Cultural Patterns- life skills that humankind developed to transform a hostile

environment into one that is life-sustaining.

Life skills- included (1) tool or instrument making, (2) adherence to the moral
behaviour code of group of life, and (3) language.

- Early humankind found security in group life based on kinship and tribal patters.

- Life in the human group was educational as children observed and learned from
the elders and as they were deliberately taught by parents and elders (also for the
continuation of the cultural patterns).

Socialization

 A function of education in the society.

 The process by which individuals internalize the norms and values of the
society and so social and cultural continuity are attained.
 Also an informal education in action.

Key Periods in Educational History (7000 B.C. to AD 1600):

Historical Educational Curriculum Agents Influences on
Group or Goals Western
Period Education

Primitive Survival Skills to Hunting, Parents, tribal Role of

societies 7000- cultivate group Fishing, Food elders, and priests. informal
5000 B.C. cohesiveness. gathering, education in
stories, myths, transmission
songs, poems, of skills and
dances. values.

Greek 1600- 300 Cultivate civic Athenian- Athens- private Athens-

B.C. responsibility and reading, writing, teachers & concept of the
identity in with arithmetic, schools; Sophists; well-rounded,
city-state; drama, music, philosophers liberally
PE, literature, educated
Athenian: well- poetry. Sparta: military person.
rounded person. teachers, drill
Spartan: drill, sergeants. Sparta: The
Spartan: to military songs concept of the
develop soldiers and tactics. military state.
and military
leaders.

Roman 750 Sense of civic Reading, Private teachers & Ability to use
B.C.- A.D. 450 responsibility for writing, schools; schools of education for
republic and then arithmetic, Laws rhetoric. practical
empire; to of Twelve administrative
develop Tables, law, and skills; relating
administrative philosophy. education to
and military skills. civic
responsibility.
 Arabic A.D. 700- Cultivate religious Reading, Mosques; court Arabic
1400 commitment to writing, schools numerals and
Islamic beliefs; to mathematics, computation,
develop expertise religious re-entry of
on mathematics, literature; classical
science, and scientific materials on
medicine. studies. science and
medicine.

Medieval A.D. Religious Reading, Parish, chantry, Establishing

500- 1400 commitment, writing, and cathedral the structure,
knowledge, and arithmetic, schools; content, and
ritual; to re- liberal arts; universities; organization of
establish social philosophy; apprenticeship; the universities
order; to prepare theology; crafts; knighthood. as a major
persons for military tactics institution of
appropriate roles. and chivalry. higher
education; the
institutionali-
zation and
preservation of
knowledge.

Renaissance Humanist who Latin, Greek, Classical humanist Literary

A.D. 1350- 1500 was expert in the classical educators and knowledge,
classics- Greek literature, schools such as excellence,
and Latin; to poetry, art. lycee, gymnasium, and style as
prepare courtiers Latin grammar expressed in
foe service to schools. classical
dynastic leaders. literature; a
two-track
system of
schools.

Reformation A sense of Reading, Vernacular Commitment

A.D. 1500- 1600 commitment to a writing, elementary to universal
particular arithmetic, schools for the education to
religious catechism, masses; classical provide
denomination; to religious schools for the literacy to the
cultivate general concepts and upper classes. masses; the
literacy. ritual; Latin and origins of the
Greek; theology. school
systems with
supervision to
ensure
doctrinal
conformity.

The History of the Philippine Educational System

Sociological Concept- Education is a function of society and as much what are

taught in schools arise from the nature and character of society itself. What society
considers important is what schools teach.
Education during the Pre-colonial period:

 Informal and unstructured, decentralized.

 Fathers taught their sons to look for food and livelihood and mothers
taught their daughters of household chores.
 Prepares for being wives and child.
 More on vocational and lesser in academics.
 Teachers were tribal tutors (Babaylan or Katalonan)

Education during the Spanish era:

 Formal and organized and utilitarian in nature.

 Tutors were replaced by Spanish missionaries.
 Pupils attended formal schooling in the parochial school.
 Instruction was religious-oriented. (required for confession & communion)
 Separated schools for girls and boys.
 Wealthy Filipinos or the ilustrados were accommodated in the schools.

