Neurolec Reviewer

NEUROANATOMY LECTURE TERM 01
BS Psychology - Adamson University
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

CHAPTER OUTLINE: - Lucky because he was a jew, lived in
Germany before Hitler and war
I. Introduction
- When he came in America taught physics
II. Central and Peripheral Nervous system
and finally defended the theory
III. Major Divisions of The Central Nervous
System
IV. Major Divisions of The Peripheral
Nervous System
V. Early Development of the Nervous
System
VI. Clinical Notes
VII. Additional Readings
I. INTRODUCTION
The nervous system is divided into two main parts,
for purposes of description:
the central nervous system
- Which consists of the brain and spinal cord
- Brain – located w/in a skull
- Spinal cord – an extension of the brain
the peripheral nervous system
- which consists of the cranial and spinal
nerves and their associated ganglia. An average brain has 100 billion neurons. Einstein
- Nerves had 17% more neurons compared to normal. This
- Nerves cell means more synapses were being fired in his brain,
- Neuroglia – supporting cells/structures giving him more brain power.
- Ganglia – cell bodies outside the central - The prefrontal cortex is larger than the
nervous system / within the peripheral normal brain with many convolutions and
system gyri.
TRIVIA: Albert Einstein’s brain is much larger than - The center for visuals, music, and math is
the normal brain very much wider, 15% than normal.
- When Albert Einstein died, the brain is Functions of Nervous System

preserved – in the study - Receive sensory stimuli from various parts of
- Albert has a greater parietal lobe where he the body
got knowledge, learnings - Analyze information and respond by
generating signals that are transmitted over
peripheral nerves to initiate and intergate Central Nervous System – brain and spinal cord
muscular, secretory and other activities in
Peripheral Nervous System
the body.
- Somatic – controls voluntary muscles and
conveys sensory information to the central
nervous system.
- Autonomic – controls involuntary muscles
- Sympathetic – expends energy
- Parasympathetic – conserves energy
Structures of the Brain
The brain lies in the cranial cavity and is continuous
with the spinal cord through the foramen magnum.
AREA Also known as Major

structures
Forebrain Telencephalon Thalamus
(Prosensceph Diencephalon Hypothalam
Coronal plane – front, back, alon) us
Epithalamus
Transverse plane / horizontal plane – divides the Pineal gland
brain into the upper and lower portion. Cerebral
Saggital plane – vertical plane divides the brain from cortex
Hippocampu
the dorsal to ventral; right and left halves; if nose it
s
is called a sagittal plane.
Basal ganglia
Midbrain Mesencephalon Tectum
(mesencepha Tegmentum
lon) Superior
colliculi
Inferior
colliculi
Substantia
nigra
Hindbrain Metencephalon Pons
(rhombencep Myelencephalon Cerebellum
halon) Medulla
oblongota
The forebrain – prosencephalon

- gives rise to the olfactory structures (sense
of smell); thalamus, hypothalamus
- the most anterior and prominent part of the hindbrain structures, the midbrain and other central
mammalian brain and consists of two structures of the brain combine and make up the
cerebral hemispheres. brain stem.
- Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical
- brain stem once is injured can pressed on
regions
and can bring sudden death
Outer portion: known as the cerebral cortex
Medulla
- Each side receives sensory information and
- located just above the spinal cord and be
controls movement from the opposite
regarded as an enlarged extension of the
(contralateral) side of the body.
spinal cord
Midbrain – mesencephalon
function: responsible for vital reflexes such as
- in the adult, structures has tectum, breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation,
tegmentum (immediate portion), superior coughing, and sneezing.
colliculi (upper cerebral peduncle),
Cranial nerves allow the medulla to control
substantia nigra
sensations from the head, muscle movements in the
structures of the midbrain: head, and many parasympathetic outputs to the
organs.
- Tectum – the roof of the midbrain
- Superior colliculus and inferior colliculus – Pons
located on each side of the tectum and
- lies on each side of the medulla (ventral and
processes sensory information
anterior)
- Tegmentum – the intermediate level of the
- along with the medulla, contains reticular
midbrain containing nuclei for cranial nerves
formation and raphe system
and part of the reticular formation
(responsible for the sleep-waking cycle) function: works in conjunction to increase arousal
- Substantia nigra – gives rise to the and readiness of other parts of the brain.
dopamine-containing pathway facilitating
Cerebellum
readiness for movement.
- a structure located in the hindbrain with
Hindbrain – rhombencephalon
many deep folds
- Metencephalon gives rise to pons and
function: helps regulate motor movement, balance,
cerebellum
and coordination
- Myencephalon is for medulla oblongata
- hindbrain located posterior portion of the - also important for shifting attention
brain between auditory and visual stimuli
- adjetated – problem in the cerebellum;
Structures of midbrain
swaying balance
- medulla
note: a fresh brain with dura removed. It has
- pons
numerous superficial blood vessels running in the
- cerebellum
arachnoid.
Coverings of the brain

hinges consist of the outer portion
dura mater is the middle portion – consists of an
arachnoid membrane
pia mater - inner portion
- the one attach to the brain structures is pia
mater
Note:
- gyri or gyrus are sulci they are grooves
- central sulcus separates frontal and parietal
lobe.
Note: if we strip off meninges, we see the brain and

we see convolutions or thickenings of gyri or gyrus. Corpus callosum – divides right and left
hemispheres.
- Outside the skull is extended to become the The forebrain (Cerebrum)

spinal cord it is part of the medulla
Can be divided into lobes the rest in the
oblongata.
corresponding cranial fossa.
- Its passageway is the foreral magnum.
- The frontal lobe lies under the frontal bone
GYRI (singular gyrus)
in the anterior cranial fossa.
- The grooves between the gyri are sulci - The temporal lobe lies under the temporal
(singular SULCUS). bone in the middle cranial fossa.
- The occipital lobe lies under the occipital
bone in the posterior cranial fossa, along
with the cerebellum.
- The parietal lobe lies under the parietal
bone.
The cerebellum (little brain) lies below the occipital
lobe. It has much thinner gyri than cerebrum
(thicker and larger).
The two main sulci are also known as fissures. These

are the central sulcus (fissures) between the frontal
and parietal lobes.
The lateral sulcus (fissure) is between the frontal
and temporal lobes.
Recall: the main bones of the cranium are frontal,

parietal, occipital, and temporal.
- Rostal plane is horizontal going up to (axial)

towards the head.
- Caudal plane going down towards the spinal
cord and cauda equina.
ILLUSTRATION: The brain cut in the frontal plane.
Unstained brain tissue shows up as grey (actually
pinky-grey) and white matter.
NOTE: In terms of gyri and sulci, it has individual

names but for now we only need to remember the
central and lateral sulci.
- Central sulcus separates the parietal lobe
from the frontal lobe
- Lateral sulcus separates the frontal lobe to
the temporal lobe. WHITE MATER – outer portion; contains axons
GRAY MATER – inner portion; contains cell bodies
and processes
STAINING BLUE – outer
ILLUSTRATION: Staining the brain tissue is essential
to differentiate structures. In this stain cell bodies
are stained blue. Thus, the cortex can be seen to
contain large numbers of nerve cell bodies.
Inside the lateral fissure, there is a hidden area of

cortex. The insula or ‘Island of Reil’.
PLANES OF THE BRAIN
Before we investigate the interior of the brain by
cutting it up we need to define the planes of the The cerebral cortex
brain that we will cut (section) in.
- The most prominent part of the mammalian
- The coronal plane is known as the frontal brain consists of the cellular layers on the
plane. outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres.
- divided into two halves
- Joined by two bundles of axons called the > In Somatic NS, a motor neuron acts directly on its
corpus callosum and anterior commissure effector organs.
- More highly developed in humans than
> In Autonomic NS, two motor neurons in series are
other species.
involved. The first is ,located in a center in the brain
stem or spinal gray matter whereas the second is in
a ganglion outside the CNS.
The Somatic Nervous System consists of nerves
that:
- Convey sensory information to the CNS.
- Transmit messages for motor movement
from the CNS to the body.
The autonomic nervous system sends and receives
The midsaggital plane is much better to identify in
messages to regulate the automatic behaviors of
corpus callosum.
the body (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration,
Note: corpus callosum folds back on itself rostrally. digestion, etc).
This region ends in the anterior commissure.
Divided into two subsystems:
1. The Sympathetic Nervous System
2. The Parasympathetic Nervous System
Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System
• The sympathetic nervous system is a network of
nerves that prepares the organs for rigorous
activity:
• increases heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, etc. (“fight or flight”
response)
Autonomic Nervous System • comprised of ganglia on the left and
right of the spinal cord
1. Somatic NS = concerned with the reception of
• mainly uses norepinephrine as a
sensory impulses and the voluntary generation of
neurotransmitter at the
motor responses.
postganglionic synapses.
2. Autonomic NS = regulates activities involving
The parasympathetic nervous system facilitates
heartbeat, smooth muscle contraction and
vegetative, nonemergency responses.
secretion of exocrine glands which are not subject
to voluntary control. • decreases functions increased by the
sympathetic nervous system.
2.1 Sympathetic NS
• comprised of long preganglion axons
2.2 Parasympathetic NS extending from the spinal cord and
short postganglionic fibers that B. Spinal cord

attach to the organs themselves.
- Cervical segments
• dominant during our relaxed states
- Thoracic segments
• Postganglionic axons mostly release
- Lumbar segments
acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
- Sacral segments
Spinal Cord - Coccygeal segments
- Receives motor commands from the brain Peripheral Nervous System
and relays them via spinal nerves that
A. Cranial nerves and their ganglia
emerge from each segment of the vertebral
column to innervate the muscles and other - 12 pairs that exit the skull through the
effectors in the periphery. foramina
- Receives sensory input from the body and
B. Spinal nerves and their ganglia
relays this information back to the brain.
31 pairs that exit the vertebral column through the
Nerve fibers enter and leave the spinal cord at
intervertebral foramina
regular intervals via dorsal and ventral roots which
project laterally from both sides of the cord. - 8 Cervical
- 12 Thoracic
- Has 31 pairs of roots along its length.
- 5 Lumbar
Sensory fibers enter the cord through dorsal roots. - 5 Sacral
- 1 Coccygeal
Motor fibers leave through the ventral roots.
Inferior End of Spinal Cord
The dorsal and ventral roots join to form a spinal
nerve containing both sensory and motor fibers. Conus medullaris – inferior end of spinal cord
proper
Divisions of the Nervous System Central Nervous
System Cauda equina – individual spinal nerves within the
spinal canal
A. Brain
Filum terminale – filamentous end of meninges “tie
1. Forebrain
down”.
- Cerebrum
- Diencephalon (between brain)
2. Midbrain
3. Hindbrain
- Medulla oblongata
- Pons
- Cerebellum
The spinal cord is comprised of: Functions:

