Module 2

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OLIC_Notes_Module 2
MODULE 2
Structure
Active Filters:
2.1.First & Second order high pass & low pass Butterworth filters,
2.2.Higher order filters
2.3.Band pass filters,
2.4.Band reject filters & all pass filters.
DC Voltage Regulators:
2.5. Voltage regulator basics,
2.6 Voltage follower regulator,
2.7 Adjustable output regulator,
2.8 . LM317 & LM337 Integrated circuit regulators.
Objectives
1.To study the filter design of 1 st and 2nd order LPF and HPF Filters.
2.To study the design of Higher order filters
3. 2.To study the design of Bandpass, band reject and all pass filters
4.To study the voltage regulator fundamentals.
5.To study Adjustable regulator, Positive and Negative voltage regulator design.
2. 1. Introduction
Filters:
A filter is a frequency selective circuit that, passes a specified band of frequencies and blocks or
attenuates signals of frequencies outside this band. Filter may be classified on a number of ways.
1. Analog or digital
2. Passive or active
3. Audio or radio frequency
Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 1
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Analog filters are designed to process only signals while digital filters process analog signals
using digital technique. Depending on the type of elements used in their consideration, filters
may be classified as passive or active.
Elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors and inductors. Active filters, on the other
hand, employ transistors or OPAMPs, in addition to the resistor and capacitors. Depending upon
the elements the frequency range is decided.
RC filters are used for audio or low frequency operation. LC filters are employed at RF or high
frequencies.
The most commonly used filters are these:
1. Low pass filters

2. High pass filter
3. Band pass filter
4. Band reject filter.
5. All pass filter
Fig. 1, shows the frequency response characteristics of the five types of filter. The ideal response
is shown by dashed line. While the solid lines indicates the practical filter response.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Fig:2.1 Response of filters
A low pass filter has a constant gain from 0 Hz to a high cutoff frequency fH . Therefore, the
bandwidth is fH. At fH the gain is down by 3db. After that the gain decreases as frequency
increases. The frequency range 0 to fH Hz is called pass band and beyond fH is called stop band.
Similarly, a high pass filter has a constant gain from very high frequency to a low cutoff
frequency fL. below fL the gain decreases as frequency decreases. At fL the gain is down by 3db.
The frequency range fL Hz to ∞ is called pass band and bleow fL is called stop band.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
2.1 First Order Low Pass Filter:
Fig. 2, shows a first order low pass Butter-worth filter that uses an RC network for filtering,
opamp is used in non-inverting configuration, R1 and Rf decides the gain of the filter.
According to voltage divider rule, the voltage at the non-inverting terminal is:
Fig. 2
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Thus the low pass filter has a nearly constant gain Af from 0 Hz to high cut off frequency fH. At
fH the gain is 0.707 Af and after fH it decreases at a constant rate with an increases in frequency.
fH is called cutoff frequency because the gain of filter at this frequency is reduced by 3dB from
0Hz.
2.1.1 Filter Design:
A low pass filter can be designed using the following steps:
1. Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH .

2. Select a value of C less than or equal to 1 µF.
3. Calculate the value of R using .
4. Finally, select values of R1 and RF to set the desired gain using .
Example - 1
Design a low pass filter at a cutoff frequency of 1 kH z with a pass band gain of 2.
Solution:
Given fH = 1 kHz. Let C = 0.01 µF.
Therefore, R can be obtained as
A 20 kΩ potentiometer can be used to set the resistance R.
Since the pass band gain is 2, R1 and RF must be equal. Let R1 = R2 = 10 kΩ.
2.1.2 Low pass filter with adjustable corner frequency
One advantage of active filter is that it is often quite simple to vary parameter values. As an
example, a first-order low-pass filter with adjustable corner frequency is shown in Fig. 3.
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Fig. 3
The voltage at the opamp inputs are given by
Setting v + = v -, we obtain the voltage, v1, as follows:
where
The second opamp acts as an inverting integrator, and
Note that we use upper case letters for the voltages since these are functions of s. K is the
fraction of V1 sent to the integrator. That is, it is the potentiometer ratio, which is a number
between 0 and 1.
The transfer function is given by
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
The dc gain is found by setting s = 0 (i.e., jω =0)
The corner frequency is at KA2 / RC. Thus, the frequency is adjustable and is proportional to K.
Without use of the opamp, we would normally have a corner frequency which is inversely
proportional to the resistor value. With a frequency proportional to K, we can use a linear taper
potentiometer. The frequency is then linearly proportional to the setting of the potentiometer.
Example - 2
Design a first order adjustable low-pass filter with a dc gain of 10 and a corner frequency
adjustable from near 0 t0 1 KHz.
Solution:
There are six unknowns in this problems (RA, RF, R1, R2, R and C) and only three equations
(gain, frequency and bias balance). This leaves three parameters open to choice. Suppose we
choose the following values:
C = 0.1 µF
R = 10 KΩ
R1 = 10KΩ
The ratio of R 2 to R1 is the dc gain, so with a given value of R1 = 10KΩ, R2 must be 100 kΩ. We
solve for A1 and A2 in the order to find the ratio, RF / R A.
The maximum corner frequency occurs at K = 1, so this frequency is set to 2π x 1000. Since R
and C are known, we find A2 = 6.28. Since A2 and A1 are related by the dc gain, we determine
A1 / A2 = 10 and A1 = 62.8. Now, substituting the expression for A2, we find
and since
we find RF / RA = 68. RA is chosen to achieve bias balance. The impedance attached to the non-
inverting input is 10 KΩ || 100 KΩ = 10 KΩ.
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Fig. 4
If we assume that RF is large compared with RA ( we can check this assumption after solving for
these resistors), the parallel combination will be close to the value of RA. We therefore can
choose RA = 10 KΩ. With this choice of RA, RF is found to be 680KΩ and bias balance is
achieved. The complete filter is shown in Fig. 4.
1.3 Second Order Low-Pass Butterworth filter:
A stop-band response having a 40-dB/decade at the cut-off frequency is obtained with the
second-order low-pass filter. A first order low-pass filter can be converted into a second-order
low-pass filter by using an additional RC network as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
The gain of the second order filter is set by R 1 and R F, while the high cut-ff frequency fH is
determined by R2, C2, R3 and C3 as follows:
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Furthermore, for a second-order low pass Butterworth response, the voltage gain magnitude is
given by
where,
Except for having the different cut off frequency, the frequency response of the second order low
pass filter is identical to that of the first order type as shown in Fig. 2.
1.3.1 Filter Design:
The design steps of the second order filter are identical to those of the first order filter as given
bellow:
1. Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH.

