BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY The Daily Activity of a Squirrel Kept in Total Darkness

CHAPTER IV
WAKEFULNESS AND SLEEP
I. Rhythms of Waking and Sleeping
▪ Early psychologists believed that cycles of
wakefulness and sleep were dependent upon
external stimuli.
▪ Curt Richter in 1922 proposed that the body
generates its own cycles of activity and inactivity.
Endogenous Circadian Rhythms
▪ Some animals generate endogenous circannual
rhythms, internal mechanisms that operate on an
annual or yearly cycle.
- Example: birds’ migratory patterns; animals The Daily Pattern of Body Temperature
storing food for the winter.
▪ All animals produce endogenous circadian
rhythms, internal mechanisms that operate on an
approximately 24-hour cycle.
- Sleep cycle
- Frequency of eating and drinking
- Body temperature
- Secretion of hormones
- Urination
- Sensitivity to drugs
Daily Pattern of Positive Moods
• Jet Lag – More Difficult Flying East.
Setting and Resetting the Biological Clock
▪ The purpose of the circadian rhythms id to keep
ou internal workings in phase with the outside
world.
▪ The human circadian clock generates a rhythm
slightly longer than 24 hours when it has no
external cue to set it.
▪ Resetting our circadian rhythms is sometimes
necessary.
▪ Zeitgeber: German meaning “time giver”; refers
to the stimulus that resets the circadian rhythm.
- Examples: sunlight, tides, exercise, meals,
arousal of any kind, meals, temperature of
environment, and so on.
- Depression, irritability, and impaired job
performance are effects of using something
other than sunlight as zeitgeber.
Jet Lag
▪ Refers to the disruption of the circadian rhythms
due to crossing time zones.
- Stems from a mismatch of the internal
circadian clock and external time.
- Sleepiness during the day, sleeplessness at
night, and impaired concentration.
▪ Traveling west “phase-delays” our circadian
rhythms.
▪ Traveling east “phase-advances” our circadian
rhythms.
Shift Work
▪ Sleep duration depends on when one goes to sleep.
▪ Working at night does not reliably change the
circadian rhythm.
- Even after long periods of working at night,
people can still fell groggy, sleep poorly during
the day, and body temperature peaks while
sleeping instead of while working.
▪ People adjust best to night work if they sleep in a
very dark room during the day and work under
very bright lights at night.
Morning People and Evening People
▪ Cycles can differ between people and lead to
different patterns of wakefulness and alertness.
▪ Change as a function of age.
- Young children are morning people.
- Adolescents are often night people.
▪ As an adult, it partially depends upon genetics.
Mechanisms of the Biological Clock
▪ Mechanisms of the circadian rhythms.
- The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
- Genes that produce certain proteins.
- Melatonin levels.
 The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) ▪ PER and TIM proteins increases the activity of
certain kinds of neurons in the SCN that regulate
▪ The main control center of the circadian rhythms
sleep and waking.
of sleep and temperature.
- Mutations in the PER gene result in odd
- Located above the optic chiasm and part of the
circadian rhythms or decreased alertness of
hypothalamus.
deprived of a good night’s sleep.
▪ Damage to the SCN results in less consistent
body rhythms that are no longer synchronized to Interaction of MRNA with PER and TIM Proteins
environmental patterns of light and dark.
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) and the Circadian Rhythm
▪ Generates circadian rhythms in a genetically
controlled, unlearned manner.
▪ Single cell extracted from the SCN and raised in
tissue culture continues to produce action
potential in a rhythmic pattern.
▪ Various cells communicate with each other to
sharpen the circadian rhythm.
Melatonin
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) and the
Retinohypothalamic Path ▪ The SCN regulates waking and sleeping by
controlling activity levels in other areas of the
▪ Light resets the SCN via a small branch of the brain.
optic nerve called the retinohypothalamic path. ▪ The SCN regulates the pineal gland, an
- Travels directly from the retina to the SCN. endocrine gland located posterior to the thalamus.
▪ The retinohypothalamic path comes from a ▪ The pineal gland secretes melatonin, a hormone
special population of ganglion cells that have their that increases sleepiness.
own photopigment called melanopsin. ▪ Melatonin secretion usually begins two to three
- The cells respond directly to light and do not hours before bedtime.
require any input from the rods or cones. ▪ Melatonin feeds back to reset the biological clock
The Biochemistry of the Circadian Rhythm through its effects on receptors in the SCN.
▪ Melatonin taken in the afternoon can phase-
