Modules in

Advanced Engineering Mathematics

SESSION TOPIC 4 (4.1-4.8): Power Series

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the discussion, the student should be able to:
1. understand the concept of infinite series
2. determine convergence or divergence of infinite series
3. understand the concept of power series
4. determine the radius and interval of convergence of power series
5. obtain Taylor series and Maclaurin series of a given function

KEY TERMS
convergent radius of
infinite series Taylor series
series convergence
interval of
power series divergent series Maclaurin series
convergence

CORE CONTENT

4.1 Infinite Series

We recall the concepts of sequence and series.
Sequence – set of numbers arranged according to a definite rule

Finite Sequence: {𝑎𝑛 }𝑘𝑛=1 (has finite/limited number of terms)

𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑘

Infinite Sequence: {𝑎𝑛 }+∞

𝑛=1 or {𝑎𝑛 } (has infinite number of terms)
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , …
Examples:
Finite Sequence 3,5,7,9,11 {2𝑛 + 1}5𝑛=1
Infinite Sequence 3,5,7,9,11, … {2𝑛 + 1}+∞
𝑛=1 or {2𝑛 + 1}

Series – sum of the terms of a sequence

Finite Series: 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 = ∑𝑘𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛

Infinite Series: 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑+∞

𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛

Examples:
Finite Series 3+5+7+9+11= ∑5𝑛=1(2𝑛 + 1)
Infinite Series 3+5+7+9+11+…= ∑+∞
𝑛=1(2𝑛 + 1)

We formally define an infinite series.

Given a sequence of numbers {𝑎𝑛 }, an expression of the form
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑+∞ 𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛
is an infinite series. The number 𝑎𝑛 is the nth term of the series.
The sequence {𝑠𝑛 } defined by
𝑠1 = 𝑎1
𝑠2 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2
𝑠3 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3
⋮
𝑠𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
is the sequence of partial sums of the series, 𝑠𝑛 being the nth partial sum.
If the sequence of partial sums converges to a limit L, we say that the series converges (or is convergent)
and its sum is 𝐿 ; and we write
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑+∞ 𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿

If the sequence of partial sums does not converge, then the series diverges (or is divergent).

Example:
Consider the infinite series
1 1 1 1 1
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + ⋯
Is this series convergent?
We look at the sequence of partial sums.

Partial Sum Value

1
𝑠1 = 1 1 = 2 − 1 = 2 − 20
1 3 1 1
𝑠2 = 1 + 2 = 2 − 2 = 2 − 21
2
1 1 7 1 1
𝑠3 = 1 + 2 + 4 = 2 − 4 = 2 − 22
4
1 1 1 15 1 1
𝑠4 = 1 + + + =2− =2− 3
2 4 8 8 8 2
⋮ ⋮
1 1 1 1 1
𝑠𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ + 2𝑛−1 2 − 2𝑛−1

1 1
The nth partial sum is 𝑠𝑛 = 2 − 2𝑛−1 . Then lim 𝑠𝑛 = lim (2 − 2𝑛−1) = 2 − 0 = 2 .
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞
The sequence of partial sums converges, so the infinite series converges and its sum is 2.

4.2 Some Special Types of Series

Geometric Series: ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑟
𝑛−1
= 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + ⋯
𝑎 and 𝑟 are fixed real numbers, 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑟 is the common ratio (can be positive or negative)
𝑎
If |𝑟| < 1, the series converges and ∑+∞𝑛=1 𝑎𝑟
𝑛−1
= 1−𝑟 .

If |𝑟| ≥ 1, the series diverges.