2. To simplify the design calculations, set R2 = R3 = R and C2 = C3 = C. Then
choose a value of C less than 1 µF.
3. Calculate the value of R using .

4. Finally, because of the equal resistor (R2 = R3) and capacitor (C2 = C3) values, the
pass band voltage gain AF has to be equal to 1.586. This gain is necessary to
guarantee Butterworth response. Therefore, RF = 0.586 R1. Hence choose a value
of R1= 100 kΩ and calculate the value of RF.
1.4 First Order High Pass Butterworth filter:
Fig. 3, shows the circuit of first order high pass filter. This is formed by interchanging R and C
in low pass filter.
The lower cut off frequency is fL. This is the frequency at which the magnitude of the gain is
0.707 times its pass band value. All frequencies higher than fL are pass band frequencies with the
highest frequency determined by the closed loop bandwidth of the OPAMP.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2 2019-20
The magnitude of the gain of the filter
is
Fig. 3
If the two filters (high and low) band pass are connected in series it becomes wide band filter
whose gain frequency response is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4
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2. Higher Order Filters
2.1 Higher-order filters, such as third, fourth, fifth, and so on, are built simply by using the
first and second-order filters.
The simplest way to build a third-order low-pass filter is by cascading a first order filter with a
second-order. Similarly a fourth-order low-pass filter can be formed by cascading two second-
order low-pass filters. Although there is no limit to the order of the filter that can be formed, as
the order of the filter increases, so does its size. Also the accuracy declines, in that the difference
between the actual stopband response and the theoretical stopband response increases with an
increase in the order of the filter.
Fig: Higher Order Filters
A third-order low-pass Butterworth filter is illustrated in Figure.
The voltage-gain of the first section is optional, it can be set, whatever is required. The voltage-
gain of the second section, however affects the flatness of the overall response. If closed-loop
gain is kept 1.586, then the overall gain will be down 6 db (3 db for each section) at the cut-off
frequency. By increasing the voltage gain of the second section slightly, cumulative loss of
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
voltage gain is offset. By using an advanced mathematical derivation, it can be proved that an
Af, of 2 is the critical value required for a maximally flat response.
In this case Rf = R1
When Af = 2, the cut-off frequency is given as
fH = 1 / 2∏RC
where R and C are the resistance and capacitance of each section. At cut-off frequency, the
overall voltage gain is down 3 db. Above the cut-off frequency, the voltage gain drops at a rate
of 60 db per decade equivalent to 18 db per octave.
A fourth-order low-pass Butterworth filter is illustrated in Figure. It is formed by cascading

two second-order low-pass filters. If Af, of 1.586 is used for both sections, the voltage gain will
be down 6 db at the cut-off frequency. By using different gain for each section, we can strike a
compromise that produces a maximally flat response. An advanced derivation shows that we
need to use Af = 1.152 for the first section and Af = 2.235 for the second section.
Also, the overall filter gain is equal to the product of the individual voltage gains of the filter
sections. Hence, the overall gain of a fourth-order filter is 1.152 x 2.235 = 2.575.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
In all our Butterworth designs, the cut-off frequency is given as 1 / 2∏RC
As with the first- and second-order filters, the third- and fourth-order high-pass filters are formed
by simply interchanging the positions of the frequency determining resistors and capacitors in
the corresponding low-pass filters. The high-order filters can be designed by following the
procedures outlined for the first- and second-order filters.
Generally, the minimum-order filter required depends on the application specifications. Although
a high-order filter than necessary provides a better stopband response, the high-order filter is
more complex, occupies more space and is more expensive.
It is worth mentioning here that in all filters, the same resistance and capacitance values are used
in the bypass or R-C networks, a definite convenience in selection of components and ease of
construction. This fixes the overall gain of the high-order filters. Furthermore, the 3-db cut-off
frequency is always the same and is equal to 1/2∏RC
2. 3.Band pass filters,