▪ Two types of genes are responsible for generating advance the internal clock and can be used as a
the circadian rhythm. sleep aid.
- Period: produce protein called PER
- Timeless: produce proteins called TIM
II. Stages of Sleep and Brain Mechanisms
▪ Sleep is a specialized state evolved to serve
particular functions.
▪ What are the mechanisms for producing sleep?
▪ Sleep is a state that the brain actively produces.
- Characterized by a moderate decrease in brain
activity and decreased in brain activity and
decreased response to stimuli.
▪ Sleep differs from the following states:
- Coma, vegetative state, minimally conscious
state, and brain death.
Other Interruptions of Consciousness
▪ Coma: extended period of unconsciousness
characterized by low brain activity that remains
fairly steady.
▪ Vegetative state: person alternates between
periods of sleep and moderate arousal but no
awareness of surrounding.
- Some autonomic arousal to painful stimulus.
- No purposeful activity/response to speech.
▪ Minimally conscious state: one stage higher than
a vegetative state marked by occasional brief
periods of purposeful action and limited speech
comprehension.
▪ Brain death: no sign of brain activity and no
response to any stimulus.
Stages of Sleep -EEG
▪ The electroencephalograph (EEG) allowed
researchers to discover that there are various
stages of sleep.
- Allows researchers to compare brain activity at
different times during sleep.
▪ A polysomnograph is a combination of EEG and
eye-movement records.
Relaxation and Stage 1 Sleep
▪ Alpha waves are present when one begins a state
of relaxation.
▪ Stage 1 sleep is when sleep has just begun.
- The EEG is dominated by irregular, jagged,
and low voltage waves.
- Brain activity begins to decline.
• Alpha – “You are in Alpha when listening to music,
watching TV, or meditating. This is the normal resting state
(8-13 cps).
Stage 2 Sleep
▪ Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the presence of:
- Sleep spindles: 12- to 14-Hz waves during a
burst that lasts at least half a second.
- K-complex: a sharp wave associated with
temporary inhibition of neuronal firing.
Slow Wave Sleep – Stage 3 and Stage 4
▪ Stage 3 and stage 4 together constitute slow wave
sleep (SWS) and is characterized by:
- EEG recording of slow, large amplitude wave.
- Slowing of heart rate, breathing rate, and brain
activity.
- Highly synchronized neuronal activity.
Paradoxical of REM Sleep
▪ Rapid eye movement sleep (REM) describes
periods characterized by rapid eye movements
during sleep.
- Also know a paradoxical sleep: deep sleep in
some ways, but light sleep-in other ways.
 ▪ EEG waves are irregular, low-voltage, and fast. o Length of stage decreases as the night
▪ Postural muscles of the body are more relaxed progresses.
then other stages. - REM sleep is predominant later at night
o Length increases as the night
progresses.
- REM is strongly associated with dreaming,
but people also report dreaming in other stages
of sleep.
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal
THE RETICULAR FORMATION
▪ Various brain mechanisms are associated with wakefulness
and arousal.
▪ The reticular formation is a part of the midbrain that extends
from the medulla to the forebrain and is responsible for
arousal.
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal
THE PONTOMESENCEPHALON
▪ The pontomesencephalon, a part of the reticular formation
in the midbrain, contributes to cortical arousal.
NREM and REM Cycles o Axons extend to the hypothalamus, thalamus, and
▪ Stages other than REM are referred to as non-REM sleep basal forebrain, which release acetylcholine,
(NREM). glutamate, or dopamine.
▪ When people fall asleep, they progress through stages 1, 2, 3, o Produce excitatory effects to widespread areas of the
and 4 in sequential order. cortex.
- After about an hour, the person begins to o Stimulation of the pontomesencephalon awakens
cycle back through the stages from stage 4 to sleeping individuals and increases alertness in those
stages 3 and 2 and then REM. already awake.
- The sequence repeats with each cycle lasting
approximately 90 minutes.
- Stages 3 and 4 sleep predominate early in the
night.
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal
The LOCUS COERULEUS
▪ The locus coeruleus is a small structure in the pons whose
axons release norepinephrine to arouse various areas of the
Sleep and the Inhibition of Brain Activity
cortex and increase wakefulness.
o Usually dormant while asleep.
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal
The HYPOTHALAMUS
- Inhibition provided by GABA is essential for
sleep.
▪ Other axons from the basal forebrain release acetylcholine,
which is excitatory and increases arousal.
▪ Functions of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA are also
important for:
o Decreasing the temperature and metabolic rate.
o Decreasing the stimulation of neurons.

