DIFFERENT APPROACHES AND METHODS

Direct/ Expositive Instruction Approach

Direct instruction is a way of teaching that is aimed at helping students acquire some basic skills
and “procedural knowledge.” It is described as straightforward and is done in a step-by-step manner. The
emphasis is on how to execute the steps of the entire procedure. The procedure may involve a simple or
complex skill, such as solving a problem by using mathematical equations. Performance-based subjects
such as Science, Mathematics, Music, and Physical Education are taught by employing this technique. To
employ this methodology, follow these steps: a.) provide the rationale, b.) demonstrate the skill, c.)
provide guided practice, d.) check for understanding and provide feedback, and e.) provide extended
practice and transfer. Such a technique requires careful structuring of the entire procedure. Attention is
focused on every detail of the procedure.
Instructional Characteristics
1) The strategy is teacher-directed.
2) The emphasis is on the teaching of skill. Each step must be mastered; the students gain “how”
rather than “what.” It is termed procedural knowledge.
3) Taught in a step-by-step fashion ensures the learning of the entire procedure with no step missed.
4) Lesson objectives include easily observed behaviors that can be measured accurately. If the
lesson is to develop skills in performing five steps of a particular experiment, such skills can be
observed and measured. The level of performance can be assessed from the number of steps
performed correctly.
5) This is a form of learning through imitation, sometimes termed “behavioral modeling.”
Guidelines for Its Effective Use
1) The students must be given ample time for practice.
2) They must be included in the planning stage since this technique is highly task-oriented and aims
to master every step. The lesson objectives are student-based.
3) Describe the testing situation and specify the level of performance expected.
4) Divide complex skills and understanding into subskills or component steps so they can be taught
easily and precisely.
5) Design your strategy for teaching each skill, which will eventually contribute to learning the
entire skill.
6) Before the demonstration, carefully rehearse all steps. The steps should be observed and
followed.
7) Assign practice for short periods, then continue learning by imitating others.
8) Provide feedback and encouragement through praises. Positively motivated, the students will
never get tired of practicing.
9) Be able to construct good performance-based tests.
The Procedure
1) Explain the rationale and objectives of the lesson. Inform the students about the procedure and
how long the lesson will take.
2) Provide motivation and draw commitments from them.
3) Conduct the demonstration. Much of the learning will be achieved by observing others rather than
trial and error.
 4) Assign practice for a short period of time. Continue practice to the point of overlearning for
complete mastery.
5) Provide feedback (can be verbal feedback), videotaping of performance, tests, or written
comments.
6) Focus on performance evaluation rather than on pencil-and-paper tests. The student should be
able to exhibit the skill mastered.
Guide Question for Discussion
1) Since this methodology is “teacher-directed,” justify its use in teaching science, a subject which,
by nature, lends itself more to the explanatory, discovery, and inquiry approach.
2) Why is direct instruction often used in lessons implemented through a step-by-step procedure?
3) Give three lessons that can be taught effectively using this methodology. Discuss your procedure
for each.
4) Explain the meaning of “behavioral modeling”. Give an example.
Deductive Method
The deductive method – A teacher wants to teach his/her pupils how to add similar fractions, just
add the numerators, then copy the denominator. S/he begins by stating the rule: To add similar fractions,
just add the numerators, then copy the denominator. Then, she will give examples. After which, she will
give written exercises to her pupils.
The deductive approach is teacher-dominated. It begins with the abstract rule, generalization, and
principle and ends with specific examples and concrete details.
Advantages of the Deductive Method
1. Coverage of a wider scope of subject matter- because our instruction is direct by stating at once
the rule or the principle at the beginning of the class, we cover more subject matter over some
time.
2. No bother on the part of the teacher to lead learners to the formulation of the generalization or
rule. – We give the generalization at the beginning of the lesson. We do not need to worry about
what questions to ask to lead the learners to generalizations or conclusions.
Disadvantages of the Deductive Method
1. It does not support learning as an active process. There is less involvement on the part of the
learners. The learners do not take part in the generation of conclusions or generalizations. The
learner will be involved in the drill or exercises that come after explaining the rule or principle.
2. The lesson appears uninteresting at first. We begin our lesson with the abstract, with what the
learners do not know, so our lesson will look irrelevant and uninteresting at the outset.
Inductive Method
The inductive method- Instead of the teacher giving the rule to add similar fractions at the outset,
she will give them at least five examples of added similar fractions simultaneously. Ask the pupils to
study the samples, then ask them to explain how they arrived at the sums. She will then ask the pupils to
state the rule for adding fractions.
The inductive method is less teacher-directed than the deductive method. It begins with specific details,
concrete data and examples and ends with an abstract generalization rule, or principle.
Advantages of the Inductive Method
1. The learners are more engaged in the teaching-learning process. With our facilitating skills, the
learners formulate the generalization or rule.
2. Learning becomes more interesting at the outset because we begin with the experiences of our
students. We begin with what they know.
3. It helps the development of our learners’ higher-order-thinking-skills (HOTS). To see patterns
and analyze the same in order to arrive at generalization requires analytical thinking.
Disadvantages of the Inductive Method
1. It requires more time and so less subject matter will be covered. We need much time to lead our
students to the formulation of generalizations.
2. It demands expert facilitating skills on the part of the teacher. We’ve got to ask the right
questions, organize answers and comments to pave the way to the derivation of generalizations or
principles.
For Reflection and Group Discussion
1. Between the deductive and the inductive method:
- Which method is more teacher-directed?
- Which one engages more the learners in conceptual understanding?
- Which demands more teacher’s skillful questioning?
2. If you were asked for your preference, which method would you choose? Why?
3. If you decide to use the inductive method, what conditions must be present to ensure it works?
Demonstration Method
Demonstration is a learning activity which is performed by a student, a group of 3 to 4 members