Examples:
1 1 1 1
1. + 27 + 81 + 243 + ⋯
9
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 𝑛−1 1 1 𝑛−1
+ 27 + 81 + 243 + ⋯ = 9 + 9 (3) + 9 (3) + 9 (3) + ⋯ + 9 (3) + ⋯ = ∑+∞
𝑛=1 9 (3)
9

1 1 1
The common ratio is 𝑟 = 3. Since |𝑟| = |3| = 3 < 1 , the series is convergent and its sum is
1
1 1 𝑛−1 1
∑+∞
𝑛=1 9 (3) = 1
9
=6
1−
3

1 1
2. 4 − 2 + 1 − 2 + 4 − ⋯
1 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 𝑛−1 1 𝑛−1
4 − 2 + 1 − 2 + 4 − ⋯ = 4 + 4 (− 2) + 4 (− 2) + 4 (− 2) + ⋯ + 4 (− 2) + ⋯ = ∑+∞
𝑛=1 4 (− 2)

1 1 1 4 8
We have 𝑟 = − 2 and |𝑟| = |− 2| = 2 < 1 , the series is convergent and its sum is 1 =3
1−(− )
2

3 1 𝑛−1
3. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 10 (10)
3 1 1 1
This is a geometric series with 𝑎 = 10 and 𝑟 = 10. Because |𝑟| = |10| = 10 < 1, then the series converges
3
10 1
and its sum is 1 =3.
1−
10
4. 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + ⋯ = ∑+∞ 𝑛=1 2
𝑛−1
or ∑+∞
𝑛=0 2
𝑛

This is a geometric series with 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑟 = 2. Since |𝑟| = |2| = 2 > 1, then the series is divergent.
 1
p-Series or Hyperharmonic Series: ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑛𝑝 , where 𝑝 is a constant
If 𝑝 > 1 , the series is convergent.
If 𝑝 ≤ 1 , the series is divergent.
Examples:
1
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑛
This is called harmonic series. This series is divergent bec. 𝑝 = 1.
1
2. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑛3
This a p-series with 𝑝 = 3 > 1, so this is convergent.
1
3. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 3 √𝑛2
2
This a p-series with 𝑝 = 3 < 1, so this is divergent.

Alternating Series: ∑+∞ 𝑛 +∞

𝑛=1(−1) 𝑎𝑛 or ∑𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
𝑎𝑛
The convergence can be determined by applying the Alternating -Series Test or Leibniz’s Test.
Examples:
1 1 1 1
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
= 1−2+3−4+⋯
𝑛
3 3 3 3 3
2. ∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1(−1) 𝑛2 +1 = − 2 + 5 − 10 + 17 − ⋯

4.3 Tests for Convergence/Divergence of Infinite Series

nth-Term Test for Divergence: If lim 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 or does not exist, then ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 diverges.
𝑛→+∞
(If lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0, test fails. Try to use other tests.)
𝑛→+∞
Examples:
3𝑛2 −4𝑛+1
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 6𝑛2 −5
3𝑛2 4𝑛 1 4 1
3𝑛2 −4𝑛+1 − + 3− + 2 3−0+0 3 1
𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛 𝑛
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim 6𝑛2 −5
= lim 6𝑛 2 5 = lim 5 = 6−0
=6=2
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ − 𝑛→+∞ 6− 2
𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛

Thus, the series is divergent.

2. ∑+∞ 3 2
𝑛=1( 𝑛 − 3𝑛 + 1)
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim ( 𝑛3 − 3𝑛2 + 1) = lim 𝑛3 = + ∞
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞
The series is divergent.
3. ∑+∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1

lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim (−1)𝑛+1 (oscillates between -1 and 1). The limit does not exist, and the series is divergent.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞

Integral Test: Let 𝑓 be a function that is continuous, decreasing and positive valued for all 𝑥 ≥ 1.
+∞
Then the infinite series ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑓(𝑛) is convergent if the improper integral ∫1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 exists
+∞
and divergent if ∫1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = +∞.
Examples:
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑛𝑒
−𝑛

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 . 𝑓 is continuous, decreasing and positive-valued for all 𝑥 ≥ 1.

