PRE – CALCULUS

Fourth Quarter Review Notes

I. Sequence, Series, Binomial Theorem

Definition: A sequence is a list of numbers or terms with definite interval or exact differences.
Sequence is separated by commas.
We can denote a sequence with any small letter, most common are 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 , 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑛
where 𝑛 is the number of terms in a sequence.

A sequence can be classified as:

1. Finite Sequence - a sequence that ends with a term.
a. −6, − 4, − 2, 0, 2, 4
3 1 1
b. 2, , 1, ,
2 2 4
2. Infinite sequence - a sequence with continuous values and does not end with a final
term.
a. 5, 25, 125, 165, 3125, …
b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, …

Halimbawa: Find the first five terms of the following sequence.

1. 𝑎𝑛 = 5𝑛 + 1
𝑎1 = 5(1) + 1 = 6
𝑎2 = 5(2) + 1 = 11
𝑎3 = 5(3) + 1 = 16
𝑎4 = 5(4) + 1 = 21
𝑎5 = 5(5) + 1 = 26

Therefore, the first five terms are 6,11,16,21,26.

2𝑛+1
2. 𝑏𝑛 =
𝑛
2(1) + 1
𝑏1 = =3
1
2(2) + 1 5
𝑏2 = =
2 2
2(3) + 1 7
𝑏3 = =
3 3
2(4) + 1 9
𝑏4 = =
44 4
2(5) + 1 11
𝑏5 = =
5 5
5 7 9 11
Therefore, the first five terms are 3, , , , .
2 3 4 5

Two types of sequence: (1) Arithmetic Sequence and (2) Geometric Sequence.
Definition: An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which each term after the first is
obtained by adding a constant called the common difference, denoted as 𝒅, to the preceding
term.
𝑎2 − 𝑎1 = 𝑑, 𝑎4 − 𝑎3 = 𝑑, 𝑎5 − 𝑎4 = 𝑑, and so on…
The equation in determining the terms in an arithmetic sequence is,
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒅(𝒏 − 𝟏)
Where:
𝑛: term position
𝑎1 : first term
𝑑: common difference

Halimbawa: Find the expression of the following arithmetic sequence.

1. 8,12,16,20, …
Solution:
Find the common difference 𝑑.
𝑑 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 = 12 − 8 = 4
Therefore, 𝑑 = 4.
Hence,
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑(𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 = 8 + 4(𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 = 8 + 4𝑛 − 4
𝑎𝑛 = 4𝑛 + 4

2. −33, −42, −51, −60, −69, …

Solution:
Find the common difference 𝑑.
𝑑 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 = −42 − (−33) = −42 + 33 = −9
Therefore, 𝑑 = −9.
Hence,
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑(𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 = −33 + (−9)(𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 = −33 − 9𝑛 + 9
𝑎𝑛 = −9𝑛 − 24

Halimbawa: Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ of the following arithmetic sequence.

1. Find the 15th term of −23, −18, −13, …

Solution:
Find the common difference 𝑑.
𝑑 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 = −18 − (−23) = −18 + 23 = 5
Therefore, 𝑑 = 5
Hence, with 𝑛 = 15,
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑(𝑛 − 1)
𝑎15 = −23 + 5(15 − 1)
𝑎15 = −23 + 5(14)
𝑎15 = 47

2. Given 𝑎1 = 7, 𝑑 = 16. Find 𝑎24 . (24th term)

 Solution:
Substitute the given to the equation of arithmetic sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑(𝑛 − 1)
𝑎24 = 7 + 16(24 − 1)
𝑎15 = 7 + 16(23)
𝑎15 = 375

Definition: A geometric sequence is a sequence in which each term after the first is obtained
by multiplying a constant called the common ratio, denoted as 𝒓, to the preceding term.
𝑎2 = 𝑎1 𝑟, 𝑎3 = 𝑎2 𝑟, 𝑎4 = 𝑎3 𝑟, and so on…
The equation in determining the terms in an arithmetic sequence is,
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒓𝒏−𝟏
Where:
𝑛: term position
𝑎1 : first term
𝑟: common ratio

Halimbawa: Find the expression of the following geometric sequence.