or a teacher while the rest become observers. This approach is employed in presenting lessons that use
sophisticated equipment and technical know-how. Materials that are not easily available or expensive are
used sparingly in a demonstration. The demonstrator is knowledgeable in preparing the apparatus needed
according to the steps to be followed. The rest of the class becomes focused on the activity and
concentration on the subject is assured.
The demonstration method is teacher-dominated. The teacher shows how to operate, manipulate an
equipment while the class observes.
Guidelines for Its Effective Use
Before
1. The demonstrator/s must be well-selected. They must be skilled in operating modern equipment
and proficient in undertaking scientific investigations.
2. When planning the activities make sure that the materials are easily available. Likewise get
prepared with possible substitutions.
3. Get ready with the equipment and tools to be used. It should be scheduled as to day and class
period.
4. The demonstrators must try several times before the activity for a smooth sequencing of the steps
as well as accuracy of the results.
5. The observers must be prepared and motivated to ensure concentration throughout the activity.
 6. The demonstrators must be ready with on-the-spot revisions such as alternative steps or substitute
materials when needed.
7. Arrange the observers around the demonstration area or at a distance where they will be able tto
observe fully what is going on.
8. Depending on the kind of demonstration to be undertaken, pointers or questions may be given to
focus their attention and avoid irrelevant observations.
During
1. The place must be quiet in order to sustain the observers’ attention and interest during the
activity.
2. Extreme care must be taken in performing some delicate steps such as precision, timing for every
step, and measuring accurately using the standard instrument.
3. The activity must not be interrupted by unnecessary announcements or noise in the surroundings.
4. They are allowed to take down short notes or record some data which may be analyzed after.
After
1. Allow some questions which bothered them during the demonstration. It might necessitate
clarifying a step that was not performed well or a set of data missed.
2. An examination of the observed data and all information recorded follows.
3. Have an analysis of trends, patterns or uniform occurrences that can help in arriving at a
conclusion.
4. The conclusion or summary must be cooperatively undertaken by the whole class.
5. Assess learning by a way of a short test, an oral evaluation or a performance of one of the steps.
Advantages
1. It follows a systematic procedure, hence the students will be able to learn from a well-tried
procedure since the demonstrators are selected and adjudged to be skilled.
2. The use of expensive equipment and machines will be maximized.
3. Possible wastage of time, effort and resources will be avoided since the demonstration is
supposed to be well-planned in advance.
4. It will not result to trial-and-error learning as what happens with unplanned learning activities.
5. The findings are reliable and accurate since the procedure has been tried before.
6. The value of confidence is developed among the demonstrators for such hands-on demonstration.
7. Curiosity and keen observing ability are instilled among the observers.
For Elaborative Learning
Small Group Discussion
1. What is the best thing to do in an incomplete demonstration due to lack of time?
2. How can the passive observers be helped after the demonstration?
3. Have you observed this methodology used before? Was it successful? Why? If not, why did it not
work well?
4. While the demonstration is going on, is it advisable to allow questions or clarifications from the
observers?
GUIDED / EXPLORATORY APPROACH
Inquiry Approach
 The inquiry method is also called discovery, or problem-solving method. The teacher guides the
students as they explore discover.
The core inquiry is a spontaneous and a self-directed exploration. Textbook-directed procedures do not
allow an active probe into the unknown. Curiosity, special interests and instant queries among the young
demand immediate answers. only instant and direct search for evidence would suffice even momentarily,
otherwise frustrations and passivity come in. The inquiry approach, sometimes termed “discovery”,
“heuristic” and “problem solving” is defined simply as a teaching method which is “modeled after the
investigative processes of scientists”. It puts premium on obtaining information through direct
experiences. Some authors use the terms inquiry and discovery approach interchangeably. Both require
the use of investigative processes.
When children are learning by interacting with their environment, they are said to be inquiring. They are
asking about something, doing something to obtain information and processing that information. As more
and more substantiations unravel they compare, classify, analyze and evaluate collected observations.
Depending on the weight and relevance of the evidence, they formulate their own conclusions.
Instructional Characteristics
The teachers using this approach are aware of the following commonly observed characteristics:
1. Investigative processes such as inferring, measuring, predicting, classifying, analyzing and
experimenting, formulating conclusions and generalizations are employed.
2. The procedure in gathering information is not prescribed by the teachers. The students are treated
as independent learners. They formulate their own hypothesis and suggest ways of testing them.
3. The children are highly motivated to search, hence active participation is the best indicator of
inquisitiveness.
4. The answers arrived at are genuine products of their own efforts. Then they experience the “thrill
of discovery” which is oftentimes missed in passive reception of information from their teachers.
This learning outcome is the best reward and guarantee of lasting impact on the young.
5. Focused questions before, during and after are critical ingredients that provide direction and
sustain action.
Outcomes of Inquiry Teaching
1. Because of its emphasis on the processes of gathering and processing of information, teachers are
likely to doubt whether they are gaining a clear understanding of content being introduced.
Teachers must keep in mind that their act of facilitating satisfies innate curiosity which can serve
as the initial step towards a more consistent employment of the basic inquiry methods of
gathering information.
2. Its dependence on first-hand experience with objects and phenomena occurring in the
environment is certainly in agreement with the most often cited theory of Piaget on intellectual
development. At concrete stage children learn best by instructional materials must be carefully
selected and planned for a meaningful quest and not a hit-or-miss routine.
3. The inquiry approach which predominantly allows some degree of freedom develops initiative
and divergent thinking. Children resent being restricted both in movement and in forming their
own ideas. They love to try their own ways of doing things. This approach affords them a good
chance to pursue their own learning methodologies and in the long run build on their own
learning styles.