As we saw previously in the Passive Band Pass Filter tutorial, the principal characteristic of
aBand Pass Filter or any filter for that matter, is its ability to pass frequencies relatively
unattenuated over a specified band or spread of frequencies called the “Pass Band”.
For a low pass filter this pass band starts from 0Hz or DC and continues up to the specified cut-
off frequency point at -3dB down from the maximum pass band gain. Equally, for a high pass
filter the pass band starts from this -3dB cut-off frequency and continues up to infinity or the
maximum open loop gain for an active filter.
However, the Active Band Pass Filter is slightly different in that it is a frequency selective filter
circuit used in electronic systems to separate a signal at one particular frequency, or a range of
signals that lie within a certain “band” of frequencies from signals at all other frequencies. This
band or range of frequencies is set between two cut-off or corner frequency points labelled the
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
“lower frequency” ( ƒL ) and the “higher frequency” ( ƒH ) while attenuating any signals outside
of these two points.
Simple Active Band Pass Filter can be easily made by cascading together a single Low Pass
Filter with a single High Pass Filter as shown.
Fig:Band pass filter block diagram
The cut-off or corner frequency of the low pass filter (LPF) is higher than the cut-off frequency
of the high pass filter (HPF) and the difference between the frequencies at the -3dB point will
determine the “bandwidth” of the band pass filter while attenuating any signals outside of these
points. One way of making a very simple Active Band Pass Filter is to connect the basic
passive high and low pass filters we look at previously to an amplifying op-amp circuit as
shown.
3.1 Active Band Pass Filter Circuit
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
This cascading together of the individual low and high pass passive filters produces a low “Q-
factor” type filter circuit which has a wide pass band. The first stage of the filter will be the high
pass stage that uses the capacitor to block any DC biasing from the source. This design has the
advantage of producing a relatively flat asymmetrical pass band frequency response with one
half representing the low pass response and the other half representing high pass response as
shown.
The higher corner point ( ƒH ) as well as the lower corner frequency cut-off point ( ƒL ) are
calculated the same as before in the standard first-order low and high pass filter circuits.
Obviously, a reasonable separation is required between the two cut-off points to prevent any
interaction between the low pass and high pass stages. The amplifier also provides isolation
between the two stages and defines the overall voltage gain of the circuit.
The bandwidth of the filter is therefore the difference between these upper and lower -3dB
points. For example, suppose we have a band pass filter whose -3dB cut-off points are set at
200Hz and 600Hz. Then the bandwidth of the filter would be given as: Bandwidth (BW) = 600 –
200 = 400Hz.
The normalized frequency response and phase shift for an active band pass filter will be as
follows.
3.1.1 Active Band Pass Frequency Response
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Fig: BP response
While the above passive tuned filter circuit will work as a band pass filter, the pass band
(bandwidth) can be quite wide and this may be a problem if we want to isolate a small band of
frequencies. Active band pass filter can also be made using inverting operational amplifier.
So by rearranging the positions of the resistors and capacitors within the filter we can produce a
much better filter circuit as shown below. For an active band pass filter, the lower cut-off -3dB
point is given by ƒC1 while the upper cut-off -3dB point is given byƒC2.
3.1.2 Inverting Band Pass Filter Circuit
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
This type of band pass filter is designed to have a much narrower pass band. The centre
frequency and bandwidth of the filter is related to the values of R1, R2, C1 and C2. The output of
the filter is again taken from the output of the op-amp.
3.1.3 Multiple Feedback Band Pass Active Filter
We can improve the band pass response of the above circuit by rearranging the components
again to produce an infinite-gain multiple-feedback (IGMF) band pass filter. This type of active
band pass design produces a “tuned” circuit based around a negative feedback active filter giving
it a high “Q-factor” (up to 25) amplitude response and steep roll-off on either side of its centre
frequency. Because the frequency response of the circuit is similar to a resonance circuit, this
center frequency is referred to as the resonant frequency, ( ƒr ). Consider the circuit below.
3.1.4 Infinite Gain Multiple Feedback Active Filter
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
This active band pass filter circuit uses the full gain of the operational amplifier, with multiple
negative feedback applied via resistor, R2 and capacitor C2. Then we can define the
characteristics of the IGMF filter as follows:
We can see then that the relationship between resistors, R1 and R2 determines the band pass “Q-
factor” and the frequency at which the maximum amplitude occurs, the gain of the circuit will be
equal to -2Q2. Then as the gain increases so to does the selectivity. In other words, high gain –
high selectivity.
3.1.5 Active Band Pass Filter Example No1
An active band pass filter that has a voltage gain Av of one (1) and a resonant frequency,ƒr of
1kHz is constructed using an infinite gain multiple feedback filter circuit. Calculate the values of
the components required to implement the circuit.
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Firstly, we can determine the values of the two resistors, R1 and R2 required for the active filter
using the gain of the circuit to find Q as follows.
Then we can see that a value of Q = 0.7071 gives a relationship of resistor, R2 being twice the
value of resistor R1. Then we can choose any suitable value of resistances to give the required
ratio of two. Then resistor R1 = 10kΩ and R2 = 20kΩ.
The center or resonant frequency is given as 1kHz. Using the new resistor values obtained, we
can determine the value of the capacitors required assuming that C = C1 = C2.
The closest standard value is 10nF.
3.1.6 Resonant Frequency Point
The actual shape of the frequency response curve for any passive or active band pass filter will
depend upon the characteristics of the filter circuit with the curve above being defined as an
“ideal” band pass response. An active band pass filter is a 2nd Order type filter because it has
“two” reactive components (two capacitors) within its circuit design.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
As a result of these two reactive components, the filter will have a peak response orResonant
Frequency ( ƒr ) at its “center frequency”, ƒc. The center frequency is generally calculated as
being the geometric mean of the two -3dB frequencies between the upper and the lower cut-off
points with the resonant frequency (point of oscillation) being given as:
 Where:
 ƒr is the resonant or Center Frequency
 ƒL is the lower -3dB cut-off frequency point
 ƒH is the upper -3db cut-off frequency point
and in our simple example in the text above of a filters lower and upper -3dB cut-off points being
at 200Hz and 600Hz respectively, then the resonant center frequency of the active band pass
filter would be:
a) The “Q” or Quality Factor
In a Band Pass Filter circuit, the overall width of the actual pass band between the upper and
lower -3dB corner points of the filter determines the Quality Factor or Q-point of the circuit.
This Q Factor is a measure of how “Selective” or “Un-selective” the band pass filter is towards
a given spread of frequencies. The lower the value of the Q factor the wider is the bandwidth of
the filter and consequently the higher the Q factor the narrower and more “selective” is the filter.
The Quality Factor, Q of the filter is sometimes given the Greek symbol of Alpha, ( α ) and is
known as the alpha-peak frequency where:
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
As the quality factor of an active band pass filter (Second-order System) relates to the
“sharpness” of the filters response around its centre resonant frequency ( ƒr ) it can also be
thought of as the “Damping Factor” or “Damping Coefficient” because the more damping the
filter has the flatter is its response and likewise, the less damping the filter has the sharper is its
response. The damping ratio is given the Greek symbol of Xi, ( ξ ) where:
The “Q” of a band pass filter is the ratio of the Resonant Frequency, ( ƒr ) to theBandwidth,
( BW ) between the upper and lower -3dB frequencies and is given as:
Then for our simple example above the quality factor “Q” of the band pass filter is given as:
346Hz / 400Hz = 0.865. Note that Q is a ratio and has no units.