• gray matter - located in the center of the spinal ascending tracts - sensory toward brain
cord and is densely packed with cell bodies and
descending tracts - motor from brain
dendrites
• white matter – composed mostly of myelinated
axons that carries information from the gray matter
to the brain or other areas of the spinal cord.
•Each segment sends sensory information to the
brain and receives motor commands.
Spinal Meninges and Spaces
Lumbar Puncture (= Spinal Tap)

For clinical examination of CSF or administration of
radiopaque dyes, drugs and sometimes anesthetics
- However: mostly “epidurals” for anesthetics.
Organization of Cord Cross Section

Gray matter - interior horns
- posterior - somatic and visceral sensory
nuclei
- anterior (and lateral) gray horns – somatic
and visceral motor control
- gray commissures - axons carrying
information from side to side How is the Brain studied?
White matter - tracts or columns - Case Studies
- posterior white column - Gene Splicing
- anterior white column - Imaging
- lateral white column - PET
- anterior white commissure - EEG (electrical current detection)
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (causes
temporary disruption of a brain region)
- MRI; fMRI; CAT
Correlating brain activity with behavior can involve • Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging - uses
identifying of peculiar behaviors and looking for oxygen consumption in the brain to provide a
abnormal brain structures or function. moving and detailed picture
These abnormal brain structures can be identified
using:
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT scan)
involves the injection of a dye into the blood and a
passage of x-rays through the head.
Scanner is rotated slowly until a measurement has
been taken at each angle and a computer constructs
the image.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
- involves the application of a powerful
Research Methods
magnetic field to image the brain.
- Research has not supported that a larger
brain is correlated with higher intelligence.
- Brain-to-body ratio research has some
limited validity.
- Moderate correlation exists between IQ and
brain size
- Amount of grey and white matter may also
play a role.
- IQ is correlated with amount of gray matter
- Greater resemblance among twins for both
Recording brain activity involves using a variety of
brain size and IQ
noninvasive methods including:
- For monozygotic twins, the size of one twin’s
• Electroencephalograph (EEG) - records electrical brain correlates significantly with the other
activity produced by various brain regions. twin’s IQ.
- Therefore, whatever genes that control
• Positron-emission tomography (PET) - records the
brain also relate to IQ.
emission of radioactivity from injected radioactive
- Men have larger brains than women but IQ
chemicals to produce a high-resolution image.
is the same.
• Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) -inert - Various differences in specific brain
radioactive chemicals are dissolved in the blood structures exist between men and women
where a PET scanner is used to trace their - Left/right cortex, hippocampus and
distribution and indicate high levels of brain activity. amygdala
- Explanations in differences in cognitive
abilities can perhaps be better explained by
interest than abilities.
CHAPTER 2: NERVE CELL/NEURON - No myelin

Axons
- Generally, take action potential (impulse)
away from cell body
- Myelinated or unmyelinated
- Axon hilock
- Telodendria is a synaptic end bulb
NOTES: NEURON
- As axon approaches end, it branches in a
terminal arborization.
- Each branch ends in a small expansion called
an end bulb or terminal bouton, that makes
contact with another cell to form a synapse.
- At the synapse, electrical or chemical signals
pass from the neuron to a responding cell,
Neuron the effector cell.
Consist of: - At this contact, transmission of the signal
from the neuron to its responding cell
Cell body (soma) depends upon neurotransmitters acting
Dendrites - radiating processes specialized for rapidly and locally to activate the target cell.
reception of signals from other neurons Other compounds called neuromodulators exert
Axon – single very long process capable of influences upon these events more slowly by
generating a nerve impulse (action potential) and diffusion through the extracellular fluid.
conduct it to stimulate other neurons in the CNS, Neuron
muscles, secretory cells.
Classified according to shape & number of
Structures of Neuron processes:
Cell body (perikaryon) Unipolar neurons – have an axon but no dendrites;
- Contains nucleus rare;
- Rich in ribosomes & rough ER (Nissl bodies) - pseudounipolar neurons in sensory ganglia
- Produces proteins for export to axon or are more common
dendrite
- Lots of mitochondria Bipolar neurons – have 2 processes – axon and
- Neurofibrils dendrite
Structures of Neuron Processes Multipolar neurons – have one axon and many
dendrites; very common in CNS
Dendrites
- Bring depolarization toward cell body
The number of synapses on a neuron depends on

the number and length of its dendrites
- classified according to function:
Motor neurons – stimulate muscles or glands in the
periphery.
Sensory neurons – receive sensory stimuli from the
environment or from tissues and organs of the body.
Interneurons – maintain connections between
neurons in CNS ; most abundant.
classified according to size:
Golgi type I neurons
- -have a long axon that forms the long fiber
tracts of the brain and spinal cord, and nerve
fibers of peripheral nerves.
Example: OTHER STRUCTURES OF NEURON
- pyramidal cells of cerebral cortex Each Nissl body is an aggregation of parallel
- Purkinje cells of cerebellar cortex cisternae of rough ER, also found in dendrites taking
- motor cells of spinal cord the form of tubules.
Golgi type II neurons Golgi complex is prominent in all neurons.
- have a short axon ; outnumber Golgi type I Lysosomes are present in small numbers in the
neurons perikaryon.
- have short dendrites giving a “star-shaped”
appearance. Cytoplasmic inclusions are uncommon in neurons
limited to lipofuchsin pigments which are end-
NOTE: Typically, a pale-staining nucleus with a products of lysosomal activity.
nucleolus and little heterochromatin.
In light microscope by silver impregnation method,
• On EM, the cytoplasm is crowded with organelles neurofibrils are seen in perikaryon which are
and filamentous cytoskeletal elements arranged bundles of intermediate filaments referred to as
concentrically around the nucleus. neurofilaments.
• The central region of the cytoplasm is referred to Alzheimer’s disease is common in the elderly
as the perikaryon.
• characterized by intraneuronal accumulation of
• The most conspicuous components of the loops, coils and tangles of filaments consisting of
perikaryon are large clumps of basophilic material abnormal microtubule protein
called Nissl bodies.
• extracellular plagues of fibrils in amorphous - In x-section, neurofilaments are spaced

amyloid deposits apart and microtubules are numerous.
• gradual loss of neurons results in dementia. Continually engaged in axonal transport which is
bidirectional, namely:
- Affected is the memory of the frontal lobe
and language which includes temporal lobes. 1. Anterograde transport
- from the perikaryon to the ending of the
axon.
- important for the delivery of small vesicles
containing neurotransmitters to the axon
terminal.
- the motor protein involved is kinesin.
2. Retrograde transport
- from the axon terminal to the cell body ;
carried out by motor protein, dynein.
In PNS, axons are enveloped in a thin sheath of
Schwann cells closely applied to axolemma, limiting
Dendrites membrane of axon
- May receive signals up to 10,000 synapses In CNS, axons are ensheathed by oligodendroglial
- Main branches tend to be smooth surfaced cells.
but lateral branches are irregular due to Nerve impulse
presence of thorns or spines.
• An electrical potential (voltage gradient) exist
These are preferential sites of synaptic contact, and across the plasma membrane of all cells resulting in
they occupy concavities in the end-bulbs of axon differences between the intracellular and
terminating upon the neuron. extracellular concentration of Na+ ions and K+ ions.
The capacity of the neurons to integrate input from • This membrane potential (MP) remains quite
many different sources is directly related to the constant, and neurons undergo changes in MP due
degree of branching of their dendrites and the to their ability to conduct, transmit and receive
number of their spines. signals.
Axon - Inside more sodium ions; outside more
- Arises from the conical extension of the cell potassium ions.
body, the axon hillock. The axolemma (cytoplasm of axon) maintains a
- Slenderer and very much longer than concentration of Na+ ions in the underlying cytosol
dendrites. in ECF while the internal K+ ion concentration is 10x
- Has the same caliber throughout its length. greater than the outside of the cell.
- Its content, axoplasm, lacks Nissl bodies but
contains segments of sER and mitochondria.
• The differences in of -90mV electrical potential In PNS, synaptic contact of motor nerves is usually
with the inside negative to the outside is called with muscle or glandular cells.
resting potential.
A common neurotransmitter is, acetylcholine (Ach)
- When a neuron is stimulated, ion channels but others include catecholamines, noradrenaline,
at the site are opened and there is a sudden dopamine, indoleamine, serotonin, amino acid, and
influx of extracellular Na+ ions that lowers aminobutyric acid.
the membrane potential (makes the inside
At a synapse, the presynaptic (before) and
less negative) and the membrane is said to
postsynaptic (after) membranes are parallel and
be depolarized; quickly followed by an
separated by a synaptic cleft.
outflow of K+ ions that restores the resting
potential. These changes create the action - Synaptic vesicles clustered near the
potential. presynaptic membrane which is the active
- Na+ ions diffuse from the initial site towards zone of the synapse where the terminal
the axon ending open Na+ channels channels are opened to permit Ca++ions
depolarizing the neighboring region of the enter (calcium ions) which triggers the
membrane and this process continues. release of neurotransmitters into the
Thus, an action potential is initiated in the synaptic cleft by exostosis (movement of
initial segment of the axon propagated the cell towards outside).
along is entire length.
• The neurotransmitter binds to specific receptors
• It initiates discharge of stored neurotransmitter in the postsynaptic membrane.
that stimulates another neuron.
Synapse
• Specialized region of contact where
neurotransmitter is released from an axon to
stimulate another cell
1. Axodendritic synapse – usually in CNS
2. Axosomatic synapse
3. Axoaxonic synapse
An integral part of investing layer of Schwann cells