 4. A deep sense of responsibility is developed when children are left to manage their own learning,
be it in pursuit of answers, mastery of content or simply solving a problem that confronts them
instantly. Experience gained from independent inquiries make them realize the benefits derived
from self-managed learning.
5. Educators strongly believe that facts and concepts that children discover by themselves become
stored as part of their permanent learning. Such facts are organized and associated with big
generalizations or prevailing ideas and so their immediate recall is easily guided when the need
for such information arises. This easy retrieval of past learning is different from memorized bits
of subject matter in that they spend their time and effort to learn the former and, more important,
it is their own. It is most likely to be remembered for a long time.
6. Experiencing success in discovery lessons builds up the children’s feeling of confidence. As a
result, he would want to do more and to discover more. This is the kind of drive needed to keep
the wheels of the learning process turning. This kind of push is inner-directed.
7. Participation in inquiry activities strengthens one’s intellectual capabilities. One who learns how
to investigate and discover new information would definitely be in a better position to reason,
either by deduction, conducting similar investigations or by extending inquiries to all possible
resources, compared to those who miss the chance of even attempting to learn new things by
themselves, through no fault of their own but due to the teacher’s insistence on more passive and
rote learning styles.
How To Facilitate Inquiry Teaching
1. Arrange for an ideal room setting. After planning the learning activity for the day, structure the
room in such a way that will allow freedom of movement. Chairs lined in a semi-circular manner
is conductive to clear viewing and easy transfers around the area.
2. Choose tools and equipment that can easily be manipulated.
3. The materials to be used or examined must end must lend easily to the processes to be employed
and the end product desired.
4. The questions/problems to be answered should originate from them, followed by the formulation
of hypothesis.
5. The procedure should likewise be planned by them. They may be given a choice of a variety of
data-gathering measures such as actual observations, setting up experiments, taking a field trip or
collecting specimens, and not a monopoly of the usual rigid indoor tryouts and cook book
procedure.
6. At the completion of the activity require an evaluation of the steps undertaken as to its
effectiveness and the clarity of the results.
7. Above all, the teacher herself should internalize her changed role to that of a guide, facilitator and
counselor rather than the traditional authority who not only determines the material to be learned
but also dictates how it should be learned.
Small Group Discussion
1. Would you recommend the inquiry approach to other science teacher? Justify your
recommendation.
2. How can a science teacher who has accepted memorizing and factual learning in the past switch
to inquiry teaching? Consider the psychological and pedagogical constraints she will have to
contend with. Describe the ensuing learning experiences she may undergo.
 3. “Inquiry is desirable because it encourages divergent thinking, freedom to explore and originally
and creativity.” Do these outcomes jibe with the way our children are brought up at home? Do
our cultural practices favor such an approach in our schools?
Problem Solving Method
Problem solving is a teaching strategy that employs the scientific method in searching for
information. The five basic steps of the scientific method are:
1. Sensing and defining the problem
2. Formulating hypothesis
3. Testing the likely hypothesis (by observing, conducting an experiment, collecting and organizing
data through normative surveys)
4. Analysis, interpretation and evaluation of evidence
5. Formulating conclusion
This approach is used most often in science and mathematics classes. The students are trained to
be sensitive to any puzzling situation that needs to be solved. Having defined the problem clearly, a
tentative solution is solicited. The closest scientific guess is then pursued by undertaking an
appropriate investigative technique such as performing an experiment or gathering data through
directed observations. Finally, they are led to formulate conclusions.
Advantages
1. This approach is most effective in developing skill in employing the science processes.
2. The scientific method can likewise be used effectively in other non-science subjects. It is a
general procedure in finding solutions to daily occurrences that urgently need to be addressed.
3. The student’s active involvement resulting in meaningful experiences serves as a strong
motivation to follow the scientific procedure in future undertakings.
4. Problem-solving develops higher level thinking skills.
5. A keen sense of responsibility, originality and resourcefulness are developed, which are much-
needed ingredients for independent study.
6. The students become appreciative and grateful for the achievement of scientist.
7. Critical thinking, open-mindedness and wise judgment are among scientific attitudes and values
inculcated through competence in the scientific method.
8. The students learn to accept the opinions and evidence shared by others.
Guidelines for Its Effective Use
1. Provide sufficient training in defining and stating the problem in a clear and concise manner.
2. Make sure that the problem to be solved fits the age, interests and skills of the students.
3. Group the students and allow each one to share in the tasks to be performed. In this way the
cooperative learning strategy would work well.
4. Guide them at every step by asking leading questions in case of snags. Encourage suggestions of
alternative processes or solutions, if necessary.
5. Get ready with substitutions for materials which may not be available. This strategy needs a wide
variety of materials and resources.
6. The emphasis is on the procedure and the processes employed rather than on the products.
7. The development of skills and attitudes takes priority over knowledge.
8. Involve the students in determining the criteria with which they will be evaluated.
For Elaborative Learning -Get a Learning Partner
1. Discuss your comments on the following:
 Does problem identification come before observation or does observation come before
problem identification?
 It is said that most science lessons make use of the “cook book” method. The students
simply follow prescribed steps in a book when they conduct an experiment. Any
comment? Share your comments with the class.
 What is common to the inquiry and problem-solving method?
Project Method
The project method is a teaching method that requires the students a concept, principle or
innovation. The data can be organized and presented in the form of a model, a dramatization or any visual
illustration. The design will show an application of how the principle works. It is sometimes referred as
“self-directed study”. It can be an assignment agreed upon by both teacher and student. The project may
be a task or a product.
Advantages
1. It is a teaching strategy that emphasizes “learning by doing”.
