduction.

2. Enumerate the contents of introduction either in experimental or social
science research.
3. Evaluate the sample introduction of a proposed research paper.
WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION:
 It explains the importance of the problem chosen for the study.

 It answers the following questions:
1. What the problem or what is the research all about?
2. Why was it necessary to solve the problem, or work on it, or why is the
problem/work important? Why did I do the work?
3. What were the findings of previous authors who worked on aspects related
the work?
4. What did I expect to accomplish (objectives) or prove (hypothesis)?
 As long as these questions are adequately answered, the introduction needs
NOT TOO LONG. It should be as short as possible.
 It includes Background of the Study, Statements of the Problem, Objectives of
the Study, Significance of the Study, Scope and Limitations of the Study and
Definition of Terms for EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH.
 However for SOCIAL RESEARCH , the INTRODUCTION includes Background
of the Study, Statements of the Problem, Objectives of the Study,
Significance/Importance of the Study, Theoretical Framework, Conceptual
Framework, Definition of Terms, Null Hypothesis, Alternative Hypothesis,
Assumptions and Scope and Limitations of the Study.
a. Background of the Study
 Gives clear notion of the general scope of the study and are
substantiated by persons or by documents or records through
relevant and recent publications (a little review of literature)
 It contains the following (Tejero, 2004):
1. Reason for choosing the topic;
2. General situation of the problems and issues – prompting the
research to conduct the study;
3. Useful bases and statistics to support discussion; and
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4. Evidences or proofs of events/cases to make a forceful
introduction
b. Statement of the Problem
 The problem is the focus of the study.

 It is stated in GENERAL, NARRATIVE TERM as a background or
introduction of the statement of the main and specific objectives.
 It has ONE-ON-ONE CORRESPONDENCE with the OBJECTIVES,
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.
 It is in the form of a series of questions or sentences in paragraphs.
 Indicate the variable examined in the study (and what has been
previously done) related to it.
 It could also be presented in an organized manner, usually
DEDUCTIVE APPROACH, sometimes in INDUCTIVE way.
 Related literature previously conducted could be cited in this
section.
c. Objectives of the Study
 It usually contains GENERAL AND SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.
1. General Objective - usually has general or wider scope or the

primary purpose of the study
2. Specific Objectives – usually have narrower scopes of work or
purpose, partitioning the general objective.
 It should be measurable, attainable, realistic and time-bound.
 It has also ONE-ON-ONE CORRESPONDENCE with the
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS.
` d. Significance/Importance of the Study
 It points-out the possible contribution of the study of the theoretical

implications such as the reformulation, development of new theory.
etc. or more for practical application of methodology of research,
policy makers, program planners, etc.
e. Scope and Limitations of the Study

 In a thesis, the scope is how widespread the study is, while
the limitations are aspects that the researcher cannot control.
 Scope and limitations refer to parameters that prevent
researchers from pursuing further studies due to time and
budgetary constraints. Some researchers must explore a subject
area and find results within a specific period of time. Having a time
limit is a limitation because it excludes the opportunity for
individuals to make further discoveries in their subject areas, which
influences the amount of information that can be relayed to an
audience.
 A limitation is a phrase or aspect of the investigation, which may
affect the results adversely but over which you have no control.
Statements in the following areas can be made:
 Limitation in scope coverage
 Limitation in underlying assumptions
 Limitations in the methodology
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f. Definition of Terms
 This section gives operational definition of terms as used in the

study of authority definitions of concepts within the theoretical
framework.
 In some instances, it further describes the variable being studied.
 The main purpose of this section is in each an agreement between
the reader and the study proponent on the true meaning of
concepts as used.
g. Theoretical Framework
 Based on a theory which gives exact definitions of the theoretical

relations among the variables being studied as a set of abstract
measures of these variables.
h. Conceptual Framework/Model
 It is a creation of the researcher which expresses a series of

possible explanations concerning the problem to be studied.
 It is the researcher’s image of the phenomenon of the real world
that wants to study.
NOTE: Both the THEORETICAL ND THECONCEPTUAL

FRAMEWORK are organized (logically coherent).
They serve as an indicative approach towards the statement
of a problem. The reader may conclude at the end whether
the theoretical/conceptual framework has been fully
supported, partially supported or negated by empty date.
i. Null Hypothesis
 This statement predicts the absence of any difference, relationship,

effect nor interaction between variables.
 Null means no existence or that it is empty.
 It is in this form that the hypothesis is tested, confirmed or
disconfirmed.
j. Alternative Hypothesis
 This is the opposite of the null hypothesis.

 It indicates that it is predicted that there will be a difference,
relationship, effect or interaction between the variables.
 This type of hypothesis is the operational statement of the research
hypothesis.
 When the null hypothesis is rejected, the alternative hypothesis is
accepted.
k. Assumption
 There is no such thing as perfect research.

 There will always be a flaw in the research for there are situations
which are beyond your control.
 Assumptions are statements taken for granted.
 They are not to be proven.
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 When one says “assume the line as straight”, one does not prove
that the line is straight.
 An assumption is the opposite of the hypothesis. A hypothesis has
to be tested for acceptance or rejections while an assumption is
taken for granted and assumed to be true.
[Reading Assignments:
 Please do reading on various THESES available in the library/internet

specifically the INTRODUCTION part. Do observe how the respective
INTRODUCTIONS are made by the researchers/authors.