The Educational Decree of 1863 (LAW)

Complete system of education from elementary to collegiate level of

Filipinos. Although religion was the core of the curriculum, it included subjects
reading, writing, arithmetic, history Christian doctrine, Spanish language, vocal
music, agriculture for the boys and needlework for the girls. Attendance is
compulsory from ages 7-12.

Education during the American Regime 1898-1946

 Promoted democratic ideals and the democratic way of life.

 Schools by Spaniards for 3 centuries were closed but reopened in August
29, 1898 by the secretary of the Interior.
 Free and compulsory system- Malolos Constitution
 Political Institution of 1899.
 May 1898, first American school in Corregidor, after the capture of Manila
in 1899, 7 schools were opened in the city.
 Training- through schools manned by Chaplains and US Military Officers.
 Thomasites- August 23, 1901. UP (first state school of university status)
was founded in 1908.
 3 level school system. (Dept. of Public Instruction). 1 st the 7-year
elementary school. 2nd the 4-year high school. And 3rd the 4-year program.

The Commonwealth Period (1935-1942)

 1935 Constitution- free education in public schools.

 Vocational/household activities; sewing, cooking, & farming.
 Nationalism, good manners and discipline.
 Private schools to observe public schools.
 Formal adult education was also given.
Executive Order No. 134 (of 1935), Manuel L. Quezon

 Ex. Order No. 217/ Quezon Code of Ethics.

 Ex. Order No. 263 (1940) teaching of the Filipino, national language in the
senior year in all high school and in all years in the normal schools.

Education Act of 1940 (C.A. 586), Philippine Assembly (Aug. 07)

 Reduction of the 7 year elementary course to 6 years.

 Fixing the school entrance age @7.
 National support for the elementary education.
 Compulsory attendance enrolled in Grade 1.
 Double-single sessions in the primary grade with 1 teacher 1 class
assignment of intermediate teachers.

The Japanese Occupation

 Philippines as a member of the East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.

 Eradication of reliance upon Western States/US and Great Britain.
 New Filipino culture based on the consciousness of people of Orientals.
 Giving up over-emphasis on materialism.
 Diffusion of elementary education & promotion of vocation education.
 Diffusion of Japanese language & the termination of the use of English in
schools & love of labor.

Post-colonial Philippines

 Education @ full realization of democratic ideals & way of life.

 Civic Service Eligibility of teachers was made permanent pursuant to R.A.
1079 in June 15, 1954.
 Daily flag ceremony in all schools (R.A. 1265, June 11, 1955).
 Life, words, & writings of Rizal; Noli Me Tangere & El Filibusterismo.
 Elementary education was nationalized & matriculation fees were
abolished.
 Magna Carta for Teachers was passed into law of virtue of R.A. 4670.
 Fundamental aims of Education in 1973 Constitution are: foster love of
country, teach the duties of citizenship, develop moral character, self-
discipline and scientific, technological & vocational efficiency.

Other Developments

 Integration of values, emphasis on mastery learning.

 YDT and CAT- new courses Media of Instruction-Bilingual Education Policy: Use
of English & Filipino as media of instruction in schools.
 Education Act of 1982- Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports.
 National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) Ex. Order No. 117- President
Corazon C. Aquino renamed DECS in 1987.
 Board Professional Teachers composed of 5 under PRC.
 PBET(Professional Board Examination for Teachers) to LET
  Transfer of administering LET from CSC & DECS to the Board of Professional
Teachers under PRC.
 Trifocalization of Education System- refocused DECS’ mandate to basic education
which covers elementary, secondary & nonformal education, including culture &
sports. TESDA now administers the post-secondary, middle-level manpower
training and development R.A. 7796- Technical Education and Skills Development
Act of 1994.
 CHED- higher education. R.A. 7722- Higher Education Act of 1994.
 Aug. 2001, Republic Act 9155 (Governance of Basic Education Act) was passed
transforming the name Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) to
DepEd and redefining the role of field offices (regional, division, district, and school
offices). Provided the overall framework for (i) school head empowerment by
strengthening their leadership roles & (ii) school-based management within the
context of transparency and local accountability. Goal of Basic Education: to
provide skills, knowledge, and values to become caring, self-reliant, productive and
patriotic citizens.
 Governance of Basic Ed Act (R.A. 9155); renaming DECS to DepEd and redefining
the role of field offices which include the regional offices, divisions, offices, district
offices and schools.
 Values Education is offered as a separate subject in NSEC and integrated in all
subject areas in both curricula Implementation of New Secondary Education
Curriculum (NSEC)
 R.A. 10157, Jan 20, 2012 Kindergarten Act
 K to 12 Program (R.A 10533), May 15, 2013 - to provide sufficient time for mastery
of concepts and skills, develop lifelong learners, and prepare graduates for tertiary
education, middle-level skills development, employment, and entrepreneurship.