By Integral Test,
+∞ 𝑁
∫1 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫1 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑁→+∞
Using integration by parts with 𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , we have
= lim [−𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)]1𝑁
𝑁→+∞
𝑁+1 2
= lim [− + 𝑒]
𝑁→+∞ 𝑒𝑁
1 2
= lim [− 𝑒 𝑁 + 𝑒]
𝑁→+∞
2
=0+𝑒
2
=𝑒
Thus, the series is convergent.
 1
2. ∑+∞
𝑛=2 𝑛√ln 𝑛
1
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥√ln 𝑥. 𝑓 is continuous, decreasing and positive-valued for all 𝑥 ≥ 2.
Applying Integral Test,
+∞ 1 𝑁 1 𝑑𝑥
∫2 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫2 𝑑𝑥 let 𝑢 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 =
𝑥√ln 𝑥 𝑁→+∞ 𝑥√ln 𝑥 𝑥
𝑁
= lim [2√𝑙𝑛𝑥]2
𝑁→+∞
= lim [2√ln 𝑛 − 2√𝑙𝑛2]
𝑁→+∞
= +∞ − 2√𝑙𝑛2
= +∞
Hence, the series is divergent.

Comparison Test: Let the series ∑+∞

𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 be a series of positive terms.
+∞
(i) If ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 is a series of positive terms that is known to be convergent and 𝑎𝑛 ≤ 𝑏𝑛
for all positive integers n, then ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 is convergent.

(ii) If ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 is a series of positive terms that is known to be divergent and 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 𝑏𝑛

for all positive integers n, then ∑+∞

𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 is divergent.

Examples:
4
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 3𝑛 +1

4
The nth term of this series is 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 +1.
1 𝑛 4
Consider the convergent geometric series ∑+∞
𝑛=1 4 (3) , where 𝑏𝑛 = 3𝑛 .

4 4
Note that 3𝑛+1 < 3𝑛 for every positive integer n.
4
By the Comparison Test, ∑+∞
𝑛=1 3𝑛 +1 is convergent.

1
2. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 √𝑛
1
The nth term of this series is 𝑎𝑛 = .
√𝑛
1
Comparing the nth term of this series with the nth term of the divergent harmonic series ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑛,

1 1
we have ≥ 𝑛 for every positive integer n.
√𝑛
1
By the Comparison Test, ∑+∞
𝑛=1 is divergent.
√𝑛

Limit Comparison Test: Let ∑+∞ +∞

𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 and ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 be two series of positive terms.
𝑎𝑛
(i) If lim = 𝑐 > 0, then the two series either both converge or both diverge.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑏𝑛
𝑎𝑛
(ii) If lim = 0 and if ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 , converges, then ∑𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 converges.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑏𝑛
𝑎𝑛
(iii) If lim = +∞ and if ∑+∞ +∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 , diverges, then ∑𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 diverges.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑏𝑛

Examples:
4
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 3𝑛 +1

4 1 𝑛 4
Let 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛+1. Consider the convergent geometric series ∑+∞
𝑛=1 4 (3) , where 𝑏𝑛 = 3𝑛.

By the Limit Comparison Test,

4
𝑎𝑛 3𝑛 +1 3𝑛 1 1
lim = lim 4 = lim = lim 1 = 1+0 = 1 > 0
𝑛→+∞ 𝑏𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 3𝑛 +1 𝑛→+∞ 1+3𝑛
3𝑛
Thus, series is convergent.
 1
2. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 √𝑛
1 1 1
Let 𝑎𝑛 = . Consider the divergent harmonic series ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 , where 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑛
√𝑛
Using the Limit Comparison Test,
1
𝑎𝑛 √𝑛 𝑛
lim = lim 1 = lim = lim √𝑛 = +∞
𝑛→+∞ 𝑏𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛
𝑛→+∞ √𝑛 𝑛→+∞

Hence, the series is divergent.