2. Constructing projects develops the students’ manipulative skill.
3. The planned design of the project tests the student’s originality in choosing the materials to be
used. They become resourceful and innovative.
4. It can be employed among students who are weak in oral communications. The finished product
can serve as evidence of learning achieved.
5. The completed project adds to one’s feeling of accomplishment and satisfaction, thus motivating
students to continue constructing new projects in school and at home.
6. It instills the values of initiative, industry and creativity.
7. Working on a project ingroups develop the spirit of cooperation and sharing ideas.
8. In addition to learning a concept, student become productive and enterprising.
Guidelines for Its Effective Use
1. Assign the project to a student who is capable and interested.
2. The student must be clear about the objectives of the project including the criteria that must be
used in evaluating the finished project.
3. The design of the project must be carefully checked before the student starts.
4. The materials must be carefully selected as to suitability and durability to avoid wastage.
5. There should be minimal supervision as soon as the construction is going on.
6. Give recognition and simple awards for well-constructed projects to add to students’ feeling of
confidence and accomplishment. Outstanding projects could be displayed to serve as models.
For Elaborative Learning – For Reflection and Discussion
1. Cite a project you have constructed / were involved in as to:
- Objectives,
- Materials used
- Concept presented
- How it was evaluated
2. How did you feel after the completion of the project?
 3. Share your reflection with your small group.
4. How can you encourage or motivate students to participate in class projects?
5. What are some constraints in requiring students to construct projects as a culminating activity of a
unit?
Metacognitive Approach
The prefix “meta” means beyond. Therefore, a metacognitive approach is an approach that goes
beyond cognition. It is an approach that makes our students think about their thinking. It has something to
do with our students monitoring their own cognitive processes as they are engaged in their cognitive task.
An example is making our students conscious of their thought processes while they are thinking.
It is allowing our students to think aloud.
Research indicates that “effective problem-solvers subvocalize; that is they talk to themselves
frequently”. (Orlich, 1994) Subvocalizing includes constantly re-stating the situation, rechecking
progress, and evaluating whether one’s thinking is moving in appropriate discussion.
The Constructivist Approach
Constructivists view learning as an active process that results from self-constructed meanings. A
meaningful connection is established between prior knowledge and the present learning activity.
The constructive approach is anchored on the belief that every individual constructs and
reconstructs meanings depending on past experiences. They continue reflecting and evaluating
accumulated knowledge with an end in view of constructing new meanings.
Instructional Characteristics
1. Teaching is not considered as merely transmitting knowledge and information such as
facts, concepts and principles but rather as providing students with relevant experiences
from which they can construct their own meaning.
2. Constructivism is anchored on the assumption that “the absorption or assimilation of
knowledge is somewhat personal and therefore no two learners can build up the same
meaning out of one situation.”
3. The teacher's role is to facilitate learning by providing opportunities for a stimulating
dialogue so that meanings could evolve and be constructed. She guides the students
through skillful questioning and appropriate cognition processing.
4. The instructional materials include learning activities and events rather than fixed
documents (laws, principles) that almost always are learned unquestioned and simply
recalled.
5. Lessons are activity-centered in order for them to experience or gain personal knowledge
through active involvement. Participation with understanding enables them to "live
through” a learning episode.
Since this approach emphasizes that learning is influenced by past experiences, here are some
suggestions on how the students can acquire meanings:
1. In introducing a lesson, find connection with the previous one through a review or recount of
observations done on a past learning activity.
2. Inquiry teaching suits the constructivists. The teacher poses a problem, asks questions and
facilitates free probe into a particular subject. Both teacher and students engage in open
discussions and dialogue, honest exchange of ideas and collaboratively draw conclusions.
 3. Reflection is an important activity wherein the learner re- captures an experience, thinks
about it and evaluates it. Through an analysis of experiences, new understandings and
insights are gained. After a learning activity, the teacher must allow time for reflection. Only
then will the experience gained be useful in arriving at new interpretations and conclusions.
4. Plan learning activities that will develop critical thinking skills, creativity and innovativeness
such as performing own experiments and in-depth investigations. Research activities likewise
promote the search for new information based on prior knowledge.
5. Since construction and reconstruction of meanings is an active and uniquely individual
process, students must be encouraged to work independently. They must be allowed to test
their own ideas. Self-discovered information creates more meaningful concepts.
Guidelines for Its Effective Use
1. Encourage students to take their own initiative in undertaking a learning activity. A strong sense
of responsibility for their own learning is developed. It develops self-directed learning.
2. Respect and accept the student’s own ideas. Allow group discussions and free expressions of their
own views. They will learn to listen to others and share their own for a consensus. Their self-
confidence is enhanced.
3. Ask the students to recall past experiences, analyze and see a connection with the new learning
event. The constructivist al- lows reconstruction and revision of previous learning. Experi- ence
alone may not result to learning. It is recall and objective evaluation that results in new
understandings.
Small Group Discussion
1. Can you teach laws and principles using the constructivist approach? How?
2. Among the methods already discussed, which ones are an- chored on constructivism?
3. Which teacher behaviors are contrary to the principles of constructivism? Explain your choices.
 Refuse to accept students' point of view
 Recognize that teachers not students must attach meaning to the curriculum
 Structure lessons around big ideas
 Is content with lessons on small and isolated bits of information
 Assesses students' learning in the context of daily classroom investigations
For Elaborative Learning
Write a reaction paper to at least one of the following:
1. Do constructivists see the learner as an "empty vessel”? or "blank slate"? Explain your answer.
2. Are students' reflection and metacognition indispensable in the use of the constructivist
approach?