which are arranged end-to-end completely
surrounding the axon. Border of axon that come in
contact and the apposed membranes are described
as mesaxon.
• In photomicrograph, appear as coil of Schwann cell
membrane around the axon
- At intervals along the axon are short gaps in
the myelin sheath called the nodes of
Ranvier, which are spaces between
successive Schwann cells ;
This results in a conformational change in the - the segment of the sheath between
receptors in the membrane opening ion channels. successive nodes is called an internode.
Ions enter into the postsynaptic cytoplasm causing
depolarization of the membrane and excitation of • In longitudinal histological section, one or more
the target cell. narrow paler areas can be seen crossing the sheath
• Synapses may be excitatory or inhibitory obliquely, called the Schmidt-Lantermann clefts,
depending on whether the transmitter depolarizes apparent on EM.
or hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane. The presence of a myelin sheath greatly influences
the ability of an axon to conduct an impulse.
- It acts an insulator, with the axon exposed to
the extracellular space only at the nodes of
Ranvier.
The internodal segments prevent the interchange of
ions necessary to generate an action potential which
is regenerated at each node of Ranvier. This is called
saltatory conduction, much faster than conduction
in axons along myelin sheath.
• Unmyelinated axons in the PNS are ensheathed
by Schwann cells.
Myelin sheath
- Invests the axon of many peripheral nerves.
- Lipids make up the bulk of this layer
(cholesterol, phospholipid (important bulk)
and glycolipids) leave a network of material,
neurokeratin.
- Preserved by osmium tetroxide for EM.
Peripheral nerves
• Consist of myelinated and unmyelinated axons
originating from neurons located in the brain, spinal
cord or ganglia
Enclosed in 3 layers:
1. Epineurium – dense irregular CT ; majority of
collagen fibers oriented longitudinally; contains
fibroblasts, mast cells and limited adipose cells
Myelins also occur in major tracts in CNS.
2. Perineurium – thin sleeve of flattened cells
• Axons are large and have thick myelin sheaths
surrounding small bundles of nerve axons ; cells
with high conduction velocity.
joined by tight junctions ; effective barrier to
• Myelin of CNS is made by oligodendrocytes. penetration of macromolecules
• Myelin sheaths of nerve tracts are responsible. for 3. Endoneurium – delicate network of reticular
glistening light color of the white matter of the fibers surrounding each Schwann cell-axon complex
brain.
Multiple sclerosis, a CNS disease, cause is unknown
but there is the destruction of the myelin sheaths;
loss of function, disturbance in eye movement,
weakness, loss of position sense, and paralysis of
one or more limbs.
• conspicuous pathology: loss of oligodendrocytes
in the areas of demyelination.
Nerves are the pathways of communication

between centers in the brain and spinal cord with
the rest of the body.
Contain the following fibers:
1. Afferent fibers – carry information from the
surface or the interior of the body to the CNS
; afferent nerves from end-organs sensing
heat, cold, touch or pain are sensory nerves.
2. Efferent fibers- carry nerve impulses from 3. horizontal cell = largely confined to one
the CNS to tissues and organs in the layer of the cortex, fusiform with radiating
periphery; efferent nerves to muscles dendrites and short axon that divides near
stimulating their contraction are motor the cell body with branches running in
nerves. opposite directions.
Tissues responding to motor nerves are referred to Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s
as effectors. disease)
- Many of the peripheral nerves contain both A progressive loss of motor neurons in the cerebral
sensory and motor fibers, termed as mixed cortex and spinal cord, resulting in atrophy of the
nerves. muscles innervated by the neurons affected.
Distribution of Neurons - There is often tremor, unsteady gait,
paralysis of muscles including mastication
1. Gray matter – contains the cell bodies of neurons,
and facial expression, difficulty in swallowing
their dendrites and the terminations of axons
and utlimately, respiratory paralysis.
arriving from other regions.
- life expectancy after onset is less than 10
2. White matter – is largely devoid of neuronal cell years
bodies ; consists mainly of a myelinated axon, the - More common in men ; cause is unknown.
cell bodies of which are in the gray matter or the
On July 4, 1939, Lou Gehrig, the New York Yankees'
dorsal root ganglia.
regular first baseman, said his farewell to baseball.
Neuroglial cells and their processes are present in Gehrig's fans did not know he would die two years
great numbers and variety in both gray and white later of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
matter, distinguished only by EM
Cerebral cortex
- An outer zone of gray matter over the
hemispheres of the brain.
• Receives and analyzes sensory information from
the body and responds by voluntary initiation of
motor activity.
- Also involved in learning and memory.
Cerebellar cortex
Characteristic cell types:
- Receives informational input from the eyes,
1. pyramidal cell = triangular soma, large ears and stretch receptors in the muscles.
vesicular nucleus, and abundant Nissl bodies - Does not initiate muscular activity.
in the perikaryon; has axodendritic synapses. - Has an important role in its coordination and
2. stellate or granule cell = with numerous in the maintenance of balance and normal
highly branched dendrites radiating from the posture.
cell body and a single short axon.
3 layers are recognizable: 2. Dorsal ,lateral and ventral columns of white

matter = made up of ascending and
1. Molecular layer
descending myelinated nerve fibers
2. Purkinje cell layer
communicating with other levels in the
3. Granule cell layer
spinal cord and with nerve centers in the
Molecular layer = contains few small neurons and brain.
many unmyelinated nerve fibers.
Purkinje cells =- single middle layer ; have an apical
dendrite that ascends into the molecular layer
where it undergoes elaborate branching in a single
plane ; axons extend downward through the granule
cell layer.
Granule cell layer = consists of closely packed, small
cells with short dendrites and an axon that courses
upwards to the molecular layer to form parallel
fibers synapsing with the Purkinje cells.
Spinal cord
• Receives motor commands from the brain and Dorsal root ganglion = the cell bodies of sensory
relays them via spinal nerves that emerge from each neurons entering the cord are located in an
segment of the vertebral column to innervate the expansion of each dorsal root.
muscles and other effectors in the periphery.
= are pseudounipolar neurons with short axonal
• Receives sensory input from the body and relays process that divides into long myelinated peripheral
this information back to the brain. fiber and short central fiber entering the spinal cord
• Nerve fibers enter and leave the spinal cord at and synapse with neurons in the dorsal horn of gray
regular intervals via dorsal and ventral roots which matter.
project laterally from both sides of the cord. = the axons of these neurons enter the white matter
- 31 pairs of roots along its length. and form ascending and descending tracts in the
dorsal column of the spinal cord.
• Sensory fibers enter the cord through dorsal roots.
Autonomic Nervous System
• Motor fibers leave through the ventral roots.
1. Somatic NS = concerned with reception of sensory
• The dorsal and ventral roots join to form a spinal impulses and the voluntary generation of motor
nerve containing both sensory and motor fibers. responses.
X-section of a spinal nerve: 2. Autonomic NS = regulate activities involving
1. Gray matter = central H-shaped area heartbeat, smooth muscle contraction and
containing nerve cell bodies and their secretion of exocrine glands which are not subject
dendrites. to voluntary control.
2.1 Sympathetic NS Meninges

2.2 Parasympathetic NS
• 3 layers:
1. Dura mater = outermost; the dura enclosing
the spinal cord is separated from the
surrounding periosteum by an epidural
space
2. Arachnoid = intermediate; subarachnoid
space contains the CSF ; devoid of blood
vessels
3. Pia mater = innermost; contains many blood
vessels
Sympathetic NS
• The sympathetic (thoracolumbar)division of the
ANS includes a chain of interconnected ganglia on
either side of the vertebral column.
• Ganglion is an encapsulated collection of nerve
cell bodies outside of the CNS
- Post ganglionic fibers from the ganglia
innervate the GIT, kidneys, pancreas, liver,
urinary bladder and external genitalis.
• The principal neurotransmitter of the sympathetic
NSs is norepinephrine. NEUROGLIA
Parasympathetic NS Neuroglia (Glial cells)
• The sacral component derived from S2– S4 - “nerve glue”, Supporting cells of the CNS
segments synapse with postganglionic neurons in - Outnumber the neurons, 9:1
ganglia associated with pelvic viscera. - Make up more than half the volume of the
brain
• The two major networks are the myenteric plexus
(Auerbach’s plexus) and the submucosal plexus CNS neuroglia:
(Meissner’splexus). 1. Astrocytes
• The chemical mediator of Parasympathetic NS is 2. Oligodendrocytes
acetylcholine. 3. Microglia
4. Ependymal cells
PNS neuroglia
1. Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
2. Satellite cells - create a “blood-brain barrier”

- monitor & regulate interstitial fluid
NERVE TISSUE: NEUROGLIA
surrounding neurons
= support cells - secrete chemicals for embryological neuron
formation
- Support/ insulate and protect the cells in
- stimulate the formation of scar tissue
the Central Nervous System (CNS) are
secondary to CNS injury
grouped together as neuroglia
- Support, insulate and protect the delicate Oligodendrocytes
neurons of the brain.
- Smaller than astrocytes.
Astrocytes - Small, round nucleus stains deeply.
1. Protoplasmic astrocytes On EM, relatively dense cytoplasm contains

numerous mitochondria and is rich in rER.
found mainly in the gray matter of the brain.
- Found close to the perikarya of neurons in
- have a stellate form (star-shaped) with
gray matter.
multiple radiating cell processes.
- have abundant cytoplasm and larger paler- In white matter, arranged in rows between bundles
staining, spherical nucleus. of axons and are called fascicular oligodendrocytes
- some processes end in terminal expansions = analogous to Schwann cells of the PNS.
called pedicels or vascular feet.
function for myelinization and produce
2. Fibrous astrocytes neurotrophic factors, nerve growth factor (NGF) and
neurotrophin-3, possible therapeutic use in
common in white matter but may also occur in the
Alzheimer’s disease.
perivascular gray matter; have ovoid euchromatic
nucleus pale-staining cytoplasm. - Satellite oligodendrocytes of the gray
matter are closely associated with cell
- astrocyte processes associated with
bodies of neurons.
synapses are believed to help maintain the
- create myelin sheath around axons of
neuron’s signaling capacity.
neurons in the CNS.
- K ions and glutamate are released at active
synapses. Myelinated axons transmit impulses faster than
unmyelinated axons.
The function of astrocytes:
Microglia
- removal of glutamate from the synaptic
environment and its conversion to - Small cells distributed throughout the CNS.
glutamine which is returned to the neuron. - Shape depends upon their location.
- astrocytes contain reserves of glycogen from - Have short tortuous processes with small
which glucose can be liberated to contribute spine-like projection.
to energy metabolism. - Have dense ovoid or elongate nucleus and
scant cytoplasm.
create a supportive framework for neurons
Highly motile and attracted to areas of brain injury Satellite cells - support groups of cell bodies of
where they become phagocytic, engulfing and neurons within ganglia of the PNS.
degrading the residues of damaged neurons.
- “Brain macrophages”
- phagocytize cellular wastes & pathogens.
Repair in the CNS