Alternating Series Test: If 𝑎𝑛 > 0 and 𝑎𝑛+1 < 𝑎𝑛 for all positive integers 𝑛, and lim 𝑎𝑛 = 0, then
𝑛→+∞
the alternating series is convergent.
Examples:
1
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 1
∑+∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
= 1 − 2 + 3 − 4 + ⋯ + (−1)𝑛+1 𝑛 + (−1)𝑛+2 𝑛+1 + ⋯
𝑛
1 1 1
Since < 𝑛 for all positive integers 𝑛 and that lim = 0, then the series is convergent.
𝑛+1 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛
3
2. ∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1(−1) 𝑛2 +1
3 3 3
We have 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 +1 and 𝑎𝑛+1 = (𝑛+1)2+1 = 𝑛2 +2𝑛+2. Is 𝑎𝑛+1 < 𝑎𝑛 for every positive integer 𝑛?
𝑎𝑛+1 < 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1
<1
𝑎 𝑛
3
𝑛2 +2𝑛+2
3 <1
𝑛2 +1
𝑛2 +1
< 1 yes, true for all positive integers 𝑛
𝑛2 +2𝑛+2
3
3 𝑛2 0
And because lim = lim 1 = 1+0 = 0, then we conclude that the series is convergent.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛2 +1 𝑛→+∞ 1+ 2
𝑛

Ratio Test: Let ∑+∞

𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 be an infinite series for which every 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0.
𝑎𝑛+1
(i) If lim | | = 𝐿 < 1, the series is absolutely convergent (hence, convergent).
𝑛→+∞ 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛+1
(ii) If lim | | = 𝐿 > 1 or if lim | | = +∞, the series is divergent.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1
(iii) If lim | | = 1, the test is inconclusive, no conclusion regarding convergence can be made.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑎𝑛
Note: Series that are absolutely convergent are convergent. However, series that are convergent may or may not be absolutely convergent.

Examples:
𝑛
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
3𝑛
𝑛 𝑛+1
We have 𝑎𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 3𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛+1 = (−1)𝑛+1 3𝑛+1 .
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 1
𝑎𝑛+1 (−1)𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 3𝑛 𝑛+1 1+ 1+0 1
3𝑛+1
lim | |= lim | (−1)𝑛3𝑛 | = lim 𝑛 = lim ∙ = lim = lim 𝑛
= =3<1
𝑛→+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 3 𝑛→+∞ 3𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 3𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 3𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 3 3

The series is absolutely convergent.

𝑛! 𝑛!
2. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 (2𝑛)!
Note that this is a series of positive terms.
𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑎𝑛 = (2𝑛)!
(𝑛+1)! (𝑛+1)! (𝑛+1)! (𝑛+1)! (𝑛+1)𝑛! ∙ (𝑛+1)𝑛!
𝑎𝑛+1 = (2(𝑛+1))!
= (2𝑛+2)!
= (2𝑛+2)(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛)!
So we have
(𝑛+1)𝑛! ∙ (𝑛+1)𝑛!
𝑎𝑛+1 (2𝑛+2)(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛)! (𝑛+1)𝑛! ∙ (𝑛+1)𝑛! (2𝑛)! (𝑛+1)(𝑛+1) 𝑛+1
lim | | = lim | 𝑛! 𝑛! | = lim (2𝑛+2)(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛)!
∙ 𝑛! 𝑛! = lim = lim
𝑛→+∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 2(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1) 𝑛→+∞ 4𝑛+2
(2𝑛)!
1
1+
𝑛
= lim 2
𝑛→+∞ 4+𝑛
1+0
= 4+0
1
=4<1
The series is (absolutely) convergent.
Root Test: Let ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 be an infinite series for which every 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0.
𝑛
(i) If lim √|𝑎𝑛 | = 𝐿 < 1, the series is absolutely convergent.
𝑛→+∞
𝑛 𝑛
(ii) If lim √|𝑎𝑛 | = 𝐿 > 1 or if lim √|𝑎𝑛 | = +∞ , the series is divergent.
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞
𝑛
(iii) If lim √|𝑎𝑛 | = 1, the test is inconclusive, no conclusion regarding convergence can be made.
𝑛→+∞
Examples:
43𝑛+1
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
𝑛3𝑛
1 1
3+
𝑛 4 3𝑛+1 𝑛 43𝑛+1 43𝑛+1 𝑛 4 𝑛
lim √|(−1)𝑛 𝑛3𝑛 | = lim √ = lim ( ) = lim =0<1
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛3𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛3𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛3

The series is absolutely convergent.