Reflective Teaching
Reflective teaching is anchored on the ability of the teacher to guide students to reflect on their
own experiences in order to arrive at new understandings and meanings. According to Dewey, reflective
teaching is "behavior which involves active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or
practice." It involves a thoughtful analy- sis of a teacher's actions, decisions and results of teaching.
Instructional Characteristics
Schulman (1990) cites three key characteristics of reflective teaching:
1.) an ethic of caring,
2.) a constructivist approach, and
3.) tactful problem solving.
Ethic of caring refers to the teacher's expression of thoughtfulness. To care means to be
“ethically bound to understand one's students.” To practice the ethics of caring a teacher is guided by
three effective ways: 1.) confirmation, 2.) dialogue, and 3.) cooperative practice. To confirm a student, a
caring teacher takes time to help students discover their individual inclinations and capitalize on them.
She recognizes the differences among them. To dialogue means to "talk honestly and openly about one's
innermost concerns." The goal is to understand and in the long run, to care. This highlights the role played
by values, beliefs and attitudes. Cooperative practice facilitates learning through counseling and guiding
rather than just imparting knowledge.
Students learn through an analysis and evaluation of past experiences. Without analysis, no new
learning and ideas can be constructed. Through reflection, the student's experience acquires meaning,
hence s/he is able to formulate his/her own concepts that can be applied to new learning situations.
Guidelines for Its Effective Use
1. Allocate sufficient time for reflection. It must be considered in planning the learning activity.
2. Schedule a short briefing activity so as to recapture the experience and think about it.
3. The teacher serves as the facilitator and guide in developing the skill in analyzing a past learning
experience.
4. Encourage the students to recount the experience to others, thereby strengthening the insights
gained.
5. Attend to feelings especially the positive and pleasant ones.
6. Evaluate the experience in the light of the learner's intent.
Strategies
1. Self-analysis A reflective teacher is able to keep a record of her success or failure in employing a
strategy, problems and issues confronted, and significance of learning events that occurred.
Writing them can help in analyzing and clarifying important aspects that are contributory to
future decisions towards effective teaching A student engages himself/herself in self-analysis
when s/he reflects on why s/he succeeded or failed at some task.
2. Writing journals
A journal entry includes: a.) a description of the teaching/ learning event, b.) outcomes of
the event, c.) value or worthiness of the outcomes, and d.) causes of success or failures.
A journal reveals feelings about the day’s activities including what could have enhanced or
inhibited their learning.
For a student, s/he is asked to enter into his/her daily journal/diary his own self-analysis.
3. Keeping a portfolio
 A portfolio is a very personal document which includes frank, honest and on-the-spot account of
experiences. It includes a teacher's fist hand observations and personal knowledge that will be
needed in analyzing changes in values being developed. Instant thoughts and reactions can be
recorded in a log book for future recall and study.
4. Observation of students' responses
Some questions that must be answered are as follows:
a. Did I motivate them enough to continue on?
b. Are the students learning from the activity? If so, why? If not, why?
c. Am I relating the lesson to their knowledge and interests? How can I do better?
d. How good was my classroom management skill?
5. Questions at the end of every lesson:
a. Did anything significant occur? If so, describe. Why did it happen?
b. Was the strategy I used the most effective one? What other strategies might have been
effective?
c. Did I exhibit flexibility in modifying my lesson according to their responses?
d. What have I learned about my own teaching? Have I become a better teacher?
Make sure each group understands the goals, procedures, tasks and methods of evaluation. The
experiential learning process of reflection - looking back at what you've learned, gaining useful insight
from the analysis, and applying this new knowledge to daily work - helps students to understand the
meaning and effect of their contributions (van Linden & Fertman, 1998). By including reflection time on
meeting agendas, for instance, students learn that reflecting on their own actions is a way to regularly
think about leading and learning
Schools are increasingly using reflection tools for learning and assessment, whether in the form
of portfolios, journals, relating dialogue, or products and performances resulting from problem- based
learning. Rather than discussing only data relating to test scores, as is the norm these days, we need also
to discuss data that emerges from reflection as legitimate measures of success and to include students in
any dialogue. (Lambert, 2003).
Summing up, learning that results from reflective teaching is best described as one borne of
experiences that have been deeply thought of, analyzed and evaluated. Reflection is inseparable from
experience. Experience is not yet best learning, reflection is
For Group Discussion
1. Which MI (Multiple Intelligence) group will fit most the reflective approach?
2. Is reflective teaching constructivist in orientation? Why or why not?
3. Is reflective teaching metacognitive? Explain your answer.
Cooperative Learning Approach
Cooperative learning approach makes use of a classroom organization where students work in
groups or teams to help each other learn. Concepts from small group theory and group dynamics serve as
the basis upon which skills in democratic procedures and collaborations are developed. This approach
evolved strategies and procedures that can help small groups solve their own problems and acquire
information through collective effort. The learning environment is characterized by strong motivation and
smooth interpersonal interactions.
Characteristic Features
 1. It has two important components, namely:
 a cooperative incentive structure - one where two or more individuals are interdependent
for a reward. They will share if they are successful as a group and
 a cooperative task structure - a situation in which two or more individuals are allowed,
encouraged or required to work together on some tasks, coordinating their efforts to
complete the task
2. Students work in teams to tackle academic tasks.
3. Reward systems are group-oriented rather than individually-oriented.
4. The interactions within the group is controlled by the members themselves.
5. Teams are made up of mixed abilities - high, average and low achievers.
6. Each individual learner is accountable for his/her learning.
7. The group reflects on and evaluates the group process they underwent.
Guidelines for its Effective Use
In order to implement cooperative learning successfully, here are some general guidelines to
follow:
1. Heterogeneous grouping wherein high, average and low achievers are mixed in a group.
It has been found out to affect the performance of the group since the high achievers can
tutor the other members of the group, thus raising the groups achievement level.
However, homogeneous grouping may be resorted to at times depending on the
objectives of the learning tasks.
2. Make sure that the students exhibit the necessary social skills to work cooperatively in
group situations.
3. Arrange the furniture so that groups of students can sit facing each other during sessions.
Provide adequate space for ease and speed in movement.
4. Provide adequate learning tools so as not to make others wait at a time they are needed.
5. Encourage students to assume responsibility for individual and group learning by offering
rewards for achievement.
6. Make sure each group understands the goals, procedures, tasks and methods of
evaluation.
For Elaborative Learning - Small Group Discussion
1. Is cooperative learning a matter of "sink or swim together"? Elaborate on your answer.
2. Is assessment of learning for grading purposes also a cooperative process in the sense that your
quiz for instance is also a cooperative quiz?
3. If the cooperative learning task requires writing, what is the advantage of giving just one paper
for the cooperative group to write on?
For Elaborative
The table below gives you a list of selected structures in cooperative learning for various
purposes. Research on more and add to this table. Pass your research output to your teacher to be shared
with the class.