• Neuroglia retains the ability to divide throughout
life and are active in the repair of the CNS after
injury, proliferating and filling the defects left by
Ependymal cells degeneration of neurons.
The cerebral ventricles of the brain and a central Recent theory: stem cells exist in certain regions of
canal of the spinal cord are lined by ciliated cuboidal the brain and can be isolated and grown in vitro as
epithelium. well as stem cells from bone marrow can
differentiate into neurons oligodendroglia.
- The beating of the cilia on this epithelium
probably contributes to the circulation of the
cerebrospinal fluid.
- produce, monitor & help circulate CSF
SUMMARY: SUPPORTING CELLS IN THE CNS
- Oligodendrocyteses – produce myelin sheath
- Epyndemal Cells – epithelial lining of brain
ventricles and central canal of spinal cord;
produce cerebrospinal fluid.
Schwann cells
- surround all axons of neurons in the PNS
creating a neurilemma around them.
Neurilemma allows for potential regeneration of
damaged axons.
- creates myelin sheath around most axons of
PNS.
Midterms: The Human Brain Cerebral features:

Lobes, the Cerebral Cortex, and Cortical Regions of • Gyri – Elevated ridges “winding” around the brain.
the Brain
• Sulci – Small grooves dividing the gyri
Objectives:
– Central Sulcus – Divides the Frontal
• Students will be able to describe the general Lobe from the Parietal Lobe
structure of the Cerebrum and Cerebral Cortex.
• Fissures – Deep grooves, generally dividing large
• Students will be able to identify the Cerebrum, the regions/lobes of the brain
Lobes of the Brain, the Cerebral Cortex, and its
- Longitudinal Fissure – Divides the two
major regions/divisions.
Cerebral Hemispheres
• Students will be able to describe the primary - Transverse Fissure – Separates the
functions of the Lobes and the Cortical Regions of Cerebrum from the Cerebellum
the Brain.
Cerebrum -The largest division of the brain. It is
divided into two hemispheres, each of which is
divided into four lobes.
Cerebral Cortex - The outermost layer of gray

matter making up the superficial aspect of the
cerebrum.
Lobes of the brain

• Frontal • Parietal • Occipital • Temporal
* Note: Occasionally, the Insula is considered the

fifth lobe. It is located deep to the Temporal Lobe.
Lobes of the Brain - Frontal
• The Frontal Lobe of the brain is located deep to
the Frontal Bone of the skull.
• It plays an integral role in the following

functions/actions:
- Memory Formation
- Emotions
- Decision Making/Reasoning
- Personality
Investigation: Phineas Gage
Frontal Lobe - Cortical Regions
• Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus) –
Cortical site involved with controlling movements of
the body.
Lobes of the Brain - Parietal Lobe
• Broca’s Area – Controls facial neurons, speech,
• The Parietal Lobe of the brain is located deep to
and language comprehension. Located on Left
the Parietal Bone of the skull.
Frontal Lobe.
• It plays a major role in the following
– Broca’s Aphasia – Results in the ability to
functions/actions:
comprehend speech, but the decreased motor
ability (or inability) to speak and form words. - Senses and integrates sensation(s)
- Spatial awareness and perception
• Orbitofrontal Cortex – Site of Frontal Lobotomies
(Proprioception - Awareness of body/ body parts in
Desired Effects:
space and in relation to each other.
- Diminished Rage
- Decreased Aggression
- Poor Emotional
Responses
* Possible Side Effects:
- Epilepsy
- Poor Emotional Responses
- Perseveration (Uncontrolled, repetitive
actions, gestures, or words)
Olfactory Bulb - Cranial Nerve I, Responsible for
sensation of Smell
BASAL NUCLEI (BASAL GANGLIA) Corpus striatum

The basal nuclei play an important role in the control of •situated lateral to the thalamus and is almost
posture and voluntary movement. completely divided by a band of nerve fibers, the
- Unlike many other parts of the nervous system internal capsule, into the caudate nucleus and the
concerned with motor control, the basal nuclei lentiform nucleus.
have no direct input or output connections with • The term striatum is used here because of the
the spinal cord.
striated appearance produced by the strands of gray
- The term basal nuclei is applied to a
matter passing through the internal capsule and
collection of masses of gray matter situated
connecting the caudate nucleus to the putamen of
within each cerebral hemisphere.
the lentiform nucleus.
• They are the corpus striatum, the amygdaloid
nucleus, and the claustrum.
• Clinicians and neuroscientists use a variety of
different terminologies to describe the basal nuclei.
• The subthalamic nuclei, the substantia nigra, and
the red nucleus are functionally closely related to
the basal nuclei, but they should not be included
with them. The interconnections of the basal nuclei
are complex, only the more important pathways are
considered.
• The basal nuclei play an important role in the
control of posture and voluntary movement.
Caudate nucleus
Terminology commonly used to describe the Basal
• a large C-shaped mass of gray matter that is closely
Nuclei
related to the lateral ventricle and lies lateral to the
Neurologic structure Basal nucleus (nuclei) thalamus.
Caudate nucleus Caudate nucleus
• The lateral surface of the nucleus is related to the
Lentiform nucleus Globus pallidus plus
putamen internal capsule, which separates it from the
Claustrum Claustrum lentiform nucleus. ; it can be divided into a head, a
Corpus striatum Caudate nucleus plus body, and a tail.
lentiform nucleus • The head of the caudate nucleus is large and
Neostriatum (striatum) Caudate nucleus plus rounded and forms the lateral wall of the anterior
putamen
horn of the lateral ventricle. The head is continuous
Amygdaloid body Amygdaloid nucleus
inferiorly with the putamen of the lentiform nucleus
(the caudate nucleus and the putamen are
sometimes referred to as the neostriatum or
striatum).
• Just superior to this point of union, strands of gray

matter pass through the internal
capsule, giving the region a striated appearance,
hence the term corpus striatum.
• The body of the caudate nucleus is long and
narrow and is continuous with the head in the
region of the interventricular foramen ; forms part
of the floor of the body of the lateral ventricle.
• The tail of the caudate nucleus is long and slender
and is continuous with the body in the region of the
Amygdaloid nucleus
posterior end of the thalamus ; follows the contour
of the lateral ventricle and continues forward in the •is situated in the temporal lobe close to the uncus.
roof of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle. It The amygdaloid nucleus is considered to be part of
terminates anteriorly in the amygdaloid nucleus. the limbic system.
Lentiform nucleus • Through its connections, it can influence the