1. 1,2,4,8,16, …
Solution:
Find the common ratio 𝑟.
𝑎2 2
𝑟= = =2
𝑎1 1
Therefore, 𝑟 = 2.
Hence,
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = (1)(2𝑛−1 )
𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛−1

4
2. 100, 20 ,44, , …
5
Solution:
Find the common ratio 𝑟.
𝑎2 20 1
𝑟= = =
𝑎1 100 5
1
Therefore, 𝑟 = .
5
Hence,
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
1 𝑛−1
𝑎𝑛 = (100) (( ) )
5
1
𝑎𝑛 = (100) ( 𝑛−1 )
5
100
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛−1
5

Halimbawa: Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ of the following geometric sequence.

 1. Find the 10𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of a geometric sequence whose common ratio is 5 and first term is
11.
Given: 𝑎1 = 11, 𝑟 = 5
Find: n = 10th term (𝑎10 )
Solution:
Substitute the given to the equation of the geometric sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑎10 = (11)(510−1 )
𝑎10 = (11)(59 )
𝑎10 = 21,484,375

2
2. Find the 4𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 of a geometric sequence whose common ratio is 3 and first term is .
3
2
Given: 𝑎1 = , 𝑟 = 3
3
Find: n = 4th term (𝑎4 )
Solution:
Substitute the given to the equation of the geometric sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑟 𝑛−1
2
𝑎4 = ( ) (34−1 )
3
2
𝑎4 = ( ) (33 )
3
𝑎14 = 18

Definition: A series represents the sum of the terms of a sequence.

A series can be classified as:

1. Finite Series - a series that ends with a term.
a. −6 − 4 − 2 + 0 + 2 + 4
3 1 1
b. 2 + + 1 + +
2 2 4
2. Infinite Series - a series with continuous values and does not end with a final term.
a. 5 + 25 + 125 + 165 + 3125 + ⋯
b. 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + 49 + ⋯

What is the difference between a sequence and a series?

A sequence is a list of numbers (separated by commas), while a series is a sum of
1 1 1
numbers (separated by " + “ and " − “ sign). As an illustration, 1, − , , − is a sequence, while
2 3 4
1 1 1
1 − + − is its associated series.
2 3 4

Definition: Let 𝑓(𝑖) be an expression involving an integer 𝑖. The expression

𝑓(𝑚) + 𝑓(𝑚 + 1) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑛)
Can be compactly written in sigma notation, and we write is as
𝒏

∑ 𝒇(𝒊)
𝒊=𝒎
Which is read as “the summation of f(𝑖) from 𝑖 = 𝑚 to 𝑛”, where 𝑓(𝑖) is a term of the
summation, 𝑖 is the index, 𝑚 is the lower bound and 𝑛 the upper bound.
Halimbawa: Find the sum of the following series.

1. ∑4𝑖=1(𝑛 + 2) = (1 + 2) + (2 + 2) + (3 + 2) + (4 + 2) = 18

3𝑛2 3(1)2 3(2)2 3(3)2 3(4)2 3(5)2 3(6)2 273

2. ∑6𝑖=1 = + + + + + =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Associated Arithmetic Series Associated Geometric Series

𝒏(𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒏 ) 𝒂𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝒓𝒏 )
𝑺𝒏 = 𝑺𝒏 =
𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝒓)

Where: Where:
𝑛: number of terms in a series 𝑛: number of terms in a series
𝑎1 : first term 𝑎1 : first term
𝑎𝑛 : last term 𝑟: common ratio
Note: We use associated series for large value of n. And also, associated arithmetic series is
only applicable for ARITHMETIC SEQUENCE and associated geometric series is only applicable
for GEOMETRIC SEQUENCE.

Halimbawa: Find the sum of the following arithmetic and geometric sequence.