 Do advance reading also on the REVIEW OF LITERATURE. Kindly observe how
this PART of a THESIS is developed.
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Activity No. 8
Doing Critique
1. Below is a sample INTRODUCTION of a proposed research paper. Go over it

and make some critiques, and rewrite the whole by applying the appropriate
guidelines.
TITLE:
“EFFICACY OF IPIL-IPIL (Leucaena leucocephala) and MALUNGGAY (Moringa

oleifera) AS INDIGENOUS PURGATIVES AT DIFFERENT LEVELS ON CALVES IN
CLAVERIA LIVESTOCK INTEGRATED RAISERS COOPERATIVE (CLIRCO)”
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
The Philippines is primarily an agriculture country where livestock is integrated into the
economic structure of farm and village life. Livestock raiser is being recognized as key element
which contributes to the rural income and the efficient use of available resources in the rural
sector. Livestock raising is a backyard enterprise. Approximately 85% of cattle and 99% of
Carabao total populations are raised in small holder farms (Castillo, A.C., 2010).
The animal industry is important in the Philippine agriculture sector contributing
significantly to the overall domestic economy. Cattle and Carabao contribute much to this
industry. One of the major constraints of efficient Cattle and Carabao production is the presence
of heavy parasitic diseases. Heavy losses are encountered in the form of death, loss of weight,
reduced weight gain, poor breeding efficiency, and decreased work capacity, problems and
damages caused by the parasites in our domestic animals. (Pique et.al 2006)
Internal parasites are very common in all types of livestock. Control programs should
normally consider the life cycle of the parasites concerned so that the treatments may be
applied to the best effect. Many of the parasites need secondary hosts to complete their life
cycles so that control can be effective by eliminating the secondary host as well as therapeutic
treatment to reduce the primary infestation. A good example of this would be liver fluke,
(Fasciola hepatica), which needs water snails as its secondary host. Modern broad spectrum
anthelmintics are very effective at eliminating most infestations from animals. (Clarke, 1994)
The major problem in raising these animals aside from nutrition and feeding problems is
the presence of common disease and parasites. Liver flukes and intestinal worms are most
common internal parasites among ruminants. The economic losses due to these parasites
usually surpassed losses from all other disease combined.
Gastro intestinal parasitic infections are a worldwide problem for both small and large
scale partners. Economic losses are caused by gastro intestinal parasites in a variety of ways:
they cause losses through lowered fertility, reduced work capacity, involuntary culling, a
reduction in food intake and lower weight gains and mortality in heavily parasitized animals
(Zeit, 2006). Despite the immense progress made to control parasitesis, farmers in the
Philippines continue to incur significant losses due to non-availability of purgative (Zeit, 2006).
Recently, there has been growing interest in the traditional cures of livestock diseases.
This is because industrially produced drugs are too expensive for some sectors of the raising
community especially in the developing world. Medicinal plants are often cheaper and more
easily available than the commercially produced drugs. The self help study in form of traditional
medicines (especially from medicinal plant), offers a way put by making use of resources
available within the communities themselves (Cambridge University press, 2004).
With parasites developing resistance to all dewormers and more farmers producing
livestock by “natural” methods, there is interest in looking for alternative ways to manage
parasites problems (wells, 1999).
Claveria is abundant with different flora and fauna. It has diverse population of plants
which include herbal plants and other legumes that can be used as purgatives to humans and
animals. Ipil-ipil and Maluggay are just 2 of these potential purgatives. The farmers in Claveria
practiced ethno veterinary medicine for their livestock and other animals. At times, herbal plants
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are abundant in the municipality but the farmers have no time to prepare these materials into
purgative since their focus is on their farm production. Claveria is a rural agriculture area with
which farmers raise livestock to air in their farming activities. As of 2009 the municipality has a
cattle population of five thousand three hundred seventy five (5,375) (OMG annual survey
report, 2009). The raising of farm animals is still in the small scale basis since it is intimately tied
in with farmer’s activities and way of life. Cattle are mainly raised for draft purpose and as
mortgage lifters in times of needs. Also, these animals offer a means whereby crop products
and residues as well as native vegetation are converted into milk, hides and other by products.
To test the purgative property of locally, abundant herbs like Ipil-Ipil and Malunggay
remedy the high cost of dewormers and improve health of backyard cattle, this study will be
conducted.
Significance of the study
The study would help establish data on indigenous purgatives which could be helpful to
solve parasitism at a cheaper cost for the cattle raisers especially in Claveria.
Also, this would provide information on the possibility of preparing locally available
herbal plants into purgatives.
Scope and Limitation of the Study
This study will use fifteen (15) Calves with different levels of indigenous purgatives Ipil-
ipil and Malunggay. Fecal will be examined based on the fecal laboratory result. The duration of
the study will be two months. Any variable outside the study is no longer the researcher’s
concerned.
Locale of the Study
Claveria Livestock Integrated Raisers Cooperative (CLIRCO) is located at Janopolan,