Varied Goals of Education in Different Historical Periods of Philippine history

What was considered important in each historical period of the country was
also the focus or direction of the education of the Filipino.

 Pre-colonial period, students were given vocational training but lesser

academics for them to be good fathers and mothers.
 Spanish period, schools focused on religious formation to help them live
the Christian faith.
 The American regime educated the Filipinos to become good citizens of a
democratic country while the Japanese regime taught them love of labor.
 The post-colonial period educational system was devoted to the following
goals: 1) foster love of country; 2) teach the duties of citizenship; 3)
develop moral character self-discipline; and 4) scientific, technological and
vocational efficiency.
 The present DepEd vision and mission statement and core values and the
fourth mission of the Commission on Higher Education add light to the
current educational system.

To produce thoughtful graduates imbued with 1) values reflective of a humanist

orientation (e.g. fundamental respect for others as human beings with intrinsic
rights, cultural rootedness, avocation to serve;) 2) analytical and problem solving
skills; 3) the ability to think things through the ethical and social implication of a
given source of action; and 4) the competency to learn continuously throughout life
that will enable them to live meaningfully in a complex, rapidly changing and
globalized world while engaging (in) their community and the nation's development
issues and concern. - Commission on Higher Education.

The Department of Education vision, mission and core values:

The DepEd Vision

We dream of Filipinos who passionately love their country and whose values and
competencies enable them to realize their full potential and contribute meaningfully
to building the nation.

The DepEd Mission

To protect and promote the right of every Filipino to quality, quitable, culture-based,
and complete basic education where:

Students learn in a child-friendly, gender-sensitive, safe, and motivating

environment.

Teachers facilitate learning and constantly nurture every learner.

Administrators and staff, as stewards of the institution, ensure an

enabling and supportive environment for effective learning to happen.

Family, community, and other stakeholders are actively engaged and

share responsibility for developing life-long learners.

Our Core Values: Maka-Diyos, Maka-tao, Makakalikasan, and Makabansa

The Importance of Studying History of Education

Why do we have to bother with the educational goals of the past which is past and
so we can no longer undo? Dewey explains why a study of the history of education
is valuable:

1. Educational issues and problems are often rooted in the past, the study of
educational history can help us to understand and solve today's problems,

2. Realistic effort to reform education begin with present conditions which are a
product of our past; by using our past, we can shape the future.

3. The study of education's past provides a perspective that explains and

illuminates our present activities as teachers.
Essential Characteristics: Authentic, complex, open-ended, time-bound,
process/product oriented.

Purposes:

 Track learners' work on a task (i.e.,assessment FOR learning)

 Show them the value of their work process
 Help them self-monitor so they can use tools such as reflections, working
effectively

PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT is also known as:

 Authentic assessment
 Alternative assessment
 Active learning
 Performance assessment

Examples of PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT

 Individual or group projects

 Portfolio
 Performance
 Journal, etc

Advantages

 Encourages collaboration within groups

 Learner-centered
 Assesses the 3 domains (C-A-P)
 More retention of learning (Re:Cone ofLearning)
 Promotes student creativity

Disadvantages

 Students can easily cheat in the assessment

 Too expensive
 Too much time needed to complete the project
 For teachers, too much time allotted for making rubrics

Steps in Developing Performance Tests for Learners

1. Deciding on what to test (Objectives)

2. Designing the assessment context
3. Specifying the scoring rubric
4. Specifying testing constraints

Main Takeaways

 Assessment of learning does not only revolve around the traditional means
(multiple choice, essay,exams,etc,.)
  Assessment of Learning 1 has introduced to you the traditional forms of
assessment
 Assessment of Learning 2 will introduce you to the non-traditional means
of assessment

Traditional vis a vis Performace Assessment

Seven Criteria in Selecting a Good Performance Task

1. Authenticity
2. Feasibility
3. Generalizability
4. Fairness
5. Teachability
6. Multiple Foci
7. Scorability

Criteria and Conception of Performance Tasks

Why use performance tasks?