𝑛2
2. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 2𝑛 (series of positive terms)
2
𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛𝑛 1
lim √|2𝑛| = lim = 2 <1
𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 2

The series is (absolutely) convergent.

SELF-ASSESSMENT

Problem Set 1
(Infinite Series)

Name: ________________________ Score: ______________

Section: ________________________ Date: ______________

Solve the following problems as directed. Show complete solutions and box your final answers.

Determine whether the infinite series is convergent or divergent. (5pts each)

2
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 3𝑛−1

4 𝑛
2. ∑+∞
𝑛=0 2 (− ) 3

1
3. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 4 √𝑛3

4𝑛2 +3
4. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 5𝑛2 +1

5. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜋

4
6. ∑+∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
3𝑛−2

𝑛
7. ∑+∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
2𝑛

𝑛2
8. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑛!

2𝑛
9. ∑+∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
𝑛!

1
10. ∑+∞
𝑛=2 (ln 𝑛)𝑛
4.4 Power Series
A power series is an important type of infinite series of variable terms which can be considered as a
generalization of a polynomial function. Power series can be used to express as an infinite series many
functions such as rational, trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions.
Some important applications of power series are in approximating function values, approximating definite
integrals of non-elementary functions, and in solving differential equations.

A power series in 𝒙 − 𝒂 is a series of the form

∑+∞ 𝑛 2 3 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑐2 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑐3 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯+𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯

where 𝑥 is a variable and the 𝑐𝑖 ’s are constants.

If 𝑥 is a particular number, then the power series becomes an infinite series of constant terms.

Examples:
1. ∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(𝑛 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) is a power series in 𝑥 − 2 (𝑎 = 2) , 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1

∑+∞ 𝑛 2 3
𝑛=0(𝑛 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 1 + 2(𝑥 − 2) + 3(𝑥 − 2) + 4(𝑥 − 2) + ⋯ (expanded form)
When 𝑥 = 4:
∑+∞ 𝑛 +∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(𝑛 + 1)(4 − 2) = ∑𝑛=0(𝑛 + 1)2 = 1 + 4 + 12 + 32 + ⋯ (infinite series of constant terms)

(−2)𝑛 (−2)𝑛
2. ∑+∞
𝑛=0 (𝑥 + 3)𝑛 is a power series in 𝑥 + 3 (𝑎 = −3), 𝑐𝑛 =
𝑛+1 𝑛+1

A special case is when 𝑎 = 0, obtaining a power series in 𝑥,

∑+∞ 𝑛 +∞ 𝑛 2 3 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 0) = ∑𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐3 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥 + ⋯

In the preceding examples, if 𝑎 = 0, we obtain the power series in 𝑥

1. ∑+∞ 𝑛 +∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(𝑛 + 1)(𝑥 − 0) = ∑𝑛=0(𝑛 + 1)𝑥 , 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1

∑+∞ 𝑛 2 3
𝑛=0(𝑛 + 1)𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 4𝑥 + ⋯

(−2)𝑛 (−2)𝑛 (−2)𝑛

2. ∑+∞
𝑛=0 (𝑥 − 0)𝑛 = ∑+∞
𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 , 𝑐𝑛 =
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛+1
4.5 Radius and Interval of Convergence of Power Series
A power series ∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) converges (the sum exists) for all values of 𝑥 in some interval
centered at 𝑎, and diverges (the sum does not exist) for values of 𝑥 outside this interval.

|𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
⇔ −𝑅 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝑅
⇔ 𝑎−𝑅 <𝑥 <𝑎+𝑅

Recall: |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅 means −𝑅 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 < 𝑅 , that is, 𝑎 − 𝑅 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝑅

For each power series ∑+∞ 𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) , there is a number 𝑅, 0 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ +∞, called the radius of convergence

of the power series, such that ∑+∞ 𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) converges absolutely (or is absolutely convergent) for values

of x for which |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅, and diverges (or is divergent) for values of x for which |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝑅.
∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) may or may not converge at either of the endpoints 𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝑅 and 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑅.