When analysing active filters, generally a normalised circuit is considered which produces an
“ideal” frequency response having a rectangular shape, and a transition between the pass band
and the stop band that has an abrupt or very steep roll-off slope. However, these ideal responses
are not possible in the real world so we use approximations to give us the best frequency
response possible for the type of filter we are trying to design.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Probably the best known filter approximation for doing this is the Butterworth or maximally-flat
response filter. In the next tutorial we will look at higher order filters and use Butterworth
approximations to produce filters that have a frequency response which is as flat as
mathematically possible in the pass band and a smooth transition or roll-off rate.
2. 4.Band reject filters & all pass filters.
The Band Stop Filter, (BSF) is another type of frequency selective circuit that functions in
exactly the opposite way to the Band Pass Filter we looked at before. The band stop filter, also
known as a band reject filter, passes all frequencies with the exception of those within a
specified stop band which are greatly attenuated.
If this stop band is very narrow and highly attenuated over a few hertz, then the band stop filter is
more commonly referred to as a notch filter, as its frequency response shows that of a deep notch
with high selectivity (a steep-side curve) rather than a flattened wider band.
Also, just like the band pass filter, the band stop (band reject or notch) filter is a second-order
(two-pole) filter having two cut-off frequencies, commonly known as the -3dB or half-power
points producing a wide stop band bandwidth between these two -3dB points.
Then the function of a band stop filter is too pass all those frequencies from zero (DC) up to its
first (lower) cut-off frequency point ƒL, and pass all those frequencies above its second (upper)
cut-off frequency ƒH, but block or reject all those frequencies in-between. Then the filters
bandwidth, BW is defined as: (ƒ H – ƒL).
So for a wide-band band stop filter, the filters actual stop band lies between its lower and upper -
3dB points as it attenuates, or rejects any frequency between these two cut-off frequencies. The
frequency response curve of an ideal band stop filter is therefore given as:
2. 4.1Band Stop Filter Response
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Fig: BR Response
We can see from the amplitude and phase curves above for the band pass circuit, that the
quantities ƒL, ƒH and ƒC are the same as those used to describe the behavior of the band-pass
filter. This is because the band stop filter is simply an inverted or complimented form of the
standard band-pass filter. In fact the definitions used for bandwidth, pass band, stop band and
center frequency are the same as before, and we can use the same formulas to calculate
bandwidth, BW, center frequency, ƒ C, and quality factor, Q.
The ideal band stop filter would have infinite attenuation in its stop band and zero attenuation in
either pass band. The transition between the two pass bands and the stop band would be vertical
(brick wall). There are several ways we can design a “Band Stop Filter”, and they all accomplish
the same purpose. Generally band-pass filters are constructed by combining a low pass filter
(LPF) in series with a high pass filter (HPF). Band stop filters are created by combining together
the low pass and high pass filter sections in a “parallel” type conFiguration as shown.
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2.4.2 Typical Band Stop Filter Configuration
Fig:Band Reject filter block diagram
The summing of the high pass and low pass filters means that their frequency responses do not
overlap, unlike the band-pass filter. This is due to the fact that their start and ending frequencies
are at different frequency points. For example, suppose we have a first-order low-pass filter with
a cut-off frequency, ƒL of 200Hz connected in parallel with a first-order high-pass filter with a
cut-off frequency, ƒH of 800Hz. As the two filters are effectively connected in parallel, the input
signal is applied to both filters simultaneously as shown above.
All of the input frequencies below 200Hz would be passed unattenuated to the output by the low-
pass filter. Likewise, all input frequencies above 800Hz would be passed unattenuated to the
output by the high-pass filter. However, and input signal frequencies in-between these two
frequency cut-off points of 200Hz and 800Hz, that isƒ L to ƒ H would be rejected by either filter
forming a notch in the filters output response.
In other words a signal with a frequency of 200Hz or less and 800Hz and above would pass
unaffected but a signal frequency of say 500Hz would be rejected as it is too high to be passed
by the low-pass filter and too low to be passed by the high-pass filter. We can show the effect of
this frequency characteristic below.
2.4.3 Band Stop Filter Characteristics
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Fig: Band Reject filter response
The transformation of this filter characteristic can be easily implemented using a single low pass
and high pass filter circuits isolated from each other by non-inverting voltage follower, (Av = 1).
The output from these two filter circuits is then summed using a third operational amplifier
connected as a voltage summer (adder) as shown.
2.4.4 Band Stop Filter Circuit
Fig: Band stop filter circuit
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The use of operational amplifiers within the band stop filter design also allows us to introduce
voltage gain into the basic filter circuit. The two non-inverting voltage followers can easily be
converted into a basic non-inverting amplifier with a gain ofAv = 1 + Rf/Rin by the addition of
input and feedback resistors, as seen in our non-inverting op-amp tutorial.
Also if we require a band stop filter to have its -3dB cut-off points at say, 1kHz and 10kHz and a
stop band gain of -10dB in between, we can easily design a low-pass filter and a high-pass filter
with these requirements and simply cascade them together to form our wide-band band-pass
filter design.
Now we understand the principle behind a Band Stop Filter, let us design one using the
previous cut-off frequency values.
2.4.1 Band Stop Filter Example No1
Design a basic wide-band, RC band stop filter with a lower cut-off frequency of 200Hz and a
higher cut-off frequency of 800Hz. Find the geometric center frequency, -3dB bandwidth and Q
of the circuit.
The upper and lower cut-off frequency points for a band stop filter can be found using the same
formula as that for both the low and high pass filters as shown.
Assuming a capacitor, C value for both filter sections of 0.1uF, the values of the two frequency
determining resistors, RL and RH are calculated as follows.
2 .4.4.2 Low Pass Filter Section
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2.4.3 High Pass Filter Section
From this we can calculate the geometric center frequency, ƒ C as:
Now that we know the component values for the two filter stages, we can combine them into a
single voltage adder circuit to complete our filter design. The magnitude and polarity of the
adders output will be at any given time, the algebraic sum of its two inputs.