body’s response to environmental changes. In the
• a wedge-shaped mass of gray matter whose broad
sense of fear, for example, it can change the heart
convex base is directed laterally and whose blade is
rate, blood pressure, skin color, and rate of
directed medially.
respiration.
• It is buried deep in the white matter of the
Substantia nigra and Subthalamic nuclei
cerebral hemisphere and is related medially to the
internal capsule, which separates it from the • The substantia nigra of the midbrain and the
caudate nucleus and the thalamus. subthalamic nuclei of the diencephalon are
functionally closely related to the activities of the
• The lentiform nucleus is related laterally to a thin
basal nuclei and are described elsewhere.
sheet of white matter, the external capsule, which
separates it from a thin sheet of gray matter, called • The neurons of the substantia nigra are
the claustrum. dopaminergic and inhibitory and have many
connections to the corpus striatum.
• The claustrum, in turn, separates the external
capsule from the subcortical white matter of the • The neurons of the subthalamic nuclei are
insula. A vertical plate of white matter divides the glutaminergic and excitatory and have many
nucleus into a larger, darker lateral portion, the connections to the globus pallidus and substantia
putamen, and an inner lighter portion, the globus nigra.
pallidus.
Claustrum
• The paleness of the globus pallidus is due to the
• The claustrum is a thin sheet of gray matter that is
presence of a high concentration of myelinated
separated from the lateral surface of the lentiform
nerve fibers. lnferiorly at its anterior end, the
nucleus by the external capsule.
putamen is continuous with the head of the caudate
nucleus.
• Lateral to the claustrum is the subcortical white supplemental areas of the motor cortex, the
matter of the insula. primary sensory cortex, the thalamus, and the
brainstem.
• The function of the claustrum is unknown.
• The outflow from the basal nuclei is channeled
CONNECTIONS OF THE CORPUS STRIATUM AND
through the globus pallidus, which then influences
GLOBUS PALLIDUS
the activities of the motor areas of the cerebral
The caudate nucleus and the putamen form the cortex or other motor centers in the brainstem.
main sites for receiving input to the basal nuclei. Thus, the basal nuclei control muscular movements
by influencing the cerebral cortex and have no direct
The globus pallidus forms the major site from which
control through descending pathways to the
the output leaves the basal nuclei.
brainstem and spinal cord.
They receive no direct input from or output to the
• In this way, the basal nuclei assist in the regulation
spinal cord.
of voluntary movement and the learning of motor
skills.
• Writing the letters of the alphabet, drawing a
diagram, passing a football, using the vocal cords in
talking and singing, and using the eye muscles when
looking at an object are a few examples where the
basal nuclei influence the skilled cortical motor
activities.
• Destruction of the primary motor cerebral cortex
prevents the individual from performing fine
discrete movements of the hands and feet on the
Basal Nuclei Functions opposite side of the body. However, the individual
is still capable of performing gross crude
• The basal nuclei are joined together and movements of the opposite limbs.
connected with many different regions of the
nervous system by a very complex number of • lf destruction of the corpus striatum then takes
neurons. place, paralysis of the remaining movements of the
opposite side of the body occurs.
• Basically, the corpus striatum receives afferent
information from most of the cerebral cortex, the • The basal nuclei not only influence the execution
thalamus, the subthalamus, and the brainstem, of a particular movement of the limbs but also help
including the substantia nigra. prepare for the movements. This may be achieved
by controlling the axial and girdle movements of the
• The information is integrated within the corpus body and the positioning of the proximal parts of the
striatum, and the outflow passes back to the areas limbs.
listed above.
• The activity in certain neurons of the globus
• The activity of the basal nuclei is initiated by pallidus increases before active movements take
information received from the premotor and place in the distal limb muscles.
• This important preparatory function enables the – Patients have the following characteristic
trunk and limbs to be placed in appropriate signs and symptoms:
positions before the primary motor part of the
1. Choreiform movements first appear as
cerebral cortex activates discrete movements in the
involuntary movements of the extremities and
hands and feet.
twitching of the face (facial grimacing). Later, more
Disorders of the basal nuclei are of two general muscle groups are involved, so the patient becomes
types. immobile and unable to speak or swallow.
1. Hyperkinetic disorders involve excessive and 2. Progressive dementia occurs with loss of
abnormal movements, such as seen with chorea, memory and intellectual capacity. In this disease,
athetosis, and ballism. the GABA—secreting, substance P—secreting, and
acetylcholine—secreting neurons of the
2. Hypokinetic disorders involve a lack or slowness
striatonigral— inhibiting pathway degenerate.
of movement. Parkinson disease includes both
types of motor disturbances. This results in the dopasecreting neurons of the
substantia nigra becoming over-active; thus, the
– Chorea In chorea, the patient exhibits
nigrostriatal pathway inhibits the caudate nucleus
involuntary, quick, jerky, irregular
and the putamen.
movements that are nonrepetitive. Swift
grimaces and sudden movements of the - This inhibition produces the abnormal
head or limbs are good examples. movements seen in this disease. Computed
tomography scans show enlarged lateral
• Huntington disease is an autosomal dominant
ventricles due to degeneration of the
inherited disease, with the onset occurring most
caudate nuclei. Medical treatment of
often in adult life.
Huntington chorea has been disappointing.
•Death occurs 15 to 20 years after onset. The
• Sydenham chorea (St. Vitus dance) is a disease of
disease has been traced to a single gene defect on
childhood in which rapid, irregular, involuntary
chromosome 4.
movements of the limbs, face, and trunk occur.
• This gene encodes a protein, huntingtin, the
• The condition is associated with rheumatic fever.
function of which is not known. The codon (CAG)
that encodes glutamine is repeated many more • The antigens of the streptococcal bacteria are
times than normal. similar in structure to the proteins present in the
membranes of striatal neurons.
• The disease affects men and women with equal
frequency and unfortunately often reveals itself • The host’s antibodies not only combine with the
only a fter they have had children. bacterial antigens but also attack the membranes of
the neurons of the basal ganglia.
• This results in the production of choreiform
movements, which arefortunately transient, and full
recovery is made.
• Hemiballismus is a form of involuntary movement 3. Bradykinesis. Initiating (akinesia) and performing

confined to one side of the body. new movements is difficult. The movements are
slow, the face is expressionless, and the voice is
•It usually involves the proximal extremity
slurred and unmodulated. Swinging of the arms in
musculature, and the limb suddenly flies about out
walking is lost.
of control in all directions.
4. Postural disturbances. The patient stands with a
• The lesion, which is usually a small stroke, occurs
stoop, and his or her arms are flexed. The patient
in the opposite subthalamic nucleus or its
walks by taking short steps and often is unable to
connections; smooth movements of different parts
stop. In fact, he or she may break into a shuffling run
of the body are integrated in the subthalamic
to maintain balance.
nucleus.
5. Neither loss of muscle power nor loss of
Parkinson Disease
sensibility occurs. Since the corticospinal tracts are
• Parkinson disease is a progressive disease of normal, the superficial abdominal reflexes are
unknown cause that commences between the ages normal, and no Babinski response is seen. The deep
of 45 and 55 years. tendon reflexes are normal.
•It is associated with neuronal degeneration in the

substantia nigra and, to a lesser extent, in the globus
pallidus, putamen, and caudate nucleus.
• The disease affects about 1 million people in the
United States.
Patients have the following characteristic signs and
symptoms:
1. Tremor - is slow and occurs most obviously when
the limbs are at rest. It disappears during sleep. It
should be distinguished from the intention tremor
seen in cerebellar disease, which only occurs when
purposeful active movement is attempted.
2. Rigidity - differs from the rigidity caused by lesions
of the upper motor neurons in that it is present to
an equal extent in opposing muscle groups. If the
tremor is absent, the rigidity is felt as resistance to
passive movement and is sometimes referred to as
plastic rigidity. If the tremor is present, the muscle
resistance is overcome as a series of jerks, called
cogwheel rigidity.
BRAIN STEM • Pyramids are composed of bundles of nerve fibers,

called corticospinal fibers
1. Medulla oblongata
2. Pons • The pyramids taper inferiorly, and here the
3. Midbrain majority of the descending fibers cross over to the
opposite side, forming the decussation of the
Functions:
pyramids
1. serves as a conduit for the ascending tracts
• The posterior surface of the superior half of the
and descending tracts connecting the spinal
medulla oblongata forms the lower part of the floor
cord to the different parts of the higher
of the fourth ventricle.
centers in the forebrain
2. contains important reflex centers associated • A transverse section through the inferior half of
with the control of respiration and the the medulla oblongata passes through the
cardiovascular system decussation of the pyramids, the great motor
3. contains the important nuclei of CNS III decussation.
through XII.
Pons
- anterior to the cerebellum and connects the
medulla oblongata to the midbrain.
• the pons is commonly divided into a posterior
part, the tegmentum, and an anterior basal part by
the transversely running fibers of the trapezoid
body.
Midbrain
• The midbrain measures about 0.8 in (2 cm) in
length and connects the pons and cerebellum with
the forebrain.
Medulla oblongata
- connects the pons superiorly with the spinal
cord inferiorly
• central canal of the spinal cord continues upward
into the lower half of the medulla; in the upper half
of the medulla, it expands as the cavity of the fourth
ventricle.
• On the anterior surface of the medulla is the
anterior median fissure continuous inferiorly with
the anterior median fissure of the spinal cord.
The cranial nerves and their primary function