 Authentic assessments are direct measures.

 We do not just want students to know the contents of the disciplines when
they graduate. We, of course, want them to be able to use the acquired skills in
the real world. So, our assessments must tell us if students can apply what they
have learned in authentic situations.

Can you think of professions which require some direct demonstration of

relevant skills before someone can be employed in that field?

 Authentic assessments capture the constructive nature of learning.

We cannot simply be fed with knowledge. We need to construct our own

meaning of the world, using the information we have gathered and were taught
and our own experiences with the world (Bransford &Vye,1989).

 Authentic assessments integrate teaching, learning, and assessment.

In the authentic assessment model, the same authentic task used to

measure students' ability to apply the knowledge or skills is used as a vehicle for
student learning.

When we are presented with a real-world problem to solve, students are

learning in the process of developing, a solution. Teachers are facilitating the
process, and the students' solution to the problems becomes an assessment of
how well the students can meaningfully apply the concepts.

 Authentic assessments provide multiple paths of demonstration.

We all have different strengths and weaknesses in how we learn. Similarly,

we are different in how we can best demonstrate what we have learned. Testing
favors those who are best test-takers.

Authenticity

• The task is realistically implementable in relation to its cost, space, time, and
equipment requirements.
Feasibility

• The task is similar to what the students might encounter in real world as
opposed to what they encounter only in school.

Generalizability

• The likelihood that the students' performance on the task will generalize to
comparable results.

Fairness

• The task is fair to all students regardless of their social status and gender.

Teachability

• The task allows one to master the skill that one should be proficient in.

Multiple foci (singular, focus)

• The task measures multiple instructional outcomes.

Scorability

• The task can be reliably and accurately evaluated.

Seven Criteria in Selecting a Good Performance Task

Developing Performance Tasks

Step 1: Identify the standard

Standards, like goals, are statements of what students should know and
be able to do. However, standards are typically more narrow in scope_and more
amenable assessment than goals.

Example: Students will be able to add two-digits correctly.

Step 2: Select an authentic task

Find a way students can demonstrate that they are fully capable of
meeting the standard. The language of well-written standard can spell out what a
task should ask the students to do to demonstrate the mastery of it.

Step 3: Identify the criteria for the task

Ask "What does good performance in this task look like?" or "How will I
know if they have done a good job in this task?"

Criteria: Indicators of good performance on a task

Step 3: Identify the criteria for the task

Characteristics of a good criterion:

  clearly stated
 brief
 observable
 statement of behavior
 written in a language students understand

Step 3: Identify the criteria for the task

Standard: The student will conduct banking transactions.

Task: Make deposits, withdrawals or cash checks at a bank

Criteria: Selects needed form (deposit, withdrawal), Fills in form with necessary
information, endorses check, locates open teller, states type of transaction.

Step 4: Create the rubric.

Once you have identified the criteria you want to look for as indicators of
good performance, you decide next whether to consider the criteria holistically or
analytically.
LESSON 1- The K-12 Curriculum Framework

The implementation of the K to 12 Curriculum of the Department of Education

paved the way for the enhancement of the Teacher Education Curriculum of the
Commission on Higher Education (CHED). The salient features of the K to
12Curriculum have been thoroughly considered to ensure that all courses in the
teacher education program will meet the demands of the 21st century classrooms.
One of the considerations is the need to implement the following features of the
curriculum through integrating technologies for teaching and learning. The use of
technologies is done in the different levels of learning and in the various fields of
specialization.

1. Strengthening Early Childhood Education (Universal Kindergarten)

With the Universal Kindergarten program of the Department, every Filipino

child is expected to have access to early childhood education. This access
can be facilitated using technological tools that are readily available to the
school for teachers’ use.

2. Making the Curriculum Relevant to Relevant to Learners

(Contextualization and Enhancement)

Research shows that learners will value a curriculum that is relevant to

their lives. Sara Bernard (2010) stressed that students need to have a
personal connection toa lesson material that can be done through
engaging them emotionally or through connecting the information with that
which they already know.