Overview of Selected Structures in Cooperative Learning

Structures Brief Description Academic & Social Functions
Round robin Team building Expressing ideas and opinions.
 Each student in turn shares Creation of stories. Equal
something with his or her participation, getting acquainted
teammates with teammates.
Corners Class building Seeing alternative hypotheses,
Each student moves to a corner values, problem-solving,
of the room representing a approaches. Knowing and
teacher-determined alternative. respecting different points of
Students discuss within corners, view, meeting classmates.
then listen to and paraphrase
ideas from other corners.
Match Mine Communication Building Vocabulary development.
Students attempt to match the Communication skills, role-
arrangement of object on a grid taking ability.
of another student using oral
communication only
Numbered Heads Together Mastery Review, checking for
The teacher asks a question, knowledge, comprehension.
students consult to make sure Tutoring.
everyone knows the answer,
then one student is called upon
to answer.
Color-coded Co-op Cards Students memorize facts using a Memorizing facts. Helping,
flash card game. The game is praising.
structured so that there is a
maximum probability of success
at each step, moving from short-
term to long-term memory.
Scoring is based on
improvement.
Praise Check Student work in pairs within Practicing skills. Helping,
groups of four. Within pairs praising.
student alternate- one solves a
problem while the other
coaches. After every two
problems the pair checks to see
if they have the same answers as
the other pair.
Three-Step-interview Concept Development Sharing personal information
Students interview each other in such as hypotheses, reactions to
pairs, first one way, then the a poem, conclusion from a unit.
other. Students each share with Participation, listening.
the group information they
learned in the interview.
Think- Pair-Share Student think to themselves on a Generating and revising
topic provided by the teacher, hypotheses, inductive reasoning
they pair up to discuss it; they deductive reasoning,
then share their thoughts with application. Participation and
the class. involvement.
Team-Word-Webbing Students write simultaneously Analysis of concepts into
on a piece of chart paper, components, understanding
 drawing main concepts,
supporting elements, and
bridges representing the relation
of ideas in a concept.
Roundtable Multifunctional
Each student in tum writes one
answer as a paper and pencil are
passed around the group. With
Simultaneous Roundtable more
than one pencil and paper are
used at once.
Inside-Outside Circle Students stand in pairs in two
concentric circles. The inside
circles face out; the outside
circle faces in. students use flash
cards or respond to teacher
questions as they rotate to each
new partner.
Partners Students work in pairs to create
or master content. They consult
with partners from other teams.
They then share their products
or understanding with the other
partner in their team.
Jigsaw Each student on the team
becomes an “expert” on one
topic by working with members
from other teams assigned the
corresponding expert topic.
Upon returning to their teams,
each one in turn teaches the
group; and students are all
assessed on all aspects of the
topic.
Co-op Co-op Students work in in groups to
produce a particular group
product to share with the whole
class; each student makes a
particular contribution to the
group.
multiple relations among ideas,
differentiating concepts, role-
taking.
Assessing prior knowledge,
practicing skills, recalling
information, creating
cooperative art. Team building,
participation of all.
Checking for understanding,
review, processing, helping.
Tutoring, sharing, meeting
classmates.
Mastery and presentation of new
materials, concept development.
Presentation and communication
skills.
Acquisition and presentation of
new material, review, informed
debate. Interdependence, status
equalization.
Learning and sharing complex
material, often with multiple
sources; evaluation; application;
analysis; synthesis. Conflict
resolution; presentation skills.