Crani Name Sensory/mot Major
al or function
Key facts about the brainstem
nerve
I Olfactory nerve Sensory Sense of smell Parts
II Optic Sensory Vision
III oculomotor Motor Eye - Medulla oblongata
movements - Pons
IV Trochlear Motor Eye
- Midbrain
movements
V Trigeminal Sensory and Somatic
Medulla oblongata
motor sensation
from face;
muscles of
Basilar portion - contains the pyramids (transmit the
mastication corticospinal tracts), olives (transmit the olivocerebellar
VI Abducens Motor Eye tract)
movements
VII Facial Sensory and Muscle of Medullary tegmentum - contains the gracile and
motor facial
cuneate tubercles (and tracts), four cranial nerve nuclei
expression;
anterior 2/3 of
tongue;
Pons
lacrimal;
salivary Basilar portion - accommodates the basilar artery,
gladnds corticospinal tract, corticonuclear fibers, pontine
VIII Vestibulochlear Sensory Hearing and
balance
nuclei
IX Glossopharyngeal Sensory and Sensation
motor from pharynx; Pontine tegmentum - contains the pontine reticular
posterior 1/3 formation, four cranial nerve nuclei, ascending
of the tongue
X Vagus Sensory and Swallowing
spinal tracts, loci coerulei
motor
XI Accessory Motor Shoulder and Midbrain
neck muscles
XII Hypoglossal Motor Movements of - Traversed by the cerebral aqueduct
tongue
- Contains the quadrigeminal plate (superior Inferior olivary (Roller’s) Receives input from the
and inferior colliculi) nucleus contralateral dorsal horn of
the spinal cord, ipsilateral
Cerebral peduncles separated into crura cerebri and red nucleus
Arcuate nucleus Receives input from the
tegmentum corticospinal tract and relay
them to the cerebellum via
Tectum – posterior to the cerebral aqueduct the
external arcuate fibers. It
Ventricles and cisterns
helps to regulate the
respiratory rate.
- Fourth ventricle and the foramina of
Luschka and Magendie
Nuclei found in the pons
Interpeduncular, Quadrigeminal, Pontine, and
Cerebellomedullary cisterns Location: throughout the basal
pons – numerous nuclei
Function: Pontine nuclei scattered throughout the area
Pontocerebellar fibers help to
regulate motor function
Regulate breathing, heart rate, blood pressure,
Location: pontine tegmentum
consciousness, audio-visual reflexes, taste and Motor nucleus – motor
digestion, autonomic regulation, balance and innervation to the muscles of
mastication, mylohyoid,
coordination anterior belly
of digastric, tensor tympani
Nucleus of the medulla oblongata Nuclei of trigeminal nerve muscles
Sensory nucleus – sensory input
Gracile nucleus Receive sensory input from from the scalp, face, orbit,
the lower limbs and lower paranasal sinuses, and general
trunk sensory input from the anterior
Cuneate nucleus Receive sensory input from two-thirds of the tongue
Spinal nucleus – discussed
the upper limbs and neck
above
Spinal nucleus of Receives pain information
Location: pontine tegmentum –
trigeminal from CN V, CN VII, CN IX, and deep to the facial colliculus,
CN X anterolateral to the medial
Posterior nucleus of vagus Motor supply to thoracic Nucleus of abducens nerve longitudinal fasciculus (in the
nerve and abdominal viscera midline), medial to the
Nucleus of the accessory Motor innervation to the vestibular nuclei, and posterior
nerve laryngeal, to the
sternocleidomastoid, and medial lemniscus
Innervates the lateral rectus
trapezius muscles
muscle
Nucleus of hypoglossal Motor innervation to Motor nucleus of facial nerve Location: pontine tegmentum –
nerve intrinsic and extrinsic anterolateral to the abducens
tongue muscles (except nucleus, posterior to the medial
palatoglossus) lemniscus, and anteromedial to
Nucleus ambiguous Special motor innervation to the vestibular nuclei
pharyngeal and laryngeal The genu of the facial nerve
structures gives rise to the facial colliculus
Innervates the muscles of facial
Nuclei of solitary tract Receives special sensory
expression
input from the epiglottis, Vestibular nuclei Location: pontine tegmentum –
thoracic and abdominal medial, caudal aspect of the
viscera, and the carotid superior, and cranial part of the
body lateral vestibular nuclei are
found in the pons
Receives input from the Communicates with the
vestibules of the internal ear medial geniculate body via
Assists in balance and the inferior brachium
coordination
Involved in the auditory
pathway
Nucelus of trochlear nerve Located in the tegmentum –
Nuclei found in the midbrain posteromedial to the medial
longitudinal fasciculus
Superior colliculi Located in the tectum –
Fibers decussate at the
deep to the superior colliculi
superior medullary velum
Communicates with
and travel laterally, then
contralateral superior
ventrally on the
colliculus via its own
opposite side
commissure
Motor innervation to the
Communicates with the
superior oblique extraocular
lateral geniculate body via
muscle
the superior brachium
Mesencephalic nucleus of Located in the tectum –
Involved in pupillary and
trigeminal nerve lateral margin of the
optic reflexes
periaqueductal grey matter;
Nucleus of oculomotor Located in the tegmentum –
joins the principal
nerve anterolateral to the cerebral
sensory nucleus of CN V
aqueduct
caudally (deep to the medial
Its fibers pass through the
eminence)
red nucleus and exit the
Fibers exit the brainstem
brainstem at the superior
with the sensory division of
pontine sulcus
CN V
Motor innervation to all the
extraocular muscles (except
superior oblique and lateral
rectus) Key facts about descending tracts of the spinal cord
Accessory nuclei of Located in the tegmentum – Definition Descending pathways are
oculomotor nerve Medial to CN III nucleus and groups of myelinated nerve
(Edinger-Westphal) anterolateral to the cerebral fibers that carry motor
aqueduct information
Fibers accompany those of from the brain or brainstem
CN III to effector’s muscles, via the
Provides parasympathetic spinal cord. They can be
innervation to the muscles functionally divided into two
of the iris groups: Pyramidal
Red nucleus Located in the tegmentum – (voluntary)
anterolateral to the CN III and extrapyramidal
nucleus (involuntary) tracts.
Participates in the Pyramidal tracts Corticospinal tract
extrapyramidal motor Coritcobulbar tract
pathway (initiation,
Extrapyramidal tracts Rubrospinal tract
selective activation, and
Vestibulospinal tract (lateral
coordination of movements
and medial)
Inferior colliculi Located in the tectum – Reticulospinal tract
deep to the inferior colliculi Tectospinal tract
Communicates with
contralateral inferior
colliculus via its own
commissure
Ventricles in brainstem
- Mesencephalon - cerebral aqueduct
- Metencephalon - 4th ventricle
- Mylencephalon - 4th ventricle
Components of the brainstem

• Sensory ascending pathways (dorsal):
- Relay nuclei, tracts
• Motor descending pathways (ventral)
- Tracts, motor nuclei brainstem
• Cerebellar pathways
- Tracts, cerebellar afferent and efferent
nuclei
• Cranial nerve sensory and motor tracts
- Cranial nerve nuclei, nerve entry and exit
points
• CPGs: rhythmic chewing, respiration,
cardiovascular regulation & gain adjustments for
reflexes
• Modulatory systems: locus coeruleus, raphe – Running thru the midbrain is the hollow cerebral
&substantia nigra aqueduct which connects the 3rd and 4th ventricles
of the brain.
- Chemically coded nuclei
– The roof of the aqueduct (the tectum) contains
Brain Stem
the corpora quadrigemina
• Located btwn the cerebrum and the spinal cord
2 superior colliculi
(SC)
- that control reflex movements of the eyes,
- Provides a pathway for tracts running btwn
head and neck in response to visual stimuli
higher and lower neural centers.
2 inferior colliculi
• Consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla
oblongata. - that control reflex movements of the head,
neck, and trunk in response to auditory
- Each region is about an inch in length.
stimuli
• Microscopically, it consists of deep gray matter
surrounded by white matter fiber tracts. - Cranial nerves 3&4 (oculomotor and
trochlear) exit from the midbrain
• Produce automatic behaviors necessary for
survival •Midbrain also contains the headquarters of the
reticular activating system.
On each side, the midbrain contains a red nucleus

and a substantia nigra
– Red nucleus contains numerous blood vessels and
receives info from the cerebrum and cerebellum and
issues subconscious motor commands concerned
w/ muscle tone & posture
– Lateral to the red nucleus is the melanin-
containing substantia nigra which secretes
dopamine to inhibit the excitatory neurons of the
Midbrain
basal nuclei.
Located btwn diencephalon and pons.
• Damage to the substantia nigra would cause
- 2 bulging cerebral peduncles on the ventral what?
side.
These contain:
1. Descending fibers that go to the cerebellum
via the pons
2. Descending pyramidal tracts
Pons Respiratory rhythmicity centers

- Literally means “bridge” - Receive input from the pons
- Wedged btwn the midbrain & medulla.
Additional Centers
Contains:
• Emesis, deglutition, coughing, hiccupping, and
- Sensory and motor nuclei for 4 cranial nerves sneezing
- Trigeminal (5)
Sensory & motor nuclei of 5 cranial nerves:
- Abducens (6)
- Facial (7) - Auditory/Vestibular (8)
- Auditory/Vestibular (8) - Glossopharyngeal (9)
- Vagus (10),
Respiratory nuclei:
- Accessory (11)
• Apneustic & pneumotaxic centers work w/ the - Hypoglossal (12)
medulla to maintain respiratory rhythm
• Relay nuclei
- Nuclei & tracts that process and relay info
– Nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus pass
to/from the cerebellum
somatic sensory information to the thalamus
– Ascending, descending, and transverse tracts that
– Olivary nuclei relay info from the spinal cord,
interconnect other portions of the CNS
cerebral cortex, and the brainstem to the cerebellar
Medulla Oblongata cortex.
- Most inferior region of the brain stem. Ascending sensory pathways
Becomes the spinal cord at the level of the foramen Fine discriminative touch, conscious proprioception
magnum.
• Fasciculus gracilis: Terminates in the nucleus
- Ventrally, 2 ridges (the medullary pyramids) gracilis (medulla)
are visible.
• Fasciculus cuneatus: Terminates (medulla) in the
These are formed by the large motor corticospinal cuneate and accessory cuneate nuclei
tracts.
Sensations of pain and temperature
– Right above the medulla-SC junction, most of
Lateral Spinothalamic Tract
these fibers cross-over (decussate)
– origin: dorsal horn cells of the gray matter
Nuclei in the medulla are associated w/ autonomic
control, cranial nerves, and motor/sensory relay. - Fibers cross contralaterally through the
anterior commissure and ascend to the VPL
Autonomic nuclei:
nucleus
Cardiovascular centers
Transmits sensations of touch
- Alter the rate and force of cardiac
Ventral Spinothalamic Tract
contractions
- Alter the tone of vascular smooth muscle - origin: cells of the posterior horn
- Fibers cross to the opposite side in the Impulses related to equilibrium and antigravity
anterior commissure reflexes
Vestibulospinal Tract
- Fibers originate in the vestibular nuclei of
the medulla and terminate at level of the
sacral spinal nerves
Connects vestibular complex and head and eye
movement coordination center in medulla
Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus
- Contains both ascending and descending
fibers
Motor Hierarchy
Lateral group (extremities; fine motor control)
- Corticospinal tract
- Rubrospinal tract
Medial group (axial musculature; rhythmic and
postural movements)
- Vestibulospinal tract
- Tectospinal tract
Descending motor pathways - Reticulospinal tract
Voluntary movement “Final common path”: motor pool
Lateral Corticospinal Tract Reticular Formation
- Originates in large pyramidal cells • Extensive network of neurons that runs thru the
(precentral gyrus) medulla and projects to thalamic nuclei that
- cross to the opposite side of the cord at the influence large areas of the cerebral cortex.
pyramidal decussation & terminate in the
- Midbrain portion of RAS most likely is its
dorsal horn cells
center
Ventral Corticospinal Tract
• Functions as a net or filter for sensory input.
- Originates in the pyramidal cells (motor area
- Filter out repetitive stimuli. Such as?
of the cortex)
- Allows passage of infrequent or important
stimuli to reach the cerebral cortex.
- Unless inhibited by other brain regions, it Tracing through the brainstem: Dorsal
activates the cerebral cortex – keeping it Column/Medial Lemniscal System
alert and awake.
Reticular Formation
• “Core” of brainstem (midbrain, pons and medulla)
composed of loosely organized neurons, outside of
the major nuclear groups of the brainstem.
• Medial-to-lateral: raphe nuclei, gigantocellular
region, small cell region
• Participate in widespread connections
• Rostral continuation of interneuronal network
found in spinal cord
Dorsal Column/Medial Lemniscal system
Secondary neuron is in brainstem:
- nucleus gracilis and cuneatus=dorsal column
nuclei
Output of dorsal column nuclei crosses midline and
forms recognizable bundle
- medial lemniscus
Medial lemniscus fibers synapse in the thalamus in
the ventroposterior nuclei
•Thalamic axons synapse in primary somatosensory