1. ∑100
𝑖=1 (𝑛 + 2)

Given: 𝑛 = 100
𝑎1 = 𝑛 + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3
𝑎100 = 𝑛 + 2 = 100 + 2 = 102

Solution:
𝑛(𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
2
100(3 + 102)
𝑆100 =
2
𝑆100 = 5,250

2. Find the sum of all positive three-digit odd integers.

Given: Positive three-digit odd integers: 101, 103, 105, 107, … , 999
𝑎1 = 101
𝑎𝑛 = 999
Solution:
Find the value of 𝑛 first using equation of arithmetic sequence.
𝑑 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎1 = 103 − 101 = 2
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑(𝑛 − 1)
999 = 101 + 2(𝑛 − 1)
999 = 101 + 2𝑛 − 2
999 − 101 + 2 = 2𝑛
999 − 101 + 2 2𝑛
=
2 2
450 = 𝑛
 Hence,
𝑛(𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
2
450(101 + 999)
𝑆450 =
2
𝑆100 = 247,500

3. Given a geometric sequence 𝑎1 = 5, 𝑟 = 2. Find 𝑠5 . (sum of first to fifth term)

Given: 𝑛 = 5
𝑎1 = 5
𝑟=2
Solution:
Substitute all given to the equation of associated geometric sequence.
𝑎1 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 =
(1 − 𝑟)
5(1 − 25 )
𝑆5 =
(1 − 2)
𝑆5 = 155

Definition: Let 𝑛 be nonnegative integers. The binomial theorem is defined by,

𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
(𝒂 + 𝒃)𝒏 = ( ) 𝒂𝒏 + ( ) 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒃 + ( ) 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 𝒃𝟐 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝒂𝒃𝒏−𝟏 + ( ) 𝒃𝒏
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝒏−𝟏 𝒏

Definition: Let 𝑛 and 𝑟 be non-negative integers 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛. The binomial coefficient is denoted

by (𝑛𝑟) and is defined by
𝒏 𝒏!
( )=
𝒓 𝒓! (𝒏 − 𝒓)!

Halimbawa: What is the coefficient of the third term of (𝑎 + 𝑏)100 ?

Solution:
By using Binomial Theorem,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯
0 1 2
100 100 100 100 99 100 98 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏) =( )𝑎 +( )𝑎 𝑏 +( )𝑎 𝑏 + ⋯
0 1 2
Using the formula for binomial coefficient,
𝑛 𝑛!
( )=
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
100 100!
( )=
2 2! (100 − 2)!
100 100 ∙ 99 ∙ 98 ∙ 97 ∙ … ∙ 2 ∙ 1
( )=
2 (2 ∙ 1)(98 ∙ 97 ∙ … ∙ 2 ∙ 1)
100 100 ∙ 99
( )=
2 2∙1
100
( ) = 4,950
2
Therefore, the coefficient of the third term of (𝑎 + 𝑏)100 is 4,950𝑎98 𝑏 2 .
Definition: Pascal’s Triangle is a triangular arrangement of numbers that gives the
coefficients of any binomial expression such as (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 .

𝑛 = 0: (𝑥 + 𝑦)0 = 1
𝑛 = 1: (𝑥 + 𝑦)1 = 1𝑥 1 + 1𝑦 1 = 𝑥 + 𝑦
𝑛 = 2: (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 1𝑥 2 𝑦 0 + 2𝑥 1 𝑦 1 + 1𝑥 0 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
𝑛 = 3: (𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = 1𝑥 3 𝑦 0 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 1 + 3𝑥 1 𝑦 2 + 1𝑥 0 𝑦 3 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

Note: exponent of 𝑥 (first term) is decreasing while exponent of 𝑦 (second term) is increasing.

Halimbawa: Expand the following binomial using Pascal’s Triangle.

1. (𝑥 + 4)7

Since 𝑛 = 7, we will use the 8th row in Pascal’s Triangle (or where the number 7 first
shows up)

(𝑥 + 4)7 = 1𝑥 7 40 + 7𝑥 6 41 + 21𝑥 5 42 + 35𝑥 4 43 + 35𝑥 3 44 + 21𝑥 2 45 + 7𝑥 1 46 + 1𝑥 0 47

(𝑥 + 4)7 = 𝑥 7 + 28𝑥 6 + 336𝑥 5 + 2240𝑥 4 + 8960𝑥 3 + 21504𝑥 2 + 28672𝑥 + 16384

2. (2𝑎 + 𝑏)6

Since 𝑛 = 6, we will use the 7th row in Pascal’s Triangle (or where the number 6 first
shows up)