Poblacion Claveria, Misamis Oriental. The farm which has an area of 24 hectares (2 hectares
for the feedlot and 22 hectares for the silage production) is managed by Mr. Corsino Tion and
supervised by the President, Mr. Cresencion G. Barros. Recently, CLIRCO Farm holds 120
heads of Dairy cattle with various dairy cattle species like the Brown Swiss, Jersey, Holstein
Sahiwal, Holstein Friesian, Guernsey and kiwi.
Objectives of the study
The general aim of the study is to determine the efficacy of indigenous purgatives
among calves. Specifically, it aims:
1. To determine gastrointestinal parasites and its population on calves in Claveria livestock
Integrated Raisers Cooperative (CLIRCO) Claveria, Misamis Oriental;
2. To identify the different indigenous purgatives used for cattle in Claveria, Misamis
Oriental;
3. To formulate a standard preparation of indigenous purgatives;
4. To determine the efficacy of the different indigenous purgatives in different levels
administered to calves;
5. To determine the economic viability of indigenous purgative on calves.
6. To evaluate the efficacy of indigenous purgatives in reducing gastrointestinal parasites
among calves.
Definition of Terms
Anthelmintic. Destruction to parasitic worm: describes a natural or pharmaceutical substance

that destroys or expels intestinal parasitic worms.
Calves. The young of domestic cattle.
Decoction. A process of extraction of liquid form plant materials through boiling.
Drenching. The administration of liquid or semi-liquid preparation through mouth; may use
bamboo tube, soft drinks bottle, syringe and needle or medicine dropper.
Efficacy. The ability of a medicine or treatment to produce a result.
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Egg Per Gram (EPG). The population of parasite per one gram of fecal sample.
Fecal Egg Count. The term used that refers to the egg population of parasite.
Fecalysis. The process of collecting fecal matter of calves for analysis through rectal
palpation.
Gastrointestinal Parasite. The parasite that populates the gastro-intestinal tract of animals.
They can live throughout the body, but most prefer the intestinal wall.
Purgatives. The two (2) species of plants used as purgatives that thrive in the locality or native
in the community.
Infestation. The presence of a large number of pest organisms in an area or field, on the
surface of a host or anything that might contract a host.
Laxative.foods, compounds, or drugs taken to induce bowel movements or to lossen the stool,
most often taken to treat constipation.
Nematode. The most diverse phylum of pseudocoelomates, and one of the most diverse of all
animals. Nematodes species are very difficult to distinguish; over 28,000 have been
described where gastrointestinal parasites in ruminant belong.
Purgative. A chemical or compound use to cleanse or remove impurities of calves like
parasites.
Tannins. An astringent, bitter plant polyphenolic compound that binds to and
precipitatesproteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and
alkaloids that help eliminates parasite.
Saponins. A class of chemical compounds, one of many secondary metabolites found in
natural sources, with saponins found in particular abundance in various plant species
that has a bacteriolytic effect.
Syringe. A simple piston pump consisting of a plunger that fits tightly in a tube that is used for
administration of purgatives to calves.
Weekly Output:
 Activity number 8
Activity number 8 and submit them to your Course facilitator during the face-
to-face session on Week 10.
End of Week 9
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To my students:
UNIT 7. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Instructional Objectives:
1. Know characteristics of related literature and studies reviewed

2. Enumerate the functions or purpose of the review of literature
3. Discuss the ways of citing related literature and studies.
Introduction
Review of literature is one of the components of the research process. A
researcher needs to review write –ups, readings and studies related to his present study
to determine the similarities and differences of the findings between the past and
present studies.
Review of literature provides the conceptual foundation from which to launch the
empirical analysis of the chosen topic which could be in terms of related readings,
related literature and related studies.
Related readings refer to the various materials available which have direct bearing
or relation to present study while related literature are written words or materials such
as book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook and encyclopedia while related
studies are the published and unpublished research studies.
Functions of the review of literature:

 Helps define the research problem
 Sensitizes the reader to those concepts and constructs that have already been
reorganized as important to the relationships among these factors for which there
is support from previous research
 Provides a rationale for the concepts and/or constructs included in the
propositions to be investigated and their particular status (i.e, independent,
dependent or controlled). The publications included in the review should deal
with the concepts and constructs or some aspects of attributes of the dimensions
suggested by the concepts and constructs.
 Enables the investigators to evaluate the consistency of other studies in terms
congruence of results, research design and methods of research.
 Assess the validity of the studies reviewed
 Serves as a grounding for the study in some types of conceptual model that will
justify the proposition and facilitate interpretation of the data that are ultimately
collected
 Expands the introductory chapter of the research
 Provides the theoretical basis for the research question
 Helps the researcher outlines the implications of this study
 Helps in the interpretation of results or findings
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Search Strategies in related Literature
1. Break out the pool of literature in the field. You can find highly relevant materials
in other fields.
2. To understand the relationship between available literatures better, put together
all the materials that deal with similar topics.
3. Normally, books in the library are arranged systematically. To use the library
effectively and efficiently, you need not master the philosophy and system of
cataloging.
Sources of Related Literature

1. Books, encyclopedia, almanac, and other similar references
2. Articles published in professional journals, magazines, periodicals, newspapers
and other publications.
3. Unpublished theses and dissertations
4. Constitution and laws and statuses of the land
5. Bulletins, circulars and orders emanating from the government offices and
departments especially from the office of the President of the Philippines and the
Department of Education.
6. Records of schools, public and private, especially reports of their activities
7. Reports from seminars, educational, social, economic, scientific, technological.
political, etc. from the government and other entities.
Common Errors in Reviewing Literature

1. Too frequently, researcher rely solely on secondary materials or sources ass
research abstract, literature review done by other researchers and the like.
2. Very frequently, researchers concentrate on the findings in research reports. This
is a serious error because if you look at the findings alone, you are likely to be
misled by impressive statistics. The important parts of the research reports that
must be analyzed critically are the over-all methodology, sampling, research
design and the methods of analyses.
3. Researchers usually overlook sources particularly those from countries other than
the developed countries.
How to begin the Review of Literature?