If we make the op-amps feedback resistor and its two input resistors the same values,
say 10kΩ’s, then the inverting summing circuit will provide a mathematically correct sum of the
two input signals with zero voltage gain.
Then the final circuit for our band stop (band-reject) filter example will be:
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2.4.4 Band Stop Filter Design
We have seen above that simple band stop filters can be made using first or second order low and
high pass filters along with a non-inverting summing op-amp circuit to reject a wide band of
frequencies. But we can also design and construct band stop filters to produce a much narrower
frequency response to eliminate specific frequencies by increasing the selectivity of the filter.
This type of filter design is called a “Notch Filter”.
2.4.5 Notch Filters
Notch filters are a highly selective, high-Q, form of the band stop filter which can be used to
reject a single or very small band of frequencies rather than a whole bandwidth of different
frequencies. For example, it may be necessary to reject or attenuate a specific frequency
generating electrical noise (such as mains hum) which has been induced into a circuit from
inductive loads such as motors or ballast lighting, or the removal of harmonics, etc.
But as well as filtering, variable notch filters are also used by musicians in sound equipment such
as graphic equalizers, synthesizers and electronic crossovers to deal with narrow peaks in the
acoustic response of the music. Then we can see that notch filters are widely used in much the
same way as low-pass and high-pass filters.
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Notch filters by design have a very narrow and very deep stop band around their center
frequency with the width of the notch being described by its selectivity Q in exactly the same
way as resonance frequency peaks in RLC circuits.
The most common notch filter design is the twin-T notch filter network. In its basic form, the
twin-T, also called a parallel-tee, conFiguration consists of two RC branches in the form of two
tee sections, that use three resistors and three capacitors with opposite and
opposing R and C elements in the tee part of its design as shown, creating a deeper notch.
a) Basic Twin-T Notch Filter Design
The upper T-pad conFiguration of resistors 2R and capacitor 2C form the low-pass filter section
of the design, while the lower T-pad conFiguration of capacitors C and resistor Rform the high-
pass filter section. The frequency at which this basic twin-T notch filter design offers maximum
attenuation is called the “notch frequency”, ƒN and is given as:
Twin-T Notch Filter Equation
Being a passive RC network, one of the disadvantages of this basic twin-T notch filter design is
that the maximum value of the output (Vout) below the notch frequency is generally less than the
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maximum value of output above the notch frequency due in part to the two series resistances
(2R) in the low-pass filter section having greater losses than the reactances of the two series
capacitors (C) in the high-pass section.
As well as uneven gains either side of the notch frequency, another disadvantage of this basic
design is that it has a fixed Q value of 0.25, in the order of -12dB. This is because at the notch
frequency, the reactances of the two series capacitors equals the resistances of the two series
resistors, resulting in the currents flowing in each branch being out-of-phase by 180o.
We can improve on this by making the notch filter more selective with the application of positive
feedback connected to the center of the two reference legs. Instead of connecting the junction
of R and 2C to ground, (0v) but instead connect it to the central pin of a voltage divider network
powered by the output signal, the amount of the signal feedback, set by the voltage divider ratio,
determines the value of Q, which in turn, determines to some extent, the depth of the notch.
2.4.6 Single Op-amp Twin-T Notch Filter
Here the output from the twin-T notch filter section is isolated from the voltage divider by a
single non-inverting op-amp buffer. The output from the voltage divider is fed back to “ground”
point of R and 2C. The amount of signal feedback, known as the feedback fraction k, is set by
the resistor ratio and is given as:
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
The value of Q is determined by the R3 and R4 resistor ratio, but if we wanted to make Qfully
adjustable, we could replace these two feedback resistors with a single potentiometer and feed it
into another op-amp buffer for increased negative gain. Also, to obtain the maximum notch depth
at the given frequency, resistors R3 and R4could be eliminated and the junction
of R and 2C connected directly to the output.
a) Band Stop Filter Example No2
Design a two op-amp narrow-band, RC notch filter with a center notch frequency, ƒN of 1kHz
and a -3dB bandwidth of 100 Hz. Use 0.1uF capacitors in your design and calculate the expected
notch depth in decibels.
Data given: ƒN = 1000Hz, BW = 100Hz and C = 0.1uF.
1. Calculate value of R for the given capacitance of 0.1uF
2. Calculate value of Q
3. Calculate value of feedback fraction k
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
4. Calculate the values of resistors R3 and R4
5. Calculate expected notch depth in decibels, dB
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
DC Voltage Regulators:
2.5 . Voltage regulator basics
2.5 .1 Voltage Regulators:
A voltage regulator is a device designed to maintain the output voltage of power supply nearly
constant. It can be regarded as a closed loop system because it monitors the output voltage and
generates the control signal to increase or decrease the supply voltage as necessary to
compensate for any change in the output voltage. Thus the purpose of voltage regulator is to
eliminate any output voltage variation that might occur because of changes in load, changes in
supply voltage or changes in temperature.
An ideal power supply maintains a constant voltage at its output terminals under all operating
conditions. The output voltage of a practical power supply changes with load generally dropping
as load current increases as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1
The terminal voltage when full load current is drawn is called full load voltage (VFL). The no
load voltage is the terminal voltage when zero current is drawn from the supply, that is, the open
circuit terminal voltage.
Power supply performance is measured in terms of percent voltage regulation, which indicates its
ability to maintain a constant voltage. It is defined as
The Thevenin's equivalent of a power supply is shown in Fig. 2. The Thevenin voltage is the no-
load voltage VNL and the Thevenin resistance is called the output resistance Ro. Let the full load
current be IFL. Therefore, the full load resistance RFL is given by
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Fig. 2
From the equivalent circuit, we have
and the voltage regulation is given by
It is clear that the ideal power supply has zero outut resistance.
Example-1
A power supply having output resistance 1.5Ω supplies a full load current of 500mA to a 50Ω
load. Determine:
1. percent voltage regulation of the supply