cortex in several somatotopic maps with some
segregation of submodalities
Reticular Formation
• The reticular formation consists of a deeply
placed, continuous network of nerve cells and fibers
that extend throughout the medulla, pons,
midbrain, subthalamus, hypothalamus, and
thalamus.
•It is organized into three longitudinal columns:
median, medial, and lateral.
• These columns can modulate
1) muscle tone and reflex activity
2) somatic and visceral sensations
3) autonomic nervous system
Afferent Projections
4) endocrine functions
• Many different afferent pathways project onto the
5) biologic clocks reticular formation from most parts of the.
6) the reticular activating system (arousal and • Spinoreticular and spinothalamic tracts and the
consciousness). medial lemniscus project from the spinal cord.
Limbic System •Ascending afferent tracts including the vestibular,
acoustic, and visual pathways project from the
• This group of structures controls emotion,
cranial nerve nuclei.
behavior, drive, and memory and includes the
subcallosal, cingulate, and parahippocampal gyri, • The cerebelloreticular pathway projects from the
the hippocampal formation, the amygdaloid cerebellum, and further afferent tracts project from
nucleus, the mammillary bodies, and the anterior the subthalamic, hypothalamic, and thalamic nuclei
thalamic nucleus. and from the corpus striatum and limbic system.
Other important afferent fibers arise in the primary
• The hippocampal formation consists of the
motor cortex of the frontal lobe and from the
hippocampus, dentate gyrus, and parahippocampal
somesthetic cortex of the parietal lobe.
gyrus.
Reticular Formation
The diffuse network may be divided into three
longitudinal columns: the first occupying the
median plane, called the median column, and
consisting of intermediate-size neurons; the second,
called the medial column, containing large neurons;
and the third, or lateral column, containing mainly
small neurons.
Efferent Projections the parahippocampal gyri, the hippocampal

formation, the amygdaloid nucleus, the mammillary
• Multiple efferent pathways extend down to the
bodies, and the anterior thalamic nucleus.
brainstem and spinal cord through the
reticulobulbar and reticulospinal tracts to neurons • The alveus, the fimbria, the fornix, the
in the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves and the mammillothalamic tract, and the stria terminalis
anterior horn cells of the spinal cord. constitute the connecting pathways of this system.
• Other descending pathways extend to the
sympathetic outflow and the craniosacral
parasympathetic outflow of the autonomic nervous
system (ANS).
• Additional pathways extend to the corpus
striatum, the cerebellum, the red nucleus, the
substantia nigra, the tectum, and the nuclei of the
thalamus, subthalamus, and hypothalamus. Most
regions of the cerebral cortex receive efferent fibers
as well.
Hippocampal Formation
Functions:
• consists of the hippocampus, the dentate gyrus,
1. Control of skeletal muscle
and the parahippocampal gyrus.
2. Control of facial expression muscles
3. Control of somatic and visceral sensations • The hippocampus is a curved elevation of gray
4. Control of ANS matter that extends throughout the entire length of
5. Control of endocrine systems the floor of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.
6. Influence on biologic clocks
• lts anterior end is expanded to form the pes
7. Reticular activating systems
hippocampus. It is named hippocampus because it
Limbic System resembles a seahorse in coronal section.
• “limbic” means border or margin • The convex ventricular surface is covered with
ependyma, beneath which lies a thin layer of white
• Limbic System was loosely used to include a group
matter called the alveus.
of structures that lie in the border zone between the
cerebral cortex and the hypothalamus. • The alveus consists of nerve fibers that have
originated in the hippocampus and converge
• Research has shown that the limbic system is
medially to form a bundle called the fimbria.
involved with many other structures beyond the
border zone in the control of emotion, behavior, and • The fimbria becomes continuous with the crus of
drive; also appears to be important to memory. the fornix.
• Anatomically, the limbic structures include the • The hippocampus terminates posteriorly beneath
subcallosal, the cingulate, and the splenium of the corpus callosum.
• The parahippocampal gyrus lies between the

hippocampal fissure and the collateral sulcus and is
continuous with the hippocampus along the medial
edge of the temporal lobe.
Amygdaloid nucleus
• resembles an almond. It is situated partly anterior
and partly superior to the tip of the inferior horn of
the lateral ventricle.
• fused with the tip of the tail of the caudate
nucleus, which has passed anteriorly in the roof of
the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.
• The stria terminalis emerges from its posterior
aspect.
• The amygdaloid nucleus consists of a complex of
nuclei that can be grouped into a larger basolateral
group and smaller corticomedial group.
Connecting Pathways of the Limbic System
• Include the alveus, the fimbria, the fornix, the
mammillothalamic tract, and the stria terminalis.
• The dentate gyrus is a narrow, notched band of
gray matter that lies between the fimbria of the • The alveus consists of a thin layer of white matter
hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus. that lies on the superior or ventricular surface of the
hippocampus. It is composed of nerve fibers that
• Posteriorly, the gyrus accompanies the fimbria originate in the hippocampal cortex.
almost to the splenium of the corpus callosum and
becomes continuous with the indusium griseum. • The fibers converge on the medial border of the
hippocampus to form a bundle called the fimbria.
• The indusium griseum is a thin, vestigial layer of The fimbria now leaves the posterior end of the
gray matter that covers the superior surface of the hippocampus as the crus of the fornix.
corpus callosum.
• The crus from each side curves posteriorly and
• Embedded in the superior surface of the indusium superiorly beneath the splenium of the corpus
griseum are two slender bundles of white fibers on callosum and around the posterior surface of the
each side called the medial and lateral longitudinal thalamus.
striae.
• The two crura now converge to form the body of
• The striae are the remains of the white matter of the fornix, which is applied closely to the
the vestigial indusium griseum. Anteriorly, the undersurface of the corpus callosum. As the two
dentate gyrus is continued into the uncus. crura come together, they are connected by
transverse fibers called the commissure of the 3. Fibers arising from one hippocampus pass
fornix. across the midline to the opposite
hippocampus in the commissure of the
• These fibers decussate and join the hippocampi of
fornix.
the two sides.
4. Fibers from the indusium griseum pass
• Anteriorly, the body of the fornix is connected to posteriorly in the longitudinal striae to the
the undersurface of the corpus callosum by the hippocampus.
septum pellucidum. 5. Fibers from the entorhinal area or olfactory-
associated cortex pass to the hippocampus.
•lnferiorly, the body of the fornix is related to the
6. Fibers arising from the dentate and
tela choroidea and the ependymal roof of the third
parahippocampal gyri travel to the
ventricle.
hippocampus.
• The body of the fornix splits anteriorly into two
anterior columns of the fornix, each of which curves
anteriorly and inferiorly over the interventricular
foramen (foramen of Monro).
• Then, each column disappears into the lateral wall
of the third ventricle to reach the mammillary body.
• The mammillothalamic tract provides important
connections between the mammillary body and the
anterior nuclear group of the thalamus.
Efferent Connections of the Hippocampus
• The stria terminalis emerges from the posterior
aspect of the amygdaloid nucleus and runs as a • Axons of the large pyramidal cells of the
bundle of nerve fibers posteriorly in the roof of the hippocampus emerge to form the alveus and the
inferior horn of the lateral ventricle on the medial fimbria. The fimbria continues as the crus of the
side of the tail of the caudate nucleus. It follows the fornix.
curve of the caudate nucleus and comes to lie in the
• The two crura converge to form the body of the
floor of the body of the lateral ventricle.
fornix. The body of the fornix splits into the two
Afferent Connections of the Hippocampus columns of the fornix, which curve downward and
forward in front of the interventricular foramina.
Afferent connections of the hippocampus may be
divided into six groups – The fibers within the fornix are distributed to
the following regions:
1. Fibers arising in the cingulate gyrus pass to
1. Fibers pass posterior to the anterior
the hippocampus.
commissure to enter the mammillary body,
2. Fibers arising from the septal nuclei (nuclei
where they end in the medial nucleus.
lying within the midline close to the anterior
commissure) pass posterior in the fornix to
commissure to end in the anterior nuclei of
the hippocampus.
the thalamus.

commissure to enter the tegmentum of the
midbrain.
4. Fibers pass anterior to the anterior
commissure to end in the septal nuclei, the
lateral preoptic area, and the anterior part of
the hypothalamus.
5. Fibers join the stria medullaris thalami to
reach the habenular nuclei.
Functions of Limbic System
• The limbic system, via the hypothalamus and its
connections with outflow of the ANS and its control
of the endocrine system, is able to influence many
aspects of emotional behavior.
• These include particularly the reactions of fear and
anger and the emotions associated with sexual
behavior.
• Evidence also suggests that the hippocampus is
concerned with converting recent memory to long
term memory.
• A lesion of the hippocampus results in the
individual being unable to store long-term memory.
Memory of remote past events before the lesion
developed is unaffected. This condition is called
anterograde amnesia.
Note that injury to the amygdaloid nucleus and the
hippocampus produces greater memory loss than
injury to either one of these structures alone.
Evidence does not show that the limbic system has
an olfactory function. Its various afferent and
efferent connections provide pathways for the
integration and effective homeostatic responses to
a wide variety of environmental stimuli.
CEREBELLUM AND ITS CONNECTIONS • Superior peduncle enters midbrain

At the end of the lecture, the student should be able • Middle peduncule consists of transverse fibers of
to pons
- Identify external features of cerebellum • Inferior peduncle connect with medulla
- Enumerate neurons, fibers, nuclei and layers
• The cerebellum is divided into three main lobes:
of cerebellum
the anterior lobe, the middle lobe, and the
- Identify connections of cerebellum
flocculonodular lobe.
- Identify clinical application
• The anterior lobe may be seen on the superior
Cerebellum
surface.
• Situated in the posterior cranial fossa and is
• It is separated from the middle lobe by a wide V-
covered superiorly by the tentorium cerebelli.
shaped fissure called the primary fissure.
• It is the largest part of the hindbrain (10% of total
• The middle lobe (sometimes called the posterior
weight) and lies posterior to the fourth ventricle, the
lobe), which is the largest part of the cerebellum, is
pons, and the medulla oblongata.
situated between the primary and uvulonodular
• It consists of two cerebellar hemispheres joined by fissures.
a narrow median vermis.
• The flocculonodular lobe is situated posterior to
the uvulonodular fissure.
Superio part of vermis
- Lingula
- Culmen
- Declive
- Folium
- Inferior part of vermis
- Tuber
- Pyramid
- Uvula
- Nodule
Cerebellum connections
• Functionally, cerebellum is divided in corpus
cerebelli and flocculonodular lobe
• Corpus cerebelli:
• Three symmetrical bundles of nerve fibers called - afferent from spinal cord and trigeminal
the superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar nuclei
peduncles. - Inputs from pontine nucleus
• Flocculonodular lobe Cerebellar nuclei