 Begin with an examination of the appropriate abstracts. A list of excellent
review sources would include the historical abstracts, the guide to periodical
literature and the social science and Humanities Index, Sociological
Abstracts, Psychological Abstracts/ and Dissertation Abstracts.
 The Abstract provide a table of contents of subject areas covered in that
particular edition, listed according to numbers from which the researcher can
then select those applicable to the general topic or area. The abstracts
represent a summary of the works that have been completed and are usually
a paragraph or two in length.
How much is enough?

- To review that which is appropriate.
- To continue to review that literature until you are consistently reading the same
results. This does not mean encountering accounts of the same study, but that
62
whoever did the research and wherever they did it are finding much the same
thing that others have found elsewhere or that the discrepancies in the reported
results are being consistently presented by the researchers whose work you
have consulted.
What if Little Relevant Literature is found?
- Some topics or areas as have absence of studies that have been done or are few in
number and/ or there is very little in the way of conceptual models available.
Two Directions Recommended:

1. There may be a collection of sparse but well –organized scientific and scholarly
literature.
2. The Literature maybe more popular and more journalistic in nature example: daily
or weekly articles printed in newspapers and news magazines, etc.
Guidelines in Citing Related Literature and Studies
Characteristics of the materials cited

1. The material must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid
social, political, scientific and technological changes
2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased. Materials that are extremely one
sided should be avoided.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study.
4. Materials must not be too few but not too many.
5. Materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to
make them valid and reliable.
Quoting a Material
A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or is
controversial and too long. It is written single space with widen margins at the left and
right sides of the paper but without any quotation mark.
Justification of the Study

It should be made clear that there is no duplication of other studies. The present
inquiry may only be a replication of another study. It should be stressed also that in
spite of similar studies the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings of
studies in other places are also true in the locale of the present study.
There may also be a need to continue with the present investigation to affirm or
negate the findings of other inquiries about the same research problem or topic so that
generalizations or principles may be formulated.
Ways of Citing Related Literature and Studies

The following are ways of citing related literature and studies.
1. By author or writer. In this method the idea, facts or principles, although they have
the same meaning are explained or discussed separately and cited in the
footnote with their respective authors or writers.
2. By topic. In this case, if different authors or writers have the same opinion about
the same topic, the topic is discussed and cited under the names of the authors
or writers.
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3. Chronological. Related materials may also be cited chronologically, that is
according to the year they were written. Materials which were written earlier
should be cited first before those which were written later. This can be done
especially when citation is by author or writer. If citation is by topic, chronological
citation can be done in the footnote.
Evaluating Review of related Literature

The review of related literature is very satisfactory if:
1. It is very adequate and relevant to the problem under investigation.
2. Its discussion per topic or variables involve critical comparisons, contrasts, and
analogies as to the nature and other essential coverings theories, concepts, facts
and or ideas cited authorities on the subject.
3. Cited works come from both primary and secondary sources like books, scholarly
periodicals, monographs, review, etc.
4. The review provide the reader with what is already known on the subject and
what is not yet known that require further investigations.
5. Specific insights and perspective derived from the review of related literature are
pointed out in relation to the subject of investigation.


Baybay,Leyte.
64
Activity No. 9 – Self –Test
1. Establish the importance of the review of literature in one’s research or study.

2. How should the review of literature be done? What are the considerations to
make?
Activity No. 10 - RRL Evaluation
1. Please do your share by researching at least one (1) Review of Related Literature (published
research article/or unpublished thesis or dissertation) .Go over it and make some critiques by
applying the appropriate guidelines of what you have learn.
65

Course & Year: __ __________ Subject: ______________
Activity No.11
DEVELOPING REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Title
Introduction
Objectives:
1. To develop at least (1) one Review of Related Literature based on your

research titles form Exercise # 1.
Methodology
1. Select at least 1 research title of your output from exercise # 1 of which

you are interested.
2. Develop a review of related literature
3. Follow the general guidelines in doing these items.
Weekly Output:
 Activities number 9, 10 and 11
Activities number 9, 10 and 11 then submit them to your Course facilitator

during the face-to-face session on Week 12.
End of Week 11
66
To my students:
Unit 8 : METHODOLOGY
1. State what is the features of a good methodology

2. Enumerate and discuss the pointers to follow in writing methodology
3. Define what is statistics
4. Identify the different research methods/design and discuss
5. Differentiate the null hypotheses from alternative hypotheses
Introduction
Methodology refers to the procedure/ techniques employed to carry out the

research, to achieve the research outputs and consistently to attain the immediate
objectives of the research. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the
research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to
know how to develop certain indices or tests and how to calculate the mean, the mode,
the median or the standard deviation or chi-square etc.,
Features of Good Methodology

1. It is clear, simple and easily understood.
2. Its procedural steps are chronologically presented
3. It includes all the details-complete enough for one to carry on the research
correctly by merely following the procedure given
Pointers to follow in writing the Methodology

1. Speculate on what data to collect or observations to record in order to satisfy the
objectives of the proposed research
2. Choose the appropriate experimental design- must follow the right methods and
sampling techniques.
Locale of the Study

Locale of the study is the place where research is to be conducted, answer the
questions “ where”? The site of the study should be specified and reasons for its
selection stated. Description of its essential features should be done and is usually
accompanied by a map to make the presentation more vivid.
Sampling and Sampling Technique