▪ The hypothalamus contains neurons that release Sleep as a Local Phenomenon

“histamine” to produce widespread excitatory effects ▪ Sleep can be localized within the brain.
through the brain.
o Sleepwalkers: awake in one part of the brain and
o Antihistamines produce sleepiness.
asleep in others.
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal o Lucid dreaming: dreaming but aware of being asleep
and dreaming.
OREXIN o The pons remaining in REM while other brain areas
▪ The lateral and posterior nuclei of the hypothalamus releases wake up: causes the inability to move.
orexin. Structure Neurotransmitter(s) Effects on
o Orexin is a peptide neurotransmitter and is it releases Behavior
sometimes also called hypocretin.
o Needed to stay awake rather than wake up. Pontomesencephalon Acetylcholine, Increases cortical
o Orexin is released by cells into the basal forebrain to glutamate arousal
stimulate neurons responsible for wakefulness and
Locus Coeruleus Norepinephrine Increases
arousal.
information
o The basal forebrain is an area just anterior and dorsal storage during
to the hypothalamus. wakefulness;
Brain Mechanisms of Wakefulness and Arousal suppresses REM
sleep
GABA AND ACETYLCHOLINE
▪ Cells of the basal forebrain release the inhibitory
neurotransmitter GABA
 Basal Forebrain Acetylcholine Excites thalamus ▪ REM is also regulated by serotonin and acetylcholine
(Excitatory Cells) and cortex; o Drugs that stimulate acetylcholine receptors quickly
increases learning, move people to REM.
attention; shifts o Serotonin interrupts REM.
sleep from NREM
to REM Sleep Disorders
▪ Insomnia: a sleep disorder associated with inadequate sleep.
- Caused by a number of factors, including
Basal Forebrain GABA Inhibits thalamus noise, stress, pain, diet, and medication.
(Inhibitory Cells) and cortex
- Can also be the result of disorders such as
Hypothalamus Histamine Increases arousal epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, depression,
(Parts) anxiety or other conditions.
- Dependence on sleeping pills or alcohol and
Hypothalamus Orexin Maintains shifts in the circadian rhythms can also result
(Parts) wakefulness in insomnia.
Dorsal Raphe and Serotonin Interrupts REM Sleep Disorders as a Result of Phase Delay
Pons sleep

Brain Activity in REM Sleep

▪ During REM sleep:
o Activity increases in the pons and the limbic system.
o Activity decreases in the primary visual cortex, the
motor cortex, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
▪ REM sleep is also associated with a distinctive pattern of
high-amplitude electrical potentials known as PGO waves.
o Waves of neural activity are detected first in the pons,
then in the lateral geniculate of the hypothalamus, and
then the occipital cortex.
▪ REM deprivation results in a high density of PGO waves
during uninterrupted sleep.
▪ Cells in the pons send messages to the spinal cord, which
inhibits motor neurons that control the body’s large muscles.
o Prevents motor movement during REM sleep.
Sleep Apnea
▪ A sleep disorder characterized by the inability to breathe
while sleeping for a prolonged period of time.
o Consequences: sleepiness during the day, impaired
attention, depression, and sometimes heart problems.
o Causes: genetics, hormones, old age, obesity, and
Night Terrors and Sleepwalking
deterioration of the brain mechanisms that control
breathing.
o Effects: cognitive impairment may result.
Narcolepsy
▪ A sleep disorder characterized by frequent periods of
sleepiness.
- Attacks of sleepiness during the day.
- Gradual or sudden attack of sleepiness.
- Occasional Cataplexy: muscle weakness
triggers by strong emotions.
- Sleep Paralysis: inability to move while falling
asleep or waking up.
- Hypnagogic Hallucinations: dreamlike
experiences.
▪ Seems to run in families, although no gene has been
identified.
Functions of Sleep
▪ Caused by lack of hypothalamic cells that produce and
release orexin.
▪ Primary treatment is with stimulant drugs (i. e., Ritalin),
which increase wakefulness by enhancing dopamine and
norepinephrine activity.
Periodic Limb Movement Disorder
▪ The repeated involuntary movement of the legs and
Sleep and Energy Conservation
sometimes the arms while sleeping.
o Legs kick once every 20 – 30 seconds for periods of
minutes to hours.
o Usually occurs during NREM sleep.
REM Behavior Disorder
▪ Associated with vigorous movement during REM sleep.
o Usually associated with acting out dreams.
▪ Research suggest that inadequate GABA and other
inhibitory neurotransmitters may be responsible.
▪ Night terrors are experiences of intense anxiety from which
a person awakens screaming in terror.
o Usually occurs in NREM sleep.
▪ “sleepwalking” runs in families, mostly occurs in young
children, and occurs mostly in stage 3 or 4 sleep.
o not associated with dreaming.
▪ It is not dangerous to wake a sleepwalker.
▪ A condition similar to sleepwalking is sexsomnia: engaging
in sexual behavior while asleep.
▪ Can pose a threat to romances and marriages.
III. Why Sleep? Why REM? Why Dreams?
▪ We’ve evolved mechanisms to force us to sleep.
▪ Inhibitory processes in our brains force us to become less
around and less alert, and thus to sleep.
▪ Some of the many functions of sleep include:
o Resting muscles
o Decreasing metabolism
o Performing cellular maintenance in neurons
o Reorganizing synapses
o Strengthening memories
▪ The original function of sleep was probably to conserve
energy.