The set of all values of x for which the power series is convergent is called the interval of convergence.
It can be one of the ff:
(𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅) (𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅]
[𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅] [𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅)
If R = +∞, the series ∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) converges for all values of x.

If R = 0, the series ∑+∞ 𝑛

𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) converges only at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

To determine the radius and interval of convergence, we use the

Ratio Test:
𝑐𝑛+1 1
If lim | | = L , then the radius of convergence of the power series ∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑎) is 𝑅 = 𝐿 .
𝑛→+∞ 𝑐𝑛
If 𝐿 = 0, then 𝑅 = +∞.
If 𝐿 = +∞, then 𝑅 = 0.

Example 1:
Determine the radius and interval of convergence of the power series ∑+∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛 (𝑥 − 4) .
Solution:
Applying the Ratio Test with 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑛 , we have
1
𝑐𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 1+ 1+0
𝑛
lim | | = lim | | = lim = lim 1 = =1=𝐿
𝑛→+∞ 𝑐𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 0
𝑛
1 1
Thus, the radius of convergence is 𝑅 = 𝐿 = 1 = 1.
The series is absolutely convergent for values of x for which |𝑥 − 4| < 1, or equivalently, −1 < 𝑥 − 4 < 1
or 3 < 𝑥 < 5.
The series diverges for |𝑥 − 4| > 1.
At the endpoint 𝑥 = 3:
∑+∞ 𝑛 +∞ 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛 (3 − 4) = ∑𝑛=1 (−1) 𝑛 which is a divergent series since lim (−1) 𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑛
𝑛→+∞
At the endpoint 𝑥 = 5:
∑+∞ 𝑛 +∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 (5 − 4) = ∑𝑛=1 𝑛 which is also a divergent series since lim 𝑛 ≠ 0
𝑛→+∞
Hence, the interval of convergence is 3 < 𝑥 < 5 or (3,5).
Example 2:
(−1)𝑛−1
Find the radius and interval of convergence of the power series ∑+∞
𝑛=1 𝑥𝑛.
𝑛
Solution:
(−1)𝑛−1
Using the Ratio Test with 𝑐𝑛 = , we have
𝑛
(−1)𝑛
𝑐𝑛+1 𝑛+1 𝑛 1 1
lim | | = lim | (−1) 𝑛−1 | = lim = lim 1 = 1+0 = 1
𝑛→+∞ 𝑐𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛+1 𝑛→+∞ 1+𝑛
𝑛
1
We have 𝐿 = 1, so 𝑅 = 1 = 1 .
Hence, the series converges absolutely for values of 𝑥 for which |𝑥| < 1, or −1 < 𝑥 < 1
The series diverges for |𝑥| > 1.
At the endpoint 𝑥 = −1:
(−1)𝑛−1 (−1)2𝑛−1
∑+∞
𝑛=1 (−1)𝑛 = ∑+∞
𝑛=1 which is divergent.
𝑛 𝑛
At the endpoint 𝑥 = 1:
(−1)𝑛−1 (−1)𝑛−1
∑+∞
𝑛=1 (1)𝑛 = ∑+∞
𝑛=1 (alternating harmonic series) which is convergent.
𝑛 𝑛

Therefore, the interval of convergence is −1 < 𝑥 ≤ 1 or (−1,1]