Advantages of Cooperative Learning

1. Interdependent relationship is strengthened and reinforced when group cooperation is rewarded.
 2. Group work develops friendliness, willingness to assist and the more worthwhile value of caring
and sharing.
3. Cooperation in groups promotes maximum generation and exchange of ideas, tolerance and
respect for other people's points of view.
4. Cooperative learning groups exhibit less competitive behavior compared to whole-class teaching
classrooms.
5. The group members gain skills of cooperation and collaboration through experience
Peer tutoring/Peer teaching
It is said that “the best way to learn something is to teach it." Make students teach each other in a
"Pair, Think, Share!" manner. After we have taught, we ask each student to get a partner. One student will
be A and another B. A shares what she learned with B. and B, in turn, will share what she learned with A.
Teacher listens for formative assessment of learning.
Peer tutoring is commonly employed when the teacher requests the older, brighter and more
cooperative member of the class to tutor (coach, teach, instruct) other classmates. This is based on the
rationale that the former is better equipped than the others. This is due to their closeness in age, skills,
study habits and even learning styles. Tutoring arrangement may be in any of the following:
a. Instructional tutoring. Older students help younger ones on a one-to-one or one-to-a group basis.
They choose the way the lessons are presented. This is practiced when there is a big difference
between tutor and tutee.
b. Same age tutoring. This arrangement works well with children who can act as interactive pairs,
i.e: more able ones to assist the less able. They can read to each other and discuss.
c. Monitorial tutoring. The class may be divided into groups and monitors are assigned to lead each
group. This frees the teacher from whole class monitoring to attend to others while the assigned
tutor monitors and supervises the rest.
d. Structural tutoring. Here a definite procedure is followed. Highly structured tutoring is
administered by trained tutors.
e. Semi-structured tutoring. This is a combination of unstructured and structured where the tutor
guides his/her tutee through a carefully-planned learning guide but is free to modify it according
to the tutee's own interests and skills.
Instructional Characteristics
1. The tutees receive individualized instruction. The tutees are provided with their own teacher. As
such they are checked immediately for errors or misconceptions. Likewise, they are rewarded
instantly for correct responses.
2. The tutees receive more instruction. They are afforded more contact hours by a tutor.
3. Rapport between tutor and tutee may be readily established considering that they belong more or
less to the same age group.
4. The teacher is free at the same time to do other classroom chores while the members are being
handled by the tutors. They have more time to attend to higher concerns such as the curriculum,
lesson planning, etc.
5. This kind of arrangement reduces a large class into smaller working groups.
6. Discipline problems are lessened because there are more assistants looking after small groups.
7. The spirit of cooperation, camaraderie and reciprocity are highlighted.
8. The tutors stand to gain more since teaching is an excellent learning situation.
9. The tutors can likewise improve their own self-concept.
Guidelines for Its Effective Use
1. Care in selecting the tutors to assist the rest must be strictly exercised. A domineering, all-
knowing tutor might make the members feel very inferior and less able.
2. The teacher must go around and observe how the members of the groups are interacting with one
another. She should provide the necessary feedback that can further assist the tu- tors.
3. Tap students who possess leadership qualities in addition to being knowledgeable and older.
4. Explain well the benefits of this form of arrangement in order to avoid possible resentment since
both tutor and tutees are classmates.
5. The tutor must confer with the teacher regarding the nature and extent of assistance they are
expected to provide.
6. Prepare both the tutors and the tutees regarding the role each will play in the teaching-learning
situation in order to avoid confusion.
7. Make sure the tutor exhibits teaching competence as to the depth and breadth of the subject.
8. The tutors must employ a variety of techniques in "reaching" the tutees since they are more alike
in tastes, skills and habits.
9. Instant evaluation by way of performance and oral responses serve as feedback that can indicate
progress in the tutorial situation.
For Reflection and Sharing
1. If there is one or two objections to peer tutoring, what is it/ what are they?
2. Which can be the greatest benefit from peer tutoring?
Partner learning
As the name of this method implies, this is learning with a partner. A student chooses partner
from among his/her classmates. It can be employed when you get your students rehearse what they have
learned and explore their understanding of content with a partner.
This may also mean assigning "study buddy”. (The teacher who is after the learning of every
student may assign the "study buddy"). Study buddies become responsible for each other's learning.
However, each student is held accountable for his/her own learning.
Guidelines for Its Effective Use
1. To prevent your students from socializing about unrelated topics, give them specific amount of
time (say two minutes) and a specific prompt for discussion.
2. Give your students less time than you think they actually need. You may add more seconds if
necessary. It is better than to let the let the minutes drag on with your students getting off task.
Example: "Turn to your learning partner and recap what you have just learned about ______.
Take turn doing the recap. You have two minutes to do that. Go"
For Elaborative Learning Reflection
1. Did you ever have a learning partner in your life as a student? What were your learning
experiences with that learning partner? Are you happy you had one?
Appropriate Learning Activities in the Different Phases of the Lesson
Introductory/ Opening /Initiatory activities
 The opening activities are supposed to serve as starters, as unfreezing activities to make the
students feel at ease, to motivate the students to participate and to set the tone for the day. They are
liken to "preparing the ground” before sowing or planting. Opening activities serve as launching pad
for the day's lesson. Therefore, they should be linked or related to the day's lesson. They are not just
activities for students' enjoyment or activities for the sake of enjoyment. They are preparatory to the
real thing. They also have a motivational function.
In the first few minutes of your lesson "sell” your lesson. What will help your students "buy it?
Capture their attention, connect their prior knowledge with the new information that you will present,
show the relevance of your lesson to their lives and experiences.
Below are some effective opening activities:
 KWL (Know, Want to know, Learned) - What do your students Know about the lesson?
What do they Want to know?
 Video clip from a news story that relates to content
 Editorial from a current newspaper related to a lesson
 Posing a scientific problem and require students to formulate a hypothesis or predict what's
going to happen next
 Cartoon or comic strip related to the topic
 Game
 Simulation
 Puzzle, brain teaser
 Mysterious scenario- Launch a lesson using a puzzling scenario to pull students into the
content and nudge them into higher levels of thinking
 Song followed by its analysis
 Picture without a caption - After teacher states the objectives of the day's lesson, s/he asks
students to put a caption to the picture and later to explain the why and the meaning of their
caption.
 Quotable quote
 Anecdote
 Compelling stories from history, literature related to course content
 Current events to introduce curricular topic
 Diagnostic test
 Skit, role playing
 Voting - Ask students to vote on an issue by raising hands, then asking them to explain their
stand
 Rank ordering - Students are asked to rank objects, qualities, etc. according to importance
 Values continuum- Students are asked to find their location in a Likert scale of values. Rate
yourself along the following traits:
Low High
Honesty 1 2 3 4 5