(2𝑎 + 𝑏)6 = 1(2𝑎)6 (𝑏 0 ) + 6(2𝑎)5 𝑏1 + 15(2𝑎)4 𝑏 2 + 20(2𝑎)3 𝑏 3 + 15(2𝑎)2 𝑏 4 + 6(2𝑎)1 𝑏 5

+ 1(2𝑎)0 𝑏 6
(2𝑎 + 𝑏)6 = 1(26 𝑎6 )(𝑏 0 ) + 6(25 𝑎5 )𝑏1 + 15(24 𝑎4 )𝑏 2 + 20(23 𝑎3 )𝑏 3 + 15(22 𝑎2 )𝑏 4
+ 6(21 𝑎1 )𝑏 5 + 1(20 𝑎0 )𝑏 6
(2𝑎 + 𝑏) = 64𝑎6 + 192𝑎5 𝑏 + 240𝑎4 𝑏 2 + 160𝑎3 𝑏 3 + 60𝑎2 𝑏 4 + 12𝑎𝑏 5 + 𝑏 6
6

II. Trigonometry: Angles (Introduction)

Definition: Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics dealing with the relations of the sides
and angles of triangles and with the relevant functions of any angles.
 Trigonometry came from two Greek words trigonon and metria which means
measurement of an angle.

Two classifications of Trigonometry:

1. Plane Trigonometry - a type of trigonometry that focuses on the relationships of
angles and sides of triangles.
2. Spherical Trigonometry - a type of trigonometry that deals with the relationships of
trigonometric functions of side and angles of spherical polygons.

Definition: An angle is a figure formed by two lines or rays that have common endpoints. The
common endpoint is called the vertex, and the rays are the legs. The fixed ray is called the
initial side while the moving ray is the terminal side.

How do we name an angle?

1. By using Greek Alphabets
Hb. 𝜃 – theta, 𝛼 – alpha, 𝛽- beta
2. By using Capital Letters with °
Hb. 𝐴°, B°, and so on…
3. By using Capital Letters with ∠
Hb. ∠𝐵 – single letter represents the whole angle
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 – the first and last letters represent the rays, while the middle letter is the
vertex

Two rotations of an angle:

1. Clockwise - has a similar movement to the hand of the clock and represented by a
negative direction.
2. Counter Clockwise - is the opposite direction of the movement of the clock and is
represented by the positive direction.

Note: Left picture – Clockwise (negative), Right picture – Counter-clockwise (positive)

Two angle measurement units:

1. Degree - (°) is an angle measurement taken from dividing a whole circle into 360 parts.
1
1° is equivalent to . A unit degree can also be divided further into minute(′) and
360
second(′′).

2. Radians - (𝒓𝒂𝒅) is the standard unit of the angle. It is equivalent to the length of the
arc or the circumference of a unit circle.

CONVERSION OF ANGLE UNITS

Relationship Between Degrees and Relationship Between Degrees and
Minutes(′)/Seconds(′′) Radians

Complete Rotation
𝟑𝟔𝟎° = 𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
Half Rotation
𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟏° = 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔 (′) Quarter Rotation
𝝅
𝟗𝟎° = 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟏° = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 (′′) 𝟐

𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆 (′) = 𝟔𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 (′′) 1. To convert degrees to radians,

𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
multiply by .
𝟏𝟖𝟎°
2. To convert radians to degrees,
𝟏𝟖𝟎°
multiply by
𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
Halimbawa: Convert the following angle units.

1. 15.6° 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 (′)

Solution: Since 1° = 60′, then,
60′
15.6° × = 936 min 𝑜𝑟 936′
1°

2. 270° 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 (′′)

Solution: Since 1° = 3600′′, then,
3600′′
270° × = 972,000′′
1°

3. 360′ 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 (°)

Solution: Since 1° = 60′, then,
1° 360
360′ × ′ = = 6°
60 60

4. 30′ 18′′ 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 (°)

Solution:
First, the given should be converted to same unit. Since 1′ = 60′′, then,
1′ 18
18′′ × ′′ = = 0.3′
60 60
Now,
30′ 18′′ = 30′ + 0.3′ = 30.3′
Since 1° = 60′, then,
1° 30.3
30.3′ × ′ = = 0.505°
60 60

Halimbawa: Convert the following angle units (degree to radians and vice versa).