Sampling refers to the strategies of picking up a subgroup from a larger group to be
used as basis for making judgments about the larger group. Sampling is necessary to
economize time, effort and money as it allows the researcher to obtain information only
67
for some of the elements rather than for all. A sample is a part of the population which is
observed in order to make inferences about the whole population since it reflects the
characteristics of the population.
Techniques of Sampling
A. Probability sampling- in which each and every member of the population has an
equal and independent chance of being selected.
1. Simple random sampling- is a sample selected from a population in such a
manner that all member of the population have an equal chance of being
selected.
2. Systematic random sampling- is a sample obtained by selecting every nth
name in a population.
3. Stratified random sampling- from the world “strata” which means layer or
arrangements.
- Is a sample selected so that certain characteristics are represented in the sample in
the same proportion as they are in the population.
4. Cluster sampling- is a sample composed of groups rather than individuals.
5. Multi-stage sampling – refers to the procedures as in a cluster sampling which
moves through a series of stages from more inclusive to the less inclusive
sampling units until arriving at the population elements that constitute the
desired sampling.
B. Non-Probability Sampling – is a technique used when there is no way of
estimating the probability that each element has being included in the sample.
1. Accidental Sampling – is one in which the investigator simply reaches out and
takes the cases that are at hand, continuing the process until the sample
reaches a designated size.
2. Purposive sampling or judgmental sampling – is a sample selected because
the individuals have special qualifications of some sort.
3. Quota sampling – is a technique with provision to guarantee the inclusion in
the sample of diverse elements in the population and to make sure that these
diverse elements are taken account of in proportion in which they occur in the
population.
Four Factors to consider in selecting a Sample
1. Homogeneity – take samples from homogenous population. Samples taken from
a heterogeneous population will not be representative of the population and
therefore cannot be inferred from the population.
2. Size of the Population- if the population is large, you need a sample. However,
you need not sample if the population is small and can be handled. If you include
all individuals in the population the it is called total enumeration.
3. Cost- Choice of sample method should be based also on the cost of adopting
such method without necessarily sacrificing representativeness of the population
being considered.
4. Precision- to achieve precision a larger sample is needed because the larger the
sample the more precise the result will be.
Research Methods/ Design
Four Types of Research Design:

a. Historical research – the study is focused in the past (what was)
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b. Descriptive Research- the study is focused in the present ( what is )
c. Experimental research- the study is focused in the future ( what will be)
d. Case study design- focused in the past, present and the future
The four types of research design are generally grouped into two:
1. Qualitative research Design-involves in depth analysis of problems. Its focus is to
provide accurate descriptions of the problems without attempting to treat or
employ sophisticated statistical tool to solve or describe problems. It includes
historical, case study and descriptive design.
2. Quantitative Research design- the focus is to describe problems descriptively and
numerically such as experimental research.is
Statistical Analysis
Statistics
 is the science and practice of developing human knowledge through the use of
empirical data expressed in quantitative form. It is based on statistical theory
which is a branch of applied mathematics.
 The collecting, summarizing, and analyzing of data.
 The term also refers to raw numbers, or “stats”, and to the summarization of data.
Types of Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics: describe the relationship between variables. – E.g.

Frequencies, means, standard deviation
 Inferential Statistics: make inferences about the population, based on a random
sample.

Variables
A variable is anything that may change from one condition to another, either
qualitatively or quantitatively. It is not in values for all units in a well-defined set.
In research, the characteristic or phenomenon that can be measured or classified is

called a variable. There are 4 levels of variables:
 Nominal – categorizes observation in terms of qualities and attributes
Ex: apples and pears, gender, eye color, ethnicity, religion, status
 Ordinal-consists of categories that rank observations in ascending or descending
order e.g.1st ,2nd, 3rd,higher, lower, poor, fair, good, excellent
 Interval- does not have a true 0 e.g. 0 centigrade
 Ratio – has true 0 point e.g. distance, weight, height
Types of Variables
a. Independent variable- a variable that affects the dependent variable under study
and is included in the research design so that its effect can be determined.
b. Dependent Variables- a variable being affected or assumed to be affected by the
independent variable.
c. Intervening variable- a variable whose existence is inferred but cannot always
be manipulated or measured.
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Independent Variable - Intervening variable - Dependent variable
E.g. Educational level - Occupational type - Income level
d. Control variables- a variable other than the independent variable of primary
interest whose effects are determined by the researcher.
e. Moderator Variable- a variable that may not be controlled but has an effect on
the research situation.
Hypothesis
A research hypothesis is usually a predicted statement that represents a very

specific proposed answer to the problem statement. A hypothesis put forward to
argue that a relationship or pattern does not exist.
A null hypothesis which is primarily used for statistical purposes, is a statement

that we expect that there will be no connection among variables.
Cholesterol study example: In a Randomized Control Trial, the control group and the
treatment group have equal levels of cholesterol at the end of a study.
Null hypothesis: Groups A and B are equal.

Denoted by Ho:
Alternative Hypothesis: Statement of what study is set to establish.
Alternative Hypothesis: Groups A and B have different levels of cholesterol.
The null hypothesis will be true if the findings are insignificant.