Example 3:
(𝑥+2)𝑛
Determine the radius and interval of convergence of the power series ∑+∞
𝑛=0 .
𝑛!
Solution:
1
Using the Ratio Test with 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑛!, we have
1
𝑐𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑛! 𝑛! 1
lim | | = lim | | = lim = lim = lim =0
𝑛→+∞ 𝑐𝑛 𝑛→+∞ 1 𝑛→+∞ (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑛→+∞ (𝑛 + 1)𝑛! 𝑛→+∞ 𝑛 + 1
𝑛!
Since 𝐿 = 0, then we take 𝑅 = +∞ .
Hence, the power series converges absolutely for all values of 𝑥, that is, the interval of convergence
is (−∞, +∞) .
 IN-TEXT ACTIVITY

1. Power Series https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/calcii/PowerSeries.aspx

2. Additional Lecture

REFERENCES

O’Neil, P. 2012. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.7th Edition. Cengage Learning.

Kreyszig, E.2011. Advanced Engineering Mathematics. 10th Edition. John Wiley and Sons.
Pennisi,L.1976 .Elements of Complex Variables.2nd Edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Rainville,P. & Bedient,E.1989. Elementary Differential Equations.7th Edition.New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company
SELF-ASSESSMENT

Problem Set 2
(Radius and Interval of Convergence of Power Series)

Name: ________________________ Score: ______________

Section: ________________________ Date: ______________

Solve the following problems as directed. Show complete solutions and box your final answers.

Determine the radius and interval of convergence of the ff. power series.

𝑥𝑛
1. ∑+∞
𝑛=0 𝑛+1

𝑥𝑛
2. ∑+∞
𝑛=0 𝑛2 +3

(𝑥+3)𝑛
3. ∑+∞
𝑛=0 2𝑛

(−1)𝑛+1
4. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 (𝑥 − 2)𝑛
𝑛 2𝑛

(−1)𝑛
5. ∑+∞
𝑛=1 (𝑥 − 6)𝑛
2𝑛
4.7 Taylor Series and Maclaurin Series
We consider two important types of power series.

Taylor Series
Let f be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some
interval containing 𝑎 as an interior point. Then the power series in
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎)
𝑥 − 𝑎 of the form ∑+∞
𝑛=0 (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 is called the Taylor series
𝑛!
for 𝑓 at 𝑎.

English math’n Brook Taylor,

1685-1731
+∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑎) 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) 𝑓′′′(𝑎)
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 + ⋯
𝑛! 2! 3!
𝑛=0

𝑓 (𝑛) (0)
When 𝑎 = 0, we obtain the series ∑+∞
𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 which is referred
𝑛!
to as Maclaurin series for 𝑓.
+∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛 ′ (0)𝑥
𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 ′′′ (0) 3
∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
𝑛! 2! 3!
𝑛=0

Scottish math’n
Colin Maclaurin, 1698-1746
Example 1: Find the Taylor series for cos 𝑥 at 𝑎 = 𝜋.
Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(𝜋) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 = −1
′ (𝑥)
𝑓 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝜋) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 = 0
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′ (𝜋) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 = 1
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′′ (𝜋) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 = 0
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (4) (𝜋) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 = −1
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (5) (𝜋) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 = 0
⋮ ⋮
The required Taylor series is
+∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (𝜋) 𝑛 ′ (𝜋)(𝑥
𝑓 ′′ (𝜋) 2
𝑓′′′(𝜋) 3
𝑓 (4) (𝜋)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = ∑ (𝑥 − 𝜋) = 𝑓(𝜋) + 𝑓 − 𝜋) + (𝑥 − 𝜋) + (𝑥 − 𝜋) + (𝑥 − 𝜋)4 + ⋯
𝑛! 2! 3! 4!
𝑛=0
1 −1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −1 + 0 (𝑥 − 𝜋) + 2 (𝑥 − 𝜋)2 + 0 (𝑥 − 𝜋)3 + 24 (𝑥 − 𝜋)4 + 0 (𝑥 − 𝜋)5 + ⋯
1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = −1 + 2 (𝑥 − 𝜋)2 − 24 (𝑥 − 𝜋)4 + ⋯

Example 2: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑒 𝑥 .