2. no load output voltage.
Solution:
(a). Full load output voltage VFL = (500mA ) (50Ω) = 25V.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Therefore,
(b). The no load voltage
2.5.2 Voltage Regulators:
An unregulated power supply consists of a transformer (step down), a rectifier and a filter. These
power supplies are not good for some applications where constant voltage is required
irrespective of external disturbances. The main disturbances are:
1. As the load current varies, the output voltage also varies because of its poor
regulation.
2. The dc output voltage varies directly with ac input supply. The input voltage may
vary over a wide range thus dc voltage also changes.
3. The dc output voltage varies with the temperature if semiconductor devices are
used.
An electronic voltage regulator is essentially a controller used along with unregulated power
supply to stabilize the output dc voltage against three major disturbances
a. Load current (IL)

b. Supply voltage (Vi)
c. Temperature (T)
Fig. 3, shows the basic block diagram of voltage regulator. where
Vi = unregulated dc voltage.
Vo = regulated dc voltage.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Fig. 3
Since the output dc voltage VLo depends on the input unregulated dc voltage Vi, load current
IL and the temperature t, then the change ΔVo in output voltage of a power supply can be
expressed as follows
VO = VO(Vi, IL, T)
Take partial derivative of VO , we get,
SV gives variation in output voltage only due to unregulated dc voltage. RO gives the output
voltage variation only due to load current. ST gives the variation in output voltage only due to
temperature.
The smaller the value of the three coefficients, the better the regulations of power supply. The
input voltage variation is either due to input supply fluctuations or presence of ripples due to
inadequate filtering.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
2.6. Voltage follower regulator,
2.6.1 Design of Series Voltage Regulator:
Fig. 1 shows the basic circuit of a series voltage regulator. The operation of this regulator has
been discussed in previous lecture. It consists of series (pass) transistor to control the output
voltage.
Fig. 1
The circuit can be designed taking two extreme operating conditions,
1. VS max, IZ max, I load min / β

2. VS min, IZ min, I load max / β
We calculate R s for both conditions and since R si is constant, we equate these two expressions
as in Equation E-1.
(E-1)
A design guideline that set IZ min = 0.1 I Z max. Then we equate the expressions for Equation (E-
1) to obtain,
(E-2)
Solving for IZ max, we obtain,
(E-3)
We estimate the load resistance by taking the ratio of the minimum source voltage to the
maximum load current. Since R load is large and in parallel, it can be ignored. This is the worst
case since it represents the smallest load and therefore the maximum load current.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
(E-4)
The output filter capacitor size can be estimated according to the permissible output voltage
variation and ripple voltage frequency and is given by
(E-5)
Since the voltage gain of an EF amplifier is unity, the output voltage of teh regulated power
supply is,
Vload=VZ - VBE (E-6)
The percent regulation of the power supply is given by
(E-7)
2.6.1 Example –1 (Design)
Design an 11.3V regulated power supply shown in Fig. 1 for a load current that varies between
400 mA and 500 mA. Assume an input of 120 V rms at 60 HZ into a 3:1 center - tapped
transformer. Use a 12 V Zener with RZ = 2Ω. The transistor has VBE = 0.7 V and β = 100. Set C
so Δvs= 30%.
Solution:
The design consists of choosing the values for R sand for CF. First VS max is obtained multiplying
the rms voltage by √2.
VS max = √2 x 120 = 170 V
The transformer output on either side of the center tap is one-sixth of the input, so VS maxis
28.3V.
Since Δvs= 30%,

Therefore, VS min= (0.7)(VS max) = 30%
Given that ILoad max = 500 mA
and ILoad min= 400 mA
VZ= 12 V
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
The maximum Zener current can be obtained from equation (E-3) derived in previous lecture,
Notice that the transistor keeps the value of IZ max quite small since β appears in the denominator.
The source resistance RS can be calculated from equation (E-1) of previous lecture,
Note that
The capacitor size is estimated from equation (E-5) of previous lecture:
Equation (E-7) can be used to evaluate the percent of regulation at the load.
2.6.2 Example – 2:
For the circuit of Fig. 2, determine the following:
a. Nominal output voltage

b. Value of R1
c. Load current range
d. Maximum transistor power dissipation
e. Value of RS and its power dissipation
The relevant information is as follows:
Vi = constant 8 V; D: 6.3 V, 200 mW; requires 5mA minimum current
Q: VEB= 0.2 V, hFE = 49, ICBO≈ 0
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Fig. 2
Solution:
a. The nominal output voltage is the sum of the transistor's VEB and the Zener voltage:
V O = 0.2 + 6.3 = 6.5 V
b. R1 must supply 5mA to the Zener:
c. The maximum allowable Zener current is
P / V =0.2 / 6.3 = 31.8 mA
The load current range is the difference between minimum and maximum current through the
shunt path provided by the transistor. At junction A, we can write
IB = IZ – I1;
I1 is a constant 5 mA; therefore
IB =IZ – I1 = (5 x 10-3 ) – (5 x 10-3) = 0

IB =IZ – I1 = (31.8 x 10-3) – (5 x 10 -3) = 26.8 mA
The transistor's emitter current is (hFE + 1) (IB). IB ranges from a minimum of around zero to a
maximum of 26.8 mA; therefore the load current range is (hFE + 1) (26.8 x 10 -3) = 1.34 A. The
Zener alone could provide a maximum range of 26.8mA.
d. The maximum transistor power dissipation occurs when the current is maximum. Using IE ≈
IC, we have
PD = VO IZ = 6.5 (1.34) =8.7 W
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
e. RS must pass 1.34 A to supply current to the transistor and RL:
The power dissipated by RS is
2.7 Series Regulators:
Voltage regulators may be classified as series regulators or shunt regulators. Improvements in