Briggs (2014) shared some few tips for making learning engaging and personally
relevant as cited by Willis, Faeth, and Immordino-Yang:

 Use suspense and keep it fresh.

Drop hints about a new learning unit before you reveal what it
might be, leave gaping pauses in your speech, change seating
arrangements, and put up new and relevant posters or displays;
all these can activate emotional signals and keep student interest
piqued.

 Make it student-directed.

Give students a choice of assignments on atopic or ask them to

design one of their own.

 Connect to their lives and to what they already know.

Taking the time to brainstorm about what students already know

and would like to learn about a topic helps them to create goals.
This also help teachers see the best points of departure for new
ideas.
  Provide utility value.

Utility value provides relevance first by piquing students and by

telling them the content is important to their future goals; it then
continues by showing or explaining how the content fits into their
plans in the future.

 Build relatedness.

Relatedness on the other hand, answers the question, “What have

these to do with me?”. Relatedness is seen by many as having
non-academic and academic sides.

To be able to apply the tips recommended by various experts and to allow students
to realize the value of their curriculum, technological tools can be used. 21st century
learners are expected to be demonstrating 21st century competencies such as
collaboration, digital literacy, critical thinking, and problem solving to be able to
thrive in this world (Rich, 2014). Contextualizing the curriculum of the students for
meaningful learning poses challenges in enhancing teachers’ pedagogical skills as
well as technological skills

3. Building Proficiency (Mother-tongue Based Multilingual Education)

To be able to promote the child’s dominant language and to use it as a

language instruction, maximum use of technological tools is highly
encouraged. Currently, a lot of teachers and schools are into developing
learning materials to be able to implement the MTB-MLE program properly
especially that there is a dearth of printed and e-materials in the mother-
tongue of students.

4. Ensuring Integrated and Seamless Learning (Spiral Progression)

Learning basic concepts that lead to a more complex and sophisticated

version of the general concepts entail TPACK: Technological knowledge,
pedagogical knowledge, and content knowledge. Rediscovering concepts
previously presented as students go up in grade level will be fully
supported if all the areas of specialization will be aided by technologies for
teaching and learning.

5. Gearing Up for the Future

The K to 12 Curriculum ensure college readiness by aligning the core and

applied courses to the College Readiness Standards (CRS) and the new
General Education (GE) Curriculum.

6. Nurturing the Holistically Developed Filipino (College and Livelihood

readiness, 21st Century Skills)
 To nurture holistically developed Filipino, every K to 12 graduate is
expected to be ready to go into different paths- higher education,
employment, or entrepreneurship.

LESSON 2 - ICT- Pedagogy Integration in Learning Plans

Teaching has always been a challenging profession since knowledge has

been expanding and essential skills have been increasing and changing. With
these challenges, teachers need to engage educational technologies to assist
them in the teaching-learning process. Engaging educational technologies in
teaching are founded on principles and philosophies. Understanding these will help
you successfully integrate technologies to allow your students to demonstrate the
intended learning outcomes of your field of specialization.

1. Integrating Technology in Instruction1.John Pisapia (1994)

Integrating technology with teaching means the use of learning

technologies to introduce, reinforce, supplement, and extend skills.

2. International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE)

Effective integration of technology is achieved when students can

select technology tools to help them obtain information and present it
professionally. Technology should become an integral part of how the
classroom functions- as accessible as all other classroom tools.

3. Margaret Lloyd (2005)

ICT integration encompasses an integral part of broader

curriculum reforms which include both infrastructural as well as
pedagogical considerations that are changing not only how
learning occurs but what is learned.

4. Qiyun Wang and Huay Lit Woo (2007)

ICT integration can happen in three different areas: curriculum,

topic, and lesson.

5. Bernard Bahati (2010)

The process of integrating ICT in teaching and learning must be

done at both pedagogical and technological levels with much
emphasis of pedagogy.

6. UNESCO (2005)

ICT integration is not merely mastering the hardware and software

skills. Teachers need to realize how to organize the classroom to
structure the learning tasks.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

The following are the definitions of ICT from various sources.

1. Moursund (2005)

ICT includes all the full range of computer hardware, computer software.
And telecommunications facilities. It also includes computerized
machinery and computerized robots.