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (4) (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (5) (0) = 𝑒 0 = 1
⋮ ⋮
Thus,
+∞
𝑥
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 ′′′ (0) 3 𝑓 (4) (0) 4
𝑒 =∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
𝑛! 2! 3! 4!
𝑛=0
1 1 1
𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 1 ∙ 𝑥 + 2! 𝑥 2 + 3! 𝑥 3 + 4! 𝑥 4 + ⋯
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 1! + 2! + + +⋯
3! 4!
or
𝑥𝑛
𝑒 = ∑+∞
𝑥
𝑛=0 𝑛!

Example 3: Obtain the Maclaurin series for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0
′ (𝑥)
𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′ (0) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = −1
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (4) (0) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0
𝑓 (5) (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 (5) (0) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 1
⋮ ⋮
Thus,
+∞
𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 ′′′ (0) 3 𝑓 (4) (0) 4
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 ′ (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
𝑛! 2! 3! 4!
𝑛=0
−1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 0 + 1 ∙ 𝑥 + 0 ∙ 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 0 ∙ 𝑥 4 + 5! 𝑥 5 + ⋯
3!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
(−1)𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = ∑+∞
𝑛=0 (2𝑛+1)! 𝑥
2𝑛+1

1
Example 4: Find the Taylor series generated by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 at 𝑎 = 2.
Solution:

1 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 = 𝑥 −1 ⇒ 𝑓(2) = 2
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −𝑥 −2 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (2) = − 4
1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 −3 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′ (2) = 4
3
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = −6𝑥 −4 ⇒ 𝑓 ′′′ (2) = − 8

⋮ ⋮
Thus,
+∞
1 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) 𝑛 𝑓 ′′ (2) 𝑓 ′′′ (2) 𝑓 (4) (2)
=∑ 𝑥 = 𝑓(2) + 𝑓 ′ (2)(𝑥 − 2) + (𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑥 − 2)3 + (𝑥 − 2)4 + ⋯
𝑥 𝑛! 2! 3! 4!
𝑛=0
1 3
1 1 1 −
2
= 2 + (− 4) (𝑥 − 2) + 4
(𝑥 − 2) + 8
(𝑥 − 2)3 + ⋯
𝑥 2! 3!

1 1 𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)2 (𝑥−2)3

= − + − +⋯
𝑥 2 4 8 16

1 1 𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)2 (𝑥−2)3

= − + − +⋯
𝑥 2 22 23 24

1 (−1)𝑛
= ∑+∞
𝑛=0 (𝑥 − 2)𝑛
𝑥 2𝑛+1
Example 5: Find the Taylor series for 𝑒 𝑥 at 𝑎.
Solution:
Write 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥−𝑎+𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑥−𝑎 ∙ 𝑒 𝑎
Using the Maclaurin series we obtained in Example 2, replacing 𝑥 by 𝑥 − 𝑎, we get

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 (𝑥 − 𝑎)4

𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥−𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑎 [1 + (𝑥 − 𝑎) + + + +⋯]
2! 3! 4!

IN-TEXT ACTIVITY

1. Taylor Series https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/problems/calcii/taylorseries.aspx

2. Additional Lecture

REFERENCES

O’Neil, P. 2012. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.7th Edition. Cengage Learning.

Kreyszig, E.2011. Advanced Engineering Mathematics. 10th Edition. John Wiley and Sons.
Pennisi,L.1976 .Elements of Complex Variables.2nd Edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Rainville,P. & Bedient,E.1989. Elementary Differential Equations.7th Edition.New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company
SELF-ASSESSMENT
PROBLEM SET 3
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Name: ________________________ Score: ______________
Section: ________________________ Date: ______________

Solve the following problems. Show complete solutions and box your final answers. (10 pts each)

Problem 1: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥.

1
Problem 2: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥. Hint: 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)

𝜋
Problem 3: Find the Taylor series for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 at 𝑎 = 2 .

Problem 4: Find the Taylor series for 𝑒 −3𝑥 at 𝑎 = −4.