 Devil's advocate - Teacher acts "contravida" in order to make students think.

An example is when a Values Education teacher appears to favor abortion in order to
generate reactions from the class. Teacher, however, makes clear his/her stand on abortion
before the class discussion ends.
  Conflict story - Teacher presents a conflict situation then asks the students for the right thing
to do.
Example: The establishment of a plastic factory in your community means employment of
people from the community but it may also mean pollution of your air and river and
contamination of water supply. What's the right thing to do?
 Brainstorming
 Buzz session
 Interactive computer games
 Question and answer
 Anticipation guide - This will give you insight into how students think and feel about a topic
related to your curriculum. Your students will be immediately engaged in the content and
curious about what will come next in your lesson. You may invite students to compare their
responses with a learning partner and then discuss the statements as a class. Here is a sample.
Direction: before we begin reading the book _____, please read each statement. In the anticipation
column write “YES” for statements with which you agree and “NO” for those with which you disagree.
Remember to write your reason for agreeing or disagreeing. Anticipation Statements
_____1. Parents are always stronger than children. Reason:
_____2. It is possible for children to feel suicidal. Reason:
_____3. No wars have been fought in Europe since World War II. Reason:

Developmental Activities
If you wish to reduce, if not wipe out, clock-watchers in your classroom, then don’t do the same
things everyday. Definitely, you want engaged learners who are eager to participate in your lesson. Then
observe variety in your activities. Here are some activities in the development of a lesson:
For Data -gathering
 Interview
 Library research
 Internet research
 Reading
 Lecture- But don’t abuse it!
 Inviting resource speakers
 Field trip
 Experiment
 Panel discussion
 Hands-on learning
 Case study
For Organizing and Summarizing
 Using graphic organizers
 Jingles, rap, song
 Verses
 Acrostic
  Power point presentation
For Application / Creative activities
 Solving real-word problems (using skills and information related to curriculum)
 Performances and demonstrations of skill mastery
 Authentic projects (created for a real purpose-such as a model of a student store to be housed in
the cafeteria and run by student council)
 Portfolios of students’ best work and work I progress
 Letters to the editor (school newspaper or local newspaper)
 Power point presentations
 Brochures
 Writing and performing a song, rap, or musical
 News report for a local news program
 Television talk show
 Mock debates and mock trials
 Mock job interviews
 Personal narratives
 Cartoons, comic strips
 Organizing a symposium
For Concluding activities
The concluding part of the lesson is as important as the opening and the central parts. In fact, the
last things that are said and done are usually what are etched in the minds and hearts of out students. we
can’t, therefore, afford to take it for granted. We have to tie loose ends before we end our lesson. Here are
some activities that can help us significantly.
 Finish and review the KWL Chart (L, means I learned. Make sure students complete:
I learned __________________.
 “passport to leave” – Each student writes down one thing s/he has learned and shares it with the
class before leaving.
 Journal writing at the end of the period – Some prompts to use for a closing journal:
- Explain to another student, who may have been absent today, what you learned about ______.
- What are some real word examples that reflect the same concept that we studied today?
 Preview coming attractions: Introduce a portion of the next day’s lesson in the form of a preview
or teaser.
 3/2/1 Countdown: Students finish these statements:
- 3 facts I learned today …
- 2 ways I will use the information / skills I learned today …
- 1 question I have …
 Using analogies
 Completing unfinished sentences – From this lesson, I learned that _________.
 Synthesize or summarize the lesson

For Elaborative Learning

Small Group Discussion
 1. Can an activity be used at the beginning of a lesson be also used for the ending not necessarily for
the same lesson? Explain your answer.
Classroom Observation and Research
1. Observe a class or two. Based on your class observations, add to the list of opening,
developmental, and concluding activities.
2. Research on more activities that can be used in the different phases of the lesson.

1. Direct/ expositive Instruction Approach

 Direct Instruction
 Deductive Method
 Demonstration Method
2. Guided / Exploratory Approach
 Inductive
 Inquiry
 Problem solving
 Project
 Metacognitive
 Constructivist
 Reflective teaching
 Cooperative learning
 Peer teaching / tutoring
 Partner learning
3. Process-oriented methods
 Inductive
 Inquiry
 Laboratory
 Problem solving
 Project

Cognitive -oriented methods

 Metacognitive
 Constructivist
 Reflective teaching
Structure-oriented
 Cooperative learning
 Peer tutoring/ teaching
 Partner learning

Student-focused teaching strategies

 1. Gamification. Classroom gamification is an effective way to take a child's love for
play and turn it into a love of learning
2. Convergent and divergent thinking
3. Project-based learning
4. Experiential learning
5. Peer teaching
6. Inquiry-based learning
7. Problem-based learning
8. Reciprocal teaching

Online Teaching Strategies