- Connections with vestibular nucleus Histologically made up of three layers.
The motor system is organized as a hierarchy • Embedded in white matter are four paired nuclei.
The cerebellum functions as a rapid, corrective • Dentate is largest
feedback loop, smoothing and coordinating
• Main connection is cerebropontocerebellar
movements.
• Efferent fibres pass to contralateral red nucleus,
thalamus, and cerebral cortex.
What kinds of information does the cerebellum

receive?
- Somatosensory
- Visual Deep nuclei
- Auditory
1. fastigial nucleus
- Vesitbular
2. globose nucleus
- Proprioceptive
3. emboliform nucleus
Cerebellum connections 4. dentate nucleus
• Anterior lobe and pyramid mainly receive spinal Cerebellar peduncles
and trigeminal afferents
Superior cerebellar peduncle
• Corticopontine connections are relayed to
- Efferent of dentate nucleus
posterior lobe, tuber, vermis and uvula.
Afferent: anterior spinocerebellar tract,
Tectocerebellar from mid brain.
Middle cerebellar peduncle Principal inputs to the cerebellum

- Afferent fibres from pontine nucleus. Cerebral cortex
Inferior cerebellar peduncle Pons
- Efferent: cerebellovestibular tarct Cerebellum
Afferent: vestibulocerebellar tract, post - Vestibular inputs
spinocerebellar, cuneocerebellar, oivocerebellar - Interior olive
- Spinal cord
Functional regions of cerebellum
Principal outputs of the cerebellum
Cerebrocerebellum – coordination of voluntary
movements, cognitive effects Cerebellar cortex
Spinocerebellum & Vestibulocerebellum – posture Deep nuclei
and balance, eye movements
- Thalamus
- Vestibular nuclei
- Inferior olive
- Red nucleus
- Cerebral cortex
Cerebellum
Maintenance of Equilibrium
- balance, posture, eye movement
Coordination of half-automatic movement of
walking and posture maintenace
- posture, gait
Peduncles and deep nuclei: the inputs and outputs Adjustment of Muscle Tone
of the cerebellar cortex
Motor Leaning – Motor Skills
Cognitive Function
Blood supply
• Posterior inferior cerebellar artery
• Anterior inferior cerebellar artery
• Branch of basilar artery
- Superior cerebellar arter
Clinical application • Disorders of speech - Dysarthria, Ataxia of the

muscles of the larynx. Articulation is jerky & the
• Lesion of floccolonodular lobe leads to
syllables are separated from one another & slurred.
disequilibrium.
Speech is explosive.
• Lesion of cerebropontine connections leads to
hypotonia, diminished muscle jerk, intention • Vermis syndrome - Occurs in children.
tremor, clumsy movements
- Medulloblastoma of vermis causes
• Isolated lesions of the vermis are produced in vestibular symptom. Muscle in coordination
children by medulloblastomas in the roof of the in axial region. Tendency to fall forward &
fourth ventricle backward
Cerebellar Medulloblastoma Cerebellum – Clinical Syndromes
• Cerebellar tumors on vermis Ataxia: incoordination of movement
- Truncal Ataxia - decomposition of movement
- Frequent Falling - dysmetria, past-pointing
- dysdiadochokinesia
The child in this picture:
- rebound phenomenon of Holmes
- would not try to stand - gait ataxia, truncal ataxia, titubation
- unsupported
• Intention Tremor
- would not let go of the bed rail
- if she was stood on the floor • Hypotonia, Nystagmus
• Anterior lobe lesions leads to ataxia.
Muscle contract weakly & irregularly. Tremor occur
on doing the fine movement like buttoning clothes
Muscle group do not work harmoniously so there is
decomposition of movement.
Past pointing occurs
• Dysdiadochokinesia: inability to perform
alternating movements regularly and rapidly
• Dysarthria occurs in cerebellar disease because of
ataxia of the muscles of the larynx
• Disturbances of reflexes - Pendular knee jerk
because of loss of cerebellar influence on stretch
reflex
• Disturbance of ocular movement- Nystagmus
Ataxia of ocular muscles. Easily seen when eye is
deviated to the horizontal direction.
THALAMUS and HYPOTHALAMUS Functions

• The thalamus is a large egg-shaped mass that • A vast amount of sensory information converges
forms a major part of the diencephalon. on the thalamus and is distributed to other parts of
the central nervous system.
• It is located on either side of the third ventricle and
attached by a band of gray matter called the • The thalamus is closely linked to the cortex but not
interthalamic adhesion. for appreciation of sensation.
• The lateral thalamus contains the anterior • For instance, upon removal of the cortex, the
thalamic nuclei, which are involved with the limbic thalamus can still sense a hot object, but the
system. interpretation of location, shape, weight, or
temperature would be impaired.
• The medial thalamus contains the large
dorsomedial nucleus and two smaller nuclei, all of
which are involved with somatic, visceral, and
olfactory sensory information.
• The lateral thalamus is divided into dorsal and
ventral tiers of nuclei.
• The dorsal tier includes the lateral dorsal nucleus,
lateral posterior nucleus, and the pulvinar.
• The ventral tier includes the ventral anterior
nucleus, ventral lateral nucleus, and the ventral
posterior nuclei (posteromedial and posterolateral).
Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus controls body homeostasis
through the autonomic nervous and endocrine
systems and plays a vital role in emotional behavior.
Hypothalamic Nuclei
• The nerve cells in the hypothalamus are arranged
in many small groups, or nuclei, which are not
clearly segregated from one another. However,
some nuclei such as the preoptic, suprachiasmatic,
and mammillary nuclei are distinct and demonstrate
functional significance.
• The hypothalamus not only receives information
through nervous connections but also through the
bloodstream and CSF. Hypothalamic
Hypothalamic Connections With the Hypophysis

Cerebri
• hypothalamus is connected with the pituitary
gland by two pathways:
1) nerve fibers from supraoptic and paraventricular
nuclei to the posterior lobe of the hypophysis
2) long and short portal blood vessels that connect
sinusoids in the median eminence and infundibulum
with capillary plexuses in the anterior lobe of the
hypophysis. Hypothalamic Functions
The hypothalamohypophyseal tract: • The hypothalamus shows influence and control
Vasopressin and oxytocin hormones are over the autonomic nervous system, the endocrine
synthesized in the nerve cells of the supraoptic and system, temperature regulation, regulation of food
paraventricular nuclei, released at axon terminals, and water intake, emotion and behavior, and
and absorbed into the bloodstream via fenestrated circadian rhythms. capillary plexuses in the anterior
capillaries of the posterior lobe of the hypophysis. lobe of the hypophysis.
Hypophyseal portal system:

Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus produce
releasing hormones and release-inhibitory
hormones that are packaged into granules and
released by exocytosis into fenestrated capillaries at
the upper end of the portal system.
The portal system carries the releasing hormone to
the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, which then
stimulates production and release of hormones or
inhibits the release of different hormones.

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NEUROANATOMY LECTURE TERM 01

BS Psychology - Adamson University

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

- When Albert Einstein died, the brain is Functions of Nervous System

AREA Also known as Major

The forebrain – prosencephalon

Coverings of the brain

Note: if we strip off meninges, we see the brain and

- Outside the skull is extended to become the The forebrain (Cerebrum)

The two main sulci are also known as fissures. These

Recall: the main bones of the cranium are frontal,

- Rostal plane is horizontal going up to (axial)

NOTE: In terms of gyri and sulci, it has individual

Inside the lateral fissure, there is a hidden area of

short postganglionic fibers that B. Spinal cord

The spinal cord is comprised of: Functions:

Lumbar Puncture (= Spinal Tap)

Organization of Cord Cross Section

CHAPTER 2: NERVE CELL/NEURON - No myelin

The number of synapses on a neuron depends on

• extracellular plagues of fibrils in amorphous - In x-section, neurofilaments are spaced

An integral part of investing layer of Schwann cells

Nerves are the pathways of communication

3 layers are recognizable: 2. Dorsal ,lateral and ventral columns of white

2.1 Sympathetic NS Meninges

Parasympathetic NS Neuroglia (Glial cells)

2. Satellite cells - create a “blood-brain barrier”

1. Protoplasmic astrocytes On EM, relatively dense cytoplasm contains

Repair in the CNS

Midterms: The Human Brain Cerebral features:

Cerebral Cortex - The outermost layer of gray

Lobes of the brain

* Note: Occasionally, the Insula is considered the

• It plays an integral role in the following

BASAL NUCLEI (BASAL GANGLIA) Corpus striatum

• Just superior to this point of union, strands of gray

Lentiform nucleus • Through its connections, it can influence the

• Hemiballismus is a form of involuntary movement 3. Bradykinesis. Initiating (akinesia) and performing

•It is associated with neuronal degeneration in the

BRAIN STEM • Pyramids are composed of bundles of nerve fibers,

The cranial nerves and their primary function

Components of the brainstem

On each side, the midbrain contains a red nucleus

Pons Respiratory rhythmicity centers

•Thalamic axons synapse in primary somatosensory

Efferent Projections the parahippocampal gyri, the hippocampal

• The parahippocampal gyrus lies between the

3. Fibers pass posterior to the anterior

CEREBELLUM AND ITS CONNECTIONS • Superior peduncle enters midbrain

• Flocculonodular lobe Cerebellar nuclei

What kinds of information does the cerebellum

Middle cerebellar peduncle Principal inputs to the cerebellum

Clinical application • Disorders of speech - Dysarthria, Ataxia of the

THALAMUS and HYPOTHALAMUS Functions

Hypothalamic Connections With the Hypophysis

Hypophyseal portal system:

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