The null hypothesis will be false if the findings are significant.
Denoted by H1:
Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis:

1. It is in agreement with observed facts
2. It does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true
3. It is stated in the simplest possible terms
4. It permits the application of deductive reasoning
Purposes, functions and Importance of Hypothesis:

1. They help the researcher in designing his study
2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions
3. They serve as bases for determining the relevance of data.
4. They serve as bases for the explanation or discussion about the data gathered
5. They help or guide the researcher I consolidating his findings and in formulating
his conclusions.
Characteristics of a good research instrument

1. The instrument must be valid and reliable
2. It must be based upon the conceptual framework or what the research wants to
find out.
70
3. It must gather data suitable for and relevant to the research topic.
4. It must gather data that would test the hypothesis or answer the questions under
investigations.
5. It should be free from all kinds of bias.
6. It must contain questions on items that are unequivocal.
7. It must contain clear and definite directions to accomplish it.
8. It must be accompanied by a good cover letter.
9. It must be accompanied if possible by a letter of recommendation from a
sponsors.


Baybay,Leyte.
71
Activity No- 12 - Self –Test
1. What is the best sampling technique to use? What considerations are to be
made in the choice of a sampling technique? What sample size is
representative of the population?
2. Characterize the various types of research designs and the indications under
which each one is most appropriately used.
3. What are the factors to consider in determining the most appropriate
statistical tool to use?
4. What are the ways by which information may be obtained from the
respondents
Weekly Output:
Activity number 12 then submit them to your Course facilitator during the
face-to-face session on Week 12.
End of Week 11
72
To my students:
Unit 9: Advance Statistics in Agriculture
Instructional Objectives:
At the end of this unit, the students should be able to:
1. Describe what is statistics

2. Discuss the importance of statistics and its practical applications
3. Enumerate the research design in agricultural research
Statistics
Scientifically and from the research form of view: = refers to the methods in collection, analysis,
interpretation and presentation of data.
Collection or gathering of Data
 Through interview, questionnaires, tests, observation, registration and

experiment
Analysis of data
 process of extracting from the given data relevant and noteworthy in formation
and this uses statistical tools or techniques.
Interpretation of data
 drawing of conclusions or inferences from the analyzed data.
Definition of terms
1. The manipulation of the independent variable is known as the treatment.

2. Replication is the exact duplication of the experiment. This allows the results to be
verified across numerous trials, resulting in greater confidence in the results.
3. Experimental unit - Unit of material to which a treatment is applied.
4. Randomization – Manner in which the experimental units are assigned to the
treatments for the purpose of avoiding bias in the estimation of the experimental error.
5. ANOVA-analysis of variance
2 Categories or types of statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics- usually used in social research

2. Inferential statistics – usually used in experimental research
73
Importance of Statistics and Its practical applications
In empirical Studies:
 it aids in decision making
 summarizes or describes data
 helps to forecast or predict outcomes
 aids in making inferences
 helps in comparisons or establishing
 Helps in comparisons or establishing relationships
Elements of Agricultural Research
Estimates of error
- Replication
- Randomization
Control of error
- Blocking
- Proper plot Techniques
- Data Analysis
Proper Interpretation of results
Single Factor Experiments
1. Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

- Treatments are assigned completely at random
- Any difference among experimental units receiving the same treatment is
considered as experimental error
- Appropriate for experiments with homogenous experimental units.
Ex: Laboratory experiments
2. Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD)
- Most widely used experimental designs in agricultural research
- Suited for field experiments where the number of treatments is not large
- Presence of blocks of equal size
3. Latin square design (LS)
- Has capacity to simultaneously handle two known sources of variation among
experimental units
- Has two independent blocking criteria
- Has two directional blocking- row and column blocking
- Every treatment occurs only once in each row-block and column-block
Example:
1. Field with two fertility gradient
2. Insecticide trial with predictable direction of insect migration
74
Randomization and Layout in CRD
 in single factor experiments

n=total number of experimental plots
n=product of the number of treatments (t) and number of replications ( r )
 Treatments are assigned completely at random.
Randomization and Layout in RCRD
- In single factor experiments

- Randomization is applied separately in each block ( r)
r= the number of replications
- Divide each block into (t) experimental plots
t= the number of treatments
= treatments appear only once in each block
Randomization is applied separately in each block ( r)

r= the number of replications
 Divide each block into (t) experimental plots
t= the number of treatments
 Treatments appear only once in each block
Randomization and Layout in LS design
- In single factor experiments

- Number of treatments is not less than 4 and not more than 8
- Replications is equal to the number of treatments
- Treatments should only appear once in row-block and column-block
Two- Factor Experiments
1. Complete Block Designs

- Factorial experiments in CRD, RCBD, LSD
2. Split plot Designs

- There are two factors not equal importance
- Main Plot
- Treatments of lesser importance
- Treatment which are likely to show greater differences
- Treatments requiring larger plots for convenience of working
- Treatments of the main plots are placed at random within the blocks
- Treatments of the subplots are placed at random within the main plots.
3. Strip Plot designs
Three Factor Experiments
1. Complete Block Designs
75
- 3 factorial experiments in CRD, RCBD, LSD
2. Split-Split Plot Designs
3. Strip-Split Plot Design


Baybay,Leyte.
76
Activity No. 13-Self- Test
1. Discuss the importance of statistics and its application.