performance of voltage regulators are possible using the series regulator. Fig. 3 shows a
functional block diagram of the series type voltage regulator.
Fig. 3
The control element is a device which is in series with load and supply and its operating state
adjusts as necessary to maintain a constant voltage Vo. A measuring circuit produces a feedback
voltage proportional to Vo and this voltage is compared with a reference voltage. The output of
the comparator circuit is the control signal that adjusts the operating state of the control element.
If Vo decreases, due to increased in load, then the comparator produces a output that causes to
control element to increase the output voltage.
The amplifier is of the differential input type; one input is Vs, while the other is Vr, a constant
reference voltage. The reference may be a Zener diode or a dry cell. The amplifier output is
proportional to the difference between its two inputs; this difference is called the error signal and
may be expressed as follows:
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
e = VS -Vr
The amplifier multiplies the error by a constant K, yielding an appropriate signal to the control
element. The function of the signal is to increase or decrease the effective resistance of the
control element, depending on whether VO is too high or too low, respectively.
For example, if VO should increase, the error voltage ‘e' also increases. The amplifier's output
therefore increase; this causes the resistance of the control element to increase, therefore
reducing the load current and load voltage. Note that the original increase in VO caused the
circuit to act in such a manner as to decrease V O . It is because of this negative feedback that we
are able to achieve control over the load voltage.
A circuit that operates on the above principle is shown in Fig. 4. R3, R4, and R5 make up the
sampling network. The current through the sampling network must be sufficiently large that,
whatever current the base of Q2 draws, the loading on the voltage divider is negligible and
VO remains an accurate sample to VO.
Fig. 4
It is possible to simply eliminate R3 and R5 and leave only R4, but there is the danger that in
setting the potentiometer one will go to either extreme, in which case the transistor may be
damaged. None of the transistor is critical; R4 is variable to allow setting of the output voltage.
The sample voltage Vs is applied to the base of Q2, while the reference voltage Vr, which is
provided by Zener diode D1, is applied to the emitter. R2 sets the Zener current; in addition to
ensuring that the Zener operates in the breakdown region, the Zener's temperature coefficient,
which is both voltage- and current-dependent, may be controlled by an appropriate selection of
current through R2. This way the Zener's temperature coefficient (usually positive) may be used
to cancel the transistor's VBE temperature dependence (usually negative).
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
The error voltage is Vs -Vr, or simply VBE. Q2 yields an output current (IC2) which is
proportional to this “error”. At junction A the following expression may be written
IC2 + IB1 = I1
If I1 is constant, changes in IC2 yield equal but opposite changes in IB1; that is, if IC2 rises,
IB1 drops. Changes in IB1 are amplified by Q1 to yield corresponding changes in IE1 and IO.
As the current through it changes, Q1 appears as a variable resistor whose resistance depends on
the control current IB1. If IB1 drops, the resistance of Q1 increases, allowing less current to flow
through the load.
It is important to note that is type of corrective action is effective only as long as I1 remains
reasonably constant. This is to ensure that IB1 changes mainly in response to variations in
IC2 (which are due to the error signal). If I1 is not constant, it is possible for IB1(and hence
IO and VO) to change in response to I1 variations which do not reflect conditions in the load
circuit.
2.8.Adjustable output regulator
The LM317/337 are recommended replacements for fixed regulators, and give far greater
flexibility. They are stable, and perform well. Most importantly, they have no bad habits, and
that's an important consideration for any design. Project 05 is an example of a dual regulator
using these versatile ICs. When used as shown in the project, the performance is about the same
as a fixed regulator. This can be improved, but requires several additional parts. These are not
included in Project 05 for the simple reason that there isn't any spare space on the current version
of the PCB. The board in its present form has been sold for several years, and it's never caused a
problem for anyone who has built it.
The output voltage is set using a pair of resistors. The normal current from the 'Adj' (adjustment)
pin can vary from ~50 to 100µA, and it is necessary to provide a larger current that is fixed and
at least an order of magnitude greater than the normal current from this pin. This is traditionally
done by adding a resistor between the output and adjustment pin, typically 100 or 120 ohms. The
reference voltage is nominally 1.25V, but it can vary between 1.2V and 1.3V from one IC to
another. Assuming 1.25V, the current through an external 100 ohms resistor is 12.5mA - well
above the adjustment pin current. The complete connection diagram is shown below.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Figure 6 - Adjustable Regulator, LM317 Shown
As noted above, the internal reference voltage is 1.25V, so 12.5mA flows through R1. We can
ignore the adjustment pin current because it will be no more than 0.1mA, and although this does
cause a small error, it's less than the variation of the reference voltage. It's easy to work out the
value for R2, because we know that it carries 12.5mA and will always be 1.25V less than the
output voltage. Therefore, for 15V output we get ...
I R2 = 12.5mA
VR2 = VOUT - 1.25 = 13.75
R2 = V / I = 13.75 / 12.5 = 1.1k
This is quite different from the formula provided in the datasheet, and although the process is a
little longer, at least you can remember how to do it because it's based on simple logic, which is
far easier to remember than a formula. Because of the tolerance of the reference voltage (1.2 ...
1.3V), the actual output voltage may vary from 14.4V to 15.6V (±1%), although most ICs will be
closer to the design value. The voltage difference is of no consequence for opamp circuits. The
formula provided in the datasheet(s) is ...
VOUT = 1.25 * ( 1 + R2 / R1 ) + IADJ * R2
This accounts for the adjustment pin current (typically 50µA), which will add around 55mV
when 1.1k resistors are used. In general, there's no point aiming for this level of accuracy
because the IC is a voltage regulator and not a precision reference. If you need accuracy, then
you'd use a precision voltage reference such as the TL431, LM336, LT1009 or a solution as
described in SLYT183 - Precision Voltage References from Texas Instruments.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
The purpose of D1 is as described above - it prevents a voltage applied to the regulator's output
from causing damage. D2 is there to discharge C2. If this diode is omitted, the adjustment pin
can become greater than the output momentarily (for example if the output is shorted) which will
damage the IC. D3 is a little trickier.
If you build a single regulator, D3 can be omitted. However, if you make up a supply with dual
polarities (e.g. ±15V) D3 must be included (on both supplies). It's a protective diode that
prevents the regulator from having its output pulled negative, which can cause the IC to shut
down ... and it won't recover ! How can this happen though? When two supplies are used, it is
inevitable that one will be a tiny bit faster than the other. The load (opamps or other circuitry)
usually only uses the earth (ground) connection as a reference, so power is drawn between the
supplies, and not from each supply to earth. The one that comes up first may force the output of
the slower regulator to the opposite polarity, and that can cause the IC to latch into a fault
condition from which it cannot recover.
This is a real problem, and the diodes (D3 and its opposite number on the negative
supply) must be included. This can be seen in the circuit diagram for Project 05. What can make
matters worse is that the problem may be intermittent, and it is hard to track down if you don't
know what to look for.
2.9 . LM317 and L 337 IC Regulators
A standard LM317 can be used as a current regulator, and will have excellent performance. The
down-side is that the reference voltage is 1.25V, while the 'reference' voltage for the discrete
version shown above is only 0.7V. This means that the LM317 needs more voltage headroom. A
simulation shows that the circuit shown below will not regulate the current properly until the
input voltage is greater than 19.8V, including the minimum level from ripple voltage. C2 is used
to ensure the circuit doesn't oscillate.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Figure 9 - LM317 As A Current Source
The difference in the reference voltage is easily seen by looking at the current sense resistor - R1
in Figure 9, and R2 in Figure 8. While 2.2 ohms is sufficient for the Figure 8 circuit, the LM317
needs a 4.15 ohm resistor which needs to be rated at 1W. The LM317 is interested in only one
thing - the voltage across R1. Provided this voltage can be maintained at the internal reference
voltage (1.25V), the output current is fixed at 300mA. Current equals ...
I = VREF / R1
I = 1.25 / 4.15 = 301.2mA
If you have some voltage to spare, R1 can be 4.7 ohms, with a resistor and trimpot in parallel as
shown in Figure 10. The wiper connects to the adjustment terminal of the LM317, allowing you
to vary the current. The circuit shown allows you to vary the current from 267mA to 340mA
with VR1.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Figure 10 - LM317 As An Adjustable Current Source
You can use the LM317 as an adjustable current regulator up to the maximum current and power
dissipation allowable. It's nowhere near as efficient as a switch mode current regulator, but is
easily built on prototype board or even tag strips. It can be used for prototyping and proof-of-
concept, or even as a stand-alone test supply for driving high power LEDs while testing
heatsinking and lighting patterns (for example). Like the circuit in Figure 8, the current will be
essentially the same regardless of the number of 1W LEDs used.
2.9 .1 Negative Regulators
This article has only covered positive regulators, but negative regulators are easily made using
the same basic circuits, but with opposite polarity parts (reversed zener diodes, PNP instead of
NPN transistors and vice versa, etc.). Negative regulators are therefore not covered in their own
right. The negative equivalent to 78xx regulators are the 79xx series, and the LM317 is matched
by the LM337.
However, there is one conFiguration that at first glance does not look like it will work, but it's so
useful that it is shown here. It takes a bit of lateral thinking to realise that if one side of a power
supply is regulated (for example the positive), then by definition the other side (the
negative) must also be regulated. If it were otherwise, electronics as a whole simply wouldn't
make any sense and would not work.
OLIC_Notes_Module 2
Figure 11 - Positive & Negative Voltages Using Only Positive Regulators
In fact, the power supplies can be completely separate, and simply connected with the negative
of the upper regulator/power supply connected to the positive of the lower. Two separate switch
mode supplies can be connected like this, and it works with any type of power supply, as long as
there is no connection between their secondaries other than the one you make yourself. You can
even have different voltages for the +ve and -ve supplies if you wanted to (but it's not often
useful).
Outcomes
At the end of the module, the student will be able to
1. Analyze filters, signal generators and voltage regulators using linear ICs.[L4]

