3 - Electromechanical Energy Conversion

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIA
SEDE MANIZALES
3 - Electromechanical Energy Conversion
Jorge Fernando Gutiérrez Gómez

 Energy balance
 Based on the principle of conservation of energy of
electromechanical systems:
 Electric system
 Magnetic system
 Mechanical system
Coupling Mechanical
Electric
Magnetic Field Output
Input
(Energy stored)
Electric Magnetic Mechanical

Losses Losses losses
2
Máquinas II: Máquinas Rotativas
 Energy Balance
Motor
Electric Magnetic Mechanic
system coupling system
Generator
 Neglecting losses, the energy balance equation

becomes:
dWElec  dWMag  dWMec
3
 Field energy
 For the electromechanical system of figure the

movable part can be held in static equilibrium by the
spring:
lg X (position)
+
N e(t)
(turns) -
Spring
Sen P. - 2014 4
 Field energy
 While the system remains in static equilibrium, its

energy balance equation is:
dWMec  0
dWElec  dWMag
 So all the incremental electrical energy input is stored

as incremental field energy:
dWElec  e  idt
d
e
dt
d
dWElec   idt
dt
dWElec  id 
5
 Field energy
B
Zona
lineal
dWmag
Zona de saturación
dWElec  i  d   dWMag
H
Sen P. - 2014 6
 Field energy
 The energy stored in the magnetic field is obtained

by the integral of the flux linkage:


WMag   id 
0
 This integral represents the area between the 

axis and the characteristic.
7
Field energy
dWMag  id 
where : d   N d   N d ( A  B )  N  A  dB
NiTot  H c  lc  H g  lg Note: lg total
WMag  
H c  lc  H g  lg 
N  A  dB
length of the
air gap
N
 B 
WMag    H c  lc   lg  AdB
 0 
WMag core   H c dB  lc  A 
Volume of the magnetic material
B2
WMag gap    lg  A 
2 0
Volume of the air gap 8
 Exercise
 The actuator core has a length of 60 cm. The magnetic core is
made of cast steel whose B-H characteristic is shown in the
figure. The coil has 250 turns, and the coil resistance is 5 , the
total length of the core is lc= 60,0 cm. For a fixed air gap length
la= 5 mm, a dc source is connected to the coil to produce a flux
density of 1,0 T in the air gap.
 Find the voltage of the dc source
R/ Vdc= 167,2 V
 Find the stored field energy R/: Wn= 1,005 J; Wf = 19,895 J

Wf = 20,9 J
Cross section = (10 cm x 5 cm)
Sen P. - 2014
9
 i-  characteristics
 i-  characteristics for different air gap lengths:
Increased
air gap
length
Vacuum
10
 Energy - Coenergy
W '
Mag  WMag i    i
W 'Mag   di
0
W’Mag= The coenergy has no physical significance.
But, it can be used to derive expressions for force (or torque) developed
in an electromagnetic system
11
 Mechanical force in the electromechacnical system
 Let the movable part move from one position (x= x1)
to another position (x= x2) so that at the end of the
movement the air gap decreases:
lg X (position)
+
N
e(t)
(turns) -
Spring
12
 Mechanical force
 The i -  characteristics of the system for these
two positions are shown in the figure:
13
 Mechanical force in the electromechanical system
 A) If the movable part has moved slowly, the current (i) has
remained essentially constant during the motion.
 B) If the movement has occurred very quickly. It may be
assumed that during the motion the flux linkage () has
remained essentially constant.
Constant current (i) – slow movement Constant flux linkage () – fast movement
14
 When the differential displacement dx is small, both shaded
areas are essentially equal so the force computed is the
same:
W ' Mag  , x  WMag  , x 
f Mec  f Mec  
x i  kte
x  kte
15
 For a small displacement dx, the discrepancy between

both approaches (the error area) can be consider
negligible:
“Error”
16
 Exercise
 The λ-i relationship for an electromagnetic system is given by:
1
1,2 𝑖 2
𝜆=
𝑔
 Where g is the air gap length. For current i= 2 A and air gap
length g= 10 cm, determine the mechanical force on the
moving part:
 (a) Using the energy of the system.
 (b) Using the coenergy of the system.

Ans: a)= b) = -226,25 N
Sen P. - 2014
17
 Linear systems
 If the reluctance of the magnetic core path is negligible
compared to that of the air gap path, the -i relation
becomes linear.
 For this idealized situation it follows that
 Wmag= W’mag
18
 Linear systems
 Assuming a linear magnetic circuit, the -i relation

becomes:

𝜆=𝐿 𝑥 𝑖
 So the inductance of the circuit depends on the

air-gap length.
 Then, it could be shown that the mechanical force

given by the partial derivatives of coenergy or
energy is the same.