2. Differentiate the CRD from RCBD.
77
To my students:
Continue reading and analyzing the learning materials below for week 12. Conduct
further research to better understand the topic and do the corresponding activity.
UNIT 10. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Know how to classify, arrange and present data in textual and tabular form.
2. Establish the importance of coding, editing and proofreading of results and
discussion.
3. To know the principles in research report writing
How is the result and discussion written?
Results should be presented in a sequence that logically corresponds to the

objectives. Combine the results with the discussion of each point. Report any negative
results that will influence your interpretation. Do not discuss results that you have not
mentioned and exclude results that do not relate to the objectives. Results must be
interpreted for readers so they can understand the meaning of your findings. There
must be clear relationship drawn from previous work and if they do not agree with your
work then consider the reason why. You can also discuss the relevance of your
research to the specific field, point out how it relates to others and make
recommendations from your work.
On the other hand, a topical outline will be a good guide in presenting the results
and discussion. It lists the contents of the results in logical rather than chronological
order. The different aspects in the outline can then be used as subtopics of this part of
the paper.
The results and discussion could be presented together or separately. Usually, the
results are discussed thoroughly as they are presented. The information obtained
should be integrated then interpreted. The results are presented in sequence, table by
table. Related results may be grouped together and discussed as one. To make the
analysis or discussion of results more credible, literature can be cited to support specific
findings.
When should tables or figures be used for presentation of result?

If one is making comparison of treatments then the final values from there should
appear close together while if trends or gross changes are to be shown, a graph will
have the most effect. If the researcher would like to have a strict testing of results where
the exact value is important, then it is best to use a table. Do not use graphs to
duplicate information already in the table or text. Do not repeat the lists of figures in the
78
text when they are already in the tables. Decide on the overall results and not on each
individual value. Make sure all the tables and figures are mentioned in the text.
Where, in relation to the text of your paper should the figures and tables be
placed?
As a rule, always place the figures and tables after the text that the first explains or
discusses that graphic. To keep the flow of thought moving, be sure that no figures or
table will appear before the reader has an idea of what it is intended to convey.
Depending on the need, these are the choices in terms of location:
a. In the body of the text
If the graphic is small and closely linked to the text, it may be placed as an inset
directly into the text.
b. On a separate page
Larger figures and tables should be placed in a separate page following the
passage in the text which first mentioned them.
c. In an appendix
This placement is appropriate for complex tables since these are often
included as supporting data that will not always be ready with the paper but may
be checked by those readers with special interest in the subject. Be certain to
provide references to appendix in your text and include the appendix in the table
of contents.
Writing the Report
A research report is a written account describing research results. Its function is not
only to relay findings but also to link those findings directly to a theoretical model or to
one or more empirically tested hypotheses. A research report is often organized using
the IMRAD format-acronym, which stands for Introduction, methods, results and
discussion. The logic of IMRAD can be defined in question form:
What question was studied?------------The answer is in the Introduction

How was the problem studied?-------- The answer is in the methods
What were the findings?--------------- The answer is in the results
What do these findings mean -------- The answer is in the Discussion
As suggested, a report should have these components:
A. Title Page
B. Abstract
C. Introduction
D. Methods
Subjects/participants, apparatus, design, procedures
E. Results
F. Discussion
G. References
H. Other section ( Tables, caption, figures, instrument used, letters )
79
Suggested Reading / References


Baybay,Leyte.
80
Activity No. 14 - Self- Test
1. Why is coding, editing and proofreading important in research report preparation?

2. How should data presentation, analysis and interpretation be done? In what ways
could errors in the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data be
presented?
3. What are the most basic principles to consider in writing research reports? What
is the rationale in the observance of these principles?
Weekly Output:
 Activities number 13 & 14
Activities number 13 and 14 then submit them to your Course facilitator

during the face-to-face session on Week 13.
End of Week 12
81
To my students:
UNIT 11
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND REC0MMENDATIONS
1. Present the summary, conclusions, recommendations and implications of one is

study
2. Know guidelines in the writing of the summary, conclusions and
recommendations and the rationale for each guideline.
Introduction
The research story in brief unfolds itself through the summary, conclusions and
recommendations. This section presents research objectives, methodology, observed
events, generalizations based on the results, suggested ways, to use research data,
related areas for further investigation and ways, if need be, to improve the study. Some
research report lump summary, conclusions and recommendations under one healing.
Others separate the three subheadings or combine summary and conclusions in one
section, leaving recommendations in another. Since we do not expect voluminous
information from our simple studies, it may be practical to use one main heading with
the triple label summary, conclusions and recommendations. Implications may be
woven into this section.
Summary
A summary is a brief statement covering the main points of the study. It gives a
short but candid overview of the research objectives, experimental design, treatments
and relationship of variables. It cuts down results and discussion into about one-fifth in
length. Details are omitted and tables are no longer included and referred to. The
researcher may present related findings that agree or disagree with his own results but
never to make inferences based on outside materials.
Guidelines in writing the summary of findings:
1. There should be a brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the
population or respondents, the period of the study, method of research used, the
research instruments and the sampling design. There should be no explanation
made.
2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each specific
question under the statement of the problem must be written first to be followed
82
by the finding that would answer it. The specific. Questions should follow the
order they are given under the statement of the problem.
3. The findings should be textual generalizations, a summary of the important data
consisting of text and numbers. No deduction nor inference nor interpretation
should be made otherwise it will be duplicated in the conclusion.
4. Only the important findings, the highlights of the data should be included.
5. Findings are not explained nor elaborated upon anymore. They should be stated
as concisely as possible.
6. No new data should be introduced.
Conclusions
Conclusions should always be synchronized with research objectives. They

should give or suggests answers to stated objectives at the introductory sections. A
research can only be considered successful if it has attained its objectives. Some
students believe that research fails if certain effects of variables under study produce
negative results. This is a wrong concept because the hypothesis directs the inquiry to
the discovery of effects regardless of positive or negative results.
Conclusions have been judged by researchers ass one of the most difficult to
write. The situation seems to stem from any of the following causes:
1. Lack of a thorough understanding of the investigation as a whole. At this stage the
researcher should have mastered the entire thing from the statement of the
problem to the findings including write up.
2. Inadequate ability to organize information
3. Failure to consider the questions and hypothesis as contained in the introduction.
4. Failure to distinguish the difference between results and conclusions.
5. Insufficient evidence to warrant valid inferences.
Guidelines in Writing the Conclusions:

1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations,
general statements and generalizations based upon the findings. They are the
logical and valid outgrowth of the findings. They should not contain numerals.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the
beginning of the investigation in order they are given under the statement of the
problem.
3. Conclusion should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, brief and short yet convey all the
necessary information resulting from the study as required by the specific
questions.
5. Conclusions should be stated categorically. They should not show any doubts as
to their validity and reliability and qualifiers like perhaps may be and the like
should be avoided.
6. Conclusions should only be limited to the population, area and subject of the
study.
7. Conclusions maybe recapitulations but not repetition of statements in the study.
Recommendations
Recommendations are suggestions for further research or other courses of action
that follow as a result of the information developed in the study. These suggestions
83
should be considered very carefully because they represent the insight gained by the
researcher.
Guidelines in Writing the Recommendations:

1. Recommendations should aim to solve problems discovered in the investigation.
2. Recommendations should limit only to something discussed or discovered in the
study.
3. Recommendations may be made for the continuance of the study or for its
improvement.
4. Recommendations must be feasible, practical and attainable.
5. Recommendations must be logical and valid.
6. Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities agencies or
offices who or which are in position to implement them.
7. To verify , simplify or negate the findings of the study, recommendations for
further research on the same topic in other places may be undertaken
References


Baybay,Leyte.
84
Activity No. 15 – Self-Test
1. What are the guidelines in writing the summary and conclusions? Show your
knowledge by giving examples.
2. What are some dangers in drawing up conclusions?
3. What are the guidelines in writing the recommendations? Give the rationale for
each guideline and show some examples.
Weekly Output:
Activity number 15 then submit them to your Course facilitator during the
face-to-face session on Week 14.
End of Week 13
Congratulations! You’ve
finish all the chapters.
Apply what you have
learned and good luck!
85
86

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ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT COLLEGE

POBLACION, AURORA, ZAMBOANGA DEL SUR

(METHODS OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH)

Welcome to the Zamboanga del Sur Provincial Government College (ZSPGC)

Various learning experiences are provided to facilitate the students

If there are problems encountered pertinent to the course,please feel free to

Ag Res 1 (Methods of Agricultural Research)

Welcome to the first semester of school year 2020-2021 in general and to

UNIT 1.SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO RESEARCH

After reading this unit, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the source of knowledge

Ary (1990) explained five sources of knowledge categorized as 1). Experienced;

 Experience. Much of the activities we do in our life are done repetitively.

Deductive reasoning is very useful in the research process because:1) it provides

 Inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning was introduced by Francis Bacon(

Exercise: Identify which is deductive and which is inductive.

a. Every mammal has lungs

 Scientific Approach. Many problems could not be solved by induction alone.

The scientific approach is described as a process in which investigators move

The use of hypotheses is a principal difference between the scientific

Science is best described as a method of inquiry that permits investigators to

The aim of science is to explain natural phenomena ( Kerlinger,1986).Such

Attitudes of Researchers and Social Scientist

In general, scientist possesses unique characteristics and attitudes that

“Scientific research is a systematic controlled, empirical and critical investigation

Dewey’s Paradigm of Inquiry

The scientific approach is a special systematized form of reflective thinking and

 Problem-obstacle – idea. First the scientist experiences as obstacle to

Summary of the Research Process

 There is an indeterminate situation that needs answers, explanation or a

Alkuino,J.M. Jr. (2003).Research Planning and Manuscript Preparation. Leyte State

Sandoval, A.C.Y.(2007).Social Science Research. Visayas State University,Visca,

1. What are the five sources of knowledge? Discuss each/

Keep the following output in your Portfolio:

UNIT2. RESEARCH METHODS

After reading this unit, the students should be able to:

1. Explain what is research and create own definition

RESEARCH is a key to progress. There can be no progress without research in

Good defines RESEARCH as a “careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, variations in

Parel defines research as a “systematic study or investigation of something for

Treeces and Treeces commented that “research in its broadest sense is an

Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be defined as a

Purpose of Research (Aims, Objectives, Goals)

The definition of research says that research is purposive. The main or

1. To discover new facts about known phenomena. (Alcohol is a known

Characteristics of Good Research

Crawford, from his definition, has given some characteristics of research as

Another author, Best, given a summary of the more important characteristics

1. Research gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand

From the discussion above, the characteristics of research may be

Differences Between Research and Problem-Solving

The researcher must be able to distinguish between research and problem-

1. There may not be a problem, only 1. There is always a problem to be

Kinds and Classifications of Research

1. According to purpose. Trow identifies three broadly different kinds of research,

a) Predictive or prognostic research has the purpose of determining the

2. According to goal. According to goal, research may be classified as basic or

a) Basic or pure research is done for the development of theories or

3. According to the levels of investigation. French categorizes research

4. According to the type of analysis. According to the type of analysis, Weiss

a) In the analytical approach, the researcher attempts to identify and

5. According to scope. Under this category is action research. This is type of

In education, it is a firing-line or on the job type of problem solving or research