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Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 1

The most commonly used filters are these:

1. Low pass filters

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 2

Fig:2.1 Response of filters

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 3

2.1 First Order Low Pass Filter:

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 4

2.1.1 Filter Design:

A low pass filter can be designed using the following steps:

1. Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH .

3. Calculate the value of R using .

4. Finally, select values of R1 and RF to set the desired gain using .

Given fH = 1 kHz. Let C = 0.01 µF.

Therefore, R can be obtained as

A 20 kΩ potentiometer can be used to set the resistance R.

2.1.2 Low pass filter with adjustable corner frequency

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 5

The voltage at the opamp inputs are given by

Setting v + = v -, we obtain the voltage, v1, as follows:

The second opamp acts as an inverting integrator, and

The transfer function is given by

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 6

The dc gain is found by setting s = 0 (i.e., jω =0)

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 7

1.3 Second Order Low-Pass Butterworth filter:

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 8

1.3.1 Filter Design:

1. Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH.

3. Calculate the value of R using .

1.4 First Order High Pass Butterworth filter:

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 9

The magnitude of the gain of the filter

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 10

2. Higher Order Filters

Fig: Higher Order Filters

A third-order low-pass Butterworth filter is illustrated in Figure.

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 11

When Af = 2, the cut-off frequency is given as

of 60 db per decade equivalent to 18 db per octave.

A fourth-order low-pass Butterworth filter is illustrated in Figure. It is formed by cascading

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 12

In all our Butterworth designs, the cut-off frequency is given as 1 / 2∏RC

2. 3.Band pass filters,

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 13

Fig:Band pass filter block diagram

3.1 Active Band Pass Filter Circuit

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 14

3.1.1 Active Band Pass Frequency Response

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 15

3.1.2 Inverting Band Pass Filter Circuit

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 16

3.1.3 Multiple Feedback Band Pass Active Filter

3.1.4 Infinite Gain Multiple Feedback Active Filter

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 17

3.1.5 Active Band Pass Filter Example No1

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 18

The closest standard value is 10nF.

3.1.6 Resonant Frequency Point

Dept. of EEE,ATMECE Page 19