WMag   id 
0
19
 Linear systems
 If the reluctance of magnetic core is neglected, there is not
energy stored in the yoke so (Hc x lc)=0.
 As a result, the total magnetomotive force (fmm) droop is
across the air gap.
 For the used model of the actuator this results in the
following expression:
Bg2
Ni  H g  lg Tot   2lg
0
 Hence, the magnetic energy stored in the air gap is:
Bg2
WMag   volume of air gap
2 0
Sen P. - 2014
20
 Linear systems
 Assuming that the motion has occurred very quickly, so the flux
linkages has remained constant:

WMag  , x 
f Mec  
x  kte
 where:
Bg2
WMag   Ag  lg
20
 Then, the magnetic force for the system with two
identical air-gaps becomes (note that this is a particular
case):
Bg2
f Mec   2 Ag
2 0
Sen P. - 2014
21
 Calculate the change in Wmec for the two -i paths between x=
x1 and x= x2 shown in the figure. Assume that the -i
characteristics are for the electromagnet shown as the
movable member moves from x= x1 to x= x2 where x2<x1.
 a) First suppose the motion occurs very slowly so the
current remains essentially constant.
 b) Suppose the motion is very rapid so the flux linkages
remain constant.
 [Wb - vuelta]
lg X x2
(position)
4
x1
N
+ 2
e(t)
(turns) -
Spring
5 10
i [A] 22
 Exercise
 The lifting magnetic system shown in the figure has a square cross
section 6cm x 6cm. The coil has 300 turns and a resistance of 6 .
Neglect the reluctance of the magnetic core and field fringing in the
air gap.
 The air gap is initially held at 5 mm and a dc source of 120 V is
connected to the coil. Determine:
 The store field energy. R/= 8,14 J
 The lifting force. R/= 1628,7 N
 The air gap is again held at 5 mm and an ac source of 120
Vrms, 60 Hz is connected to the coil. Determine the average
value of the lift force. R/= 216,3 N
Sen P. - 2014 23
 Exercise
 The magnetic system shown in the figure has the following
parameters:
 N= 500, i= 2 A, Width of air gap=2,0 cm, Depth of air gap=
2,0 cm, Length of air gap= 1 mm
 Neglect the reluctance of the core, the leakage flux, and the
fringing flux.
 (a) Determine the force of attraction between both sides
of the air gap. R/ta= 251,33 N

 (b) Determine the energy stored in the air gap.
R/ta= 251,33 ×10−3 J
Sen P. - 2014 24
 Rotating machines
 Most of the energy converters, particularly the higher-power
ones, produce rotational motion.
 The fixed part of the magnetic system is called the stator.
 The moving part is called the rotor.
q
wm
Sen P. - 2014 25
 Singly excited rotating systems
 For example, an elementary singly excited two-pole

rotating system (an elementary reluctance machine):
Gönen T. - 2013 26
 Changes of the effective air-gap length with rotor
position:
Gönen T. - 2013 27
 Variation of inductance with rotor angular position θ,
as the rotor rotates in a reluctance machine.
 Is a periodic function of 2q:
L(q)  L0  L2 cos 2q
Gönen T. - 2013 28
 Using the same procedure applied to determine the force
developed in a translational actuator, it may be shown
that the torque developed in a rotational electromagnetic
system is:


W '
m  i, q 
q i  const
 Assuming a linear system, the coenergy in the

magnetic field of the air-gap region can be
expressed as:
1
Wm'  Wm  L(q)i 2
2
 If the stator excitation current is a.c.:
i (t)  I sin ws t
29
 Then, the developed torque can be expressed as:


   I 2 L2 sin 2q sin 2 ws t
 It is assumed that the rotor rotates at a constant

angular velocity ωm; therefore, at any given time the
angular displacement is obtained by:
 q  wmt  
 With the use of the following trigonometrical identities:

 1  cos 2 A
sin A 
2
2
1 1
sin A cos B  sin(A  B)  sin(A  B)
2 2
30
 The instantaneous (electromagnetic) developed
torque becomes:

I 2 L2 
  1 1
sin 2  wmt     sin 2  wm  ws  t     sin 2  wm  ws  t    
2 2 2 
 The cases in which the average (load) torque is

nonzero are when:
 𝜔𝑚 = ±𝜔𝑠
 At this condition the average torque is:
1 2
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝐼 𝐿2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛿
4
31
 Also, when:
 𝜔𝑚 =0
 Thus, the machine’s average starting torque is:
1 2
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝐼 𝐿2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛿
2
32
 Hence, the following conclusions can be made:
 The machine has to rotate at synchronous speed.
 As the torque is a function of the reluctance variation

it is called: synchronous reluctance machine
 The developed torque is a function of the angle ,
which is called the torque angle. The angle  can be
used as a measure of the torque.
 When  <0 and ave>0, the developed torque is in the
direction of rotation, and the machine operates as a
motor.
 The maximum torque for motor operation takes place
at  =−π/4, and is called the pull-out torque.
Gönen T. - 2013 33
 Variation of the average developed torque by a

synchronous reluctance machine with  angle:
34
 Multiply excited rotating systems
 The principles developed in the previous section also apply to
multiply excited rotating systems:
wm
Sen P. - 2014 35
 Following the procedure used to determine an expression for

force developed in a translational actuator, it may be shown that
the torque developed in a rotational electromagnetic system if
the system’s rotor is prevented from rotating so that there is no
mechanical output:
dWElec  dWMag  dWMec but if dWMec  0
dWMag  es is dt  er ir dt
dWMag  is d  s  ir d  r
36
 For a linear magnetic system the flux linkages s of the stator

winding and r of the rotor winding can be expressed in terms
of inductances whose values depend on the position q of the
rotor.
s Lss Lsr is

r Lrs Lrr ir
37
 So the differential of field energy is:
dWMag  is d  Lss is  Lsr ir   ir d  Lsr is  Lrr ir 

dWMag  Lss is dis  Lrr ir dir  Lsr d  is ir 
 Integrating the last equation the magnetic energy

can be obtained as:
is ir is ir
WMag  Lss  is dis  Lrr  ir dir  Ler

0 0
 d i i 
0
s r
1 1
WMag  Lss is  Lrr ir2  Lsr is ir
2
2 2
38
 In a linear magnetic system, energy and coenergy are the

same thus the torque developed in a rotational
electromagnetic system is given by:
WMag
'
 i, q 

q i  const
1 2 dL ss 1 2 dL rr dL sr
  is  ir  is ir
2 dq 2 dq dq
Reluctance torque
39
 Cylindrical machines
 A cross-sectional view of an elementary two-pole cylindrical
rotating machine with a uniform air gap is shown in figure.
 For this system it can be assumed that the self-inductances Lss
and Lrr are constant as the rotor varies its position (no
reluctance torques are produced) but the mutual inductance Lsr
varies with rotor position.
Rotor
axis
Stator
axis
Sen P. - 2014
44
 Using the same procedure with rotating machines, the

torque developed in the cylindrical machine is:
dLsr
  is ir
dq
where :
Lsr  M cos q
45
 Suppose that the currents in the two windings be:
 is= Is max cos wst where: ws is the angular frequency of the current
at the stator.
 ir= Ir max cos (wrt + ) where: wr is the angular velocity of the
current at the rotor.
 The position of the rotor at any instant is given by q = wmect + 
where  is the rotor position at t = 0.
   I s max I r max cos ws t cos  wr t    sin  wmec t   
sin

 w
mec 
  ws  wr   t      

I s max I r max
sin

 w 
mec   ws  wr   t     



4 sin
  w  
mec   ws  wr   t      
(I)
 
sin  w
mec   w s  wr 
 t    
 
46
 Analyzing the last equation it can be concluded that:
 The torque varies sinusoidally with time. The average

value of each of the sinusoidal terms in is zero, unless
the coefficient of t is zero in that sinusoidal term. That
occurs if:
 wm= ±(ws ± wr)

 The machine will develop average torque if it rotates, in
either direction, at a speed that is equal to the sum or the
difference of the angular speeds of the stator and rotor
currents:
 wm= ws  wr
47
 Consider the following cases:
 1) If wr = 0, wm= ws and  = 0. Then, the rotor current is a

dc current (Ir) and the machine rotates at the synchronous
speed.(wm= ws ).
For these conditions the torque developed is:
  = (- 0,5 Is max Ir M) sin(2wst + ) + sin
 Note that at wm= 0, the machine does not develop an

average torque, and therefore the machine is not self-
starting.
 With one winding on the stator, this machine is called a

single-phase synchronous machine.
48
 2) If wm = ws - wr
 Both stator and rotor windings carry ac currents at
different frequencies and the motor runs at an
asynchronous speed (wm  ws, wm  wr )
 From (I), the torque developed is:
I s max I r max M sin  2ws t       sin  2wr t      