1. 120° to radian
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Solution: degree to radian: multiply by
180°
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 120 𝜋 2𝜋
120° × = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
180° 180 3

2. 210° to radian
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Solution: degree to radian: multiply by
180°
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 210 𝜋 7𝜋
210° × = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
180° 180 6
3𝜋
3. 𝑟𝑎𝑑 to degree
4
180°
Solution: radian to degree: multiply by
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
3𝜋 180° (3)(180)°
𝑟𝑎𝑑 × = = 135°
4 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 4
8𝜋
4. 𝑟𝑎𝑑 to degree
9
 180°
Solution: radian to degree: multiply by
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
8𝜋 180° (8)(180)°
𝑟𝑎𝑑 × = = 160°
9 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 9

Definition: An angle is in standard position in the Cartesian Plane when its initial side lies on
the x – axis and the vertex is located at the origin.

The location of the angle in the Cartesian plane is based on the last position of its
terminal side.

Definition: Coterminal Angles are two or more different angles that are having the same
terminal and initial side.
Single angle may have several coterminal angles which can be taken from accumulation
of angles in clockwise and counterclockwise rotation.

In general, we can look for the coterminal angles using the following formulas:
• For Counterclockwise Direction:
𝜽 + 𝟑𝟔𝟎°(𝒏) or 𝜽 + 𝟐𝝅(𝒏)
• For Clockwise Direction:
𝜽 − 𝟑𝟔𝟎°(𝒏) or 𝜽 − 𝟐𝝅(𝒏)
Where 𝑛 is the number of rotation.

Halimbawa: Find the coterminal angles of the following angle within two rotations.

1. 100°
 a. Counter-clockwise (positive direction)
100° + 360°(1) = 460°
100° + 360°(2) = 820°
b. Clockwise (negative direction)
100° − 360°(1) = −260°
100° − 360°(2) = −620°

3𝜋
2. 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2

a. Counter-clockwise (positive direction)

3𝜋 7𝜋
+ 2𝜋(1) = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 2
3𝜋 11𝜋
+ 2𝜋(2) = 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 2
b. Clockwise (negative direction)
3𝜋 𝜋
− 2𝜋(1) = − 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 2
3𝜋 5𝜋
− 2𝜋(2) = − 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 2

Definition: Reference Angle is an angle that is any smallest positive acute angle that is
measured from the terminal side of a given angle to the nearest x-axis. This angle is denoted
by 𝜃𝑟 .

CASE 1: Given angle is in Q1

The reference angle is the same
𝜃𝑟 = 𝜃

CASE 2: Given angle is in Q2

𝜃𝑟 = 180° − 𝜃 or 𝜃𝑟 = 𝜋 − 𝜃
 CASE 3: Given angle is in Q3
𝜃𝑟 = 𝜃 − 180° or 𝜃𝑟 = 𝜃 − 𝜋

CASE 4: Given angle is in Q4

𝜃𝑟 = 360° − 𝜃 or 𝜃𝑟 = 2𝜋 − 𝜃

CASE 5: Given angle measures beyond 360°

or 2𝜋

Deduct all the complete rotation until it’s

measurement become lower than 360° or 2𝜋
then from the remaining value, identify which
case to use.

Types of angles:

Definition: Angles are complementary angles if the sum of two angles is 90°. In other words,
the angles add up to form a right angle.

Halimbawa: Can we say that angles 60° and 30° complementary angles? YES! Because 60° +
30° = 90°.
Facts about Complementary Angles:
• Two right angles cannot complement each other.
• Two obtuse angles cannot complement each other.
• Two complementary angles are acute, but not vice-versa.

Definition: Angles are supplementary angles if the sum of two angles is 180°. In other
words, the angles add up to form a straight angle.

Halimbawa: Can we say that angles 120° and 60° complementary angles? YES! Because 120° +
60° = 180°.

Facts about Supplementary Angles:

• Two right angles are supplementary angles.
• Two obtuse angles cannot supplement each other.