   (II)
4   sin  2ws t  2wr t       sin      
I s max I r max M

medio   sin     
4
49
 This is the basic principle of operation of an induction
machine, in which the stator winding is excited by an ac
current and ac current is induced in the rotor winding.
 The single-phase induction machine is also not self-

starting, because at wm = 0 no average torque is
developed.
 The machine is brought up to the speed:
 wm = ws - wr
so that it can produce an average torque
 From analysis of (II) can be concluded that this

machine torque is a pulsating torque. To eliminate those
pulsations polyphase induction machines are used for
high-power applications
50
 In rotating machines torque can be produced by variation in the

reluctance of the magnetic path or mutual inductance between
the windings.
 Reluctance machines are simple in construction, but torque

developed in these machines is small.
 Cylindrical machines, although more complex in construction,

produce larger torques. Most electrical machines are of the
cylindrical type.
51
 Exercise
 The rotating machine of the figure has the following parameters.
Lss = 0,15 H; Lrr = 0,06 H; Lsr = 0,08 cosθ H
 (a) The rotor is driven at 3600 rpm. If the stator winding carries
a current of 5 A (rms) at 60 Hz, determine the instantaneous
voltage and rms voltage induced in the rotor coil. Determine the
frequency of the rotor induced voltage.
 (b) Suppose the stator and rotor coils are connected in series,
and a current of 5 A (rms) at 60 Hz is passed through them.
Determine the speeds at which the machine will produce an
average torque. Also determine the maximum torque that the
machine will produce at each speed. Rotor
axis
Stator
axis
Sen P. - 2014
52
 References
 [1] P. Sen, Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics –
Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 2014.
 [2] Gönen T. Electrical Machines with Matlab. CRC Press, 2012.
 [3] A. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. Umans, Electric Machinery 6th Edn,
McGraw-Hill, 2002.
 [4] B.Guru and Hiziroglu H. Electric Machinery and Transformers. Third
Edition. Oxford University Press. 2000.
 [5] Mora J., Máquinas Eléctricas, 6a Ed. McGraw-Hill Interamericana de
España S.L., 2008.
 [6] Sanz-Feito J. Máquinas Eléctricas. Prentice Hall. 2002.
53
 Questions or comments
54

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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIA

3 - Electromechanical Energy Conversion

Jorge Fernando Gutiérrez Gómez

Electric Magnetic Mechanical

 Neglecting losses, the energy balance equation

dWElec  dWMag  dWMec

 For the electromechanical system of figure the

 While the system remains in static equilibrium, its

 So all the incremental electrical energy input is stored

 The energy stored in the magnetic field is obtained

 This integral represents the area between the 

 Find the stored field energy R/: Wn= 1,005 J; Wf = 19,895 J

 i-  characteristics for different air gap lengths:

W’Mag= The coenergy has no physical significance.

 For a small displacement dx, the discrepancy between

 The λ-i relationship for an electromagnetic system is given by:

 (b) Using the coenergy of the system.

 Assuming a linear magnetic circuit, the -i relation

 So the inductance of the circuit depends on the

 Then, it could be shown that the mechanical force

 Hence, the magnetic energy stored in the air gap is:

of the air gap. R/ta= 251,33 N

R/ta= 251,33 ×10−3 J

 The moving part is called the rotor.

 For example, an elementary singly excited two-pole

 Assuming a linear system, the coenergy in the

 Then, the developed torque can be expressed as:

 It is assumed that the rotor rotates at a constant

 With the use of the following trigonometrical identities:

 The cases in which the average (load) torque is

 Thus, the machine’s average starting torque is:

 As the torque is a function of the reluctance variation

 Variation of the average developed torque by a

 Following the procedure used to determine an expression for

dWElec  dWMag  dWMec but if dWMec  0

 For a linear magnetic system the flux linkages s of the stator

 So the differential of field energy is:

dWMag  is d  Lss is  Lsr ir   ir d  Lsr is  Lrr ir 

 Integrating the last equation the magnetic energy

WMag  Lss  is dis  Lrr  ir dir  Ler

 In a linear magnetic system, energy and coenergy are the

 Using the same procedure with rotating machines, the

   I s max I r max cos ws t cos  wr t    sin  wmec t   

 The torque varies sinusoidally with time. The average

 wm= ±(ws ± wr)

 wm= ws  wr

 Consider the following cases:

 1) If wr = 0, wm= ws and  = 0. Then, the rotor current is a

For these conditions the torque developed is:

  = (- 0,5 Is max Ir M) sin(2wst + ) + sin

 Note that at wm= 0, the machine does not develop an

 With one winding on the stator, this machine is called a

I s max I r max M sin  2ws t       sin  2wr t      

 The single-phase induction machine is also not self-

 The machine is brought up to the speed:

 From analysis of (II) can be concluded that this

 In rotating machines torque can be produced by variation in the

 Reluctance machines are simple in construction, but torque

 Cylindrical machines, although more complex in construction,

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