2. Tinio (2009)

ICT is a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to

communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information. These
technologies include hardware devices, software applications, internet
connectivity, broadcasting technologies, and telephony.

3. UNESCO (2020)

It (ICT) is a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to

transmit, store, create, share, or exchange information. UNESCO defines
it also as a scientific, technological, and engineering discipline and
management technique. ICT also refers to handling information, its
application, and association with social, economic, and cultural matters.

4. Ratheeswari (2018)

Information Communication Technologies (ICT) influence every aspect of

human life. They play salient roles in workplaces, in business, education,
and entertainment. In this digital era, ICT is important in the classroom for
giving students opportunities to learn and apply the required the required
21st Century skills. It helps a teacher to present his/her lessons attractively
and enables learners to learn at any level of educational program.
The Nature of Language Learning

Language- is a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written

symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and
participants in its culture, express themselves. The functions of language include
communication, the expression of identity, play, imaginative expression, and
emotional release. And also systematic way of communicating ideas and feelings.
It consists of a set of symbols, such as words, gestures, or signs, that are combined
according to rules to create meaning.

Language is used for a variety of purposes, including:

• Communication: Sharing information and ideas with others.

• Expression: Expressing thoughts, feelings, and experiences.

• Social interaction: Building and maintaining relationships with others.

• Creativity: Creating art, literature, and other forms of expression.

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or understanding through

experience, study, or teaching, leading to a lasting change in behavior, attitudes,
or capabilities.

Language Acquisition and Language Learning

What is language acquisition?

Children usually acquire language in a naturalistic, informal, subconscious way.

What is language learning?

Language learning, as opposed to language acquisition, is the learning of a

language in a more formal setting, usually with direct instruction.

Theories of First Language Acquisition

1. Theorist and the Behavioristic Approaches

Behaviorism: focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior.

• It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and

reinforcement.

• Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is a popular concept that focuses

on how students learn. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are
learned through interaction with the environment.

John B. Watson (Father of behaviorism within psychology) 1878-1958- An

American psychologist who played a significant role in the development of
behaviorism, a school of psychology that emphasizes the study of observable
behaviors.

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)- A Russian physiologist born in 1849. He

is best known for his work in classical conditioning, a type of learning where an
organism associates a neutral stimulus with a significant event.

Classical Conditioning in Language Acquisition- In the context of language

acquisition, classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an
already meaningful one to evoke a response. While classical conditioning is not
the primary, mechanism for language learning, it can play a role in establishing
emotional associations with language elements.

Four Components of Condition

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally and

automatically triggers a response.

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in

response to the unconditioned response.

The conditioned stimulus is previously natural stimulus that, after becoming

associate with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a
conditioned response.

The conditioned response is the learned response to previously natural stimulus.

Connectionism Theory (Edward Lee Thorndike)- Theory gave us the original S-

R framework of behavioral psychology. He explained that learning is the result of
associations forming between stimuli and responses.

The Six Laws

 Law of Effect
 Law of Exercise
 Law of Readiness
 Law of Primacy
 Law of Recency
 Law of Intensity
Operant Conditioning (Burrhus Frederick Skinner)- An American psychologist
and behaviorist who developed the theory of operant conditioning. His work
focused on the study of how behavior is influenced by its consequences. Skinner
proposed that behavior could be modified through reinforcement or punishment,
shaping an individual's actions.

Operant Conditioning in Language Development- Operant conditioning is more

directly applicable to language acquisition. It involves learning through the
consequences of one's actions. In language learning, this means acquiring and
refining language skills based on reinforcement or punishment.

Key Elements of Operant Conditioning

Behavior Shaping Reinforcement- In the context of first language acquisition,

behavior shaping involves guiding and reinforcing an infant's early language
attempts toward the development of more complex linguistic skills.

Reinforcement- Reinforcement in the context of first language acquisition refers

to the use of positive feedback and encouragement to strengthen a child's
language behaviors.

Punishment- While the application of punishment in language acquisition is

limited and generally discouraged, it may involve the gentle correction or
redirection of inappropriate language use.

2. Theorist and Nativist Approach

Nativist Approach- Noam Chomsky (1957) proposes that children are born with
an instinct or drive for language learning which he calls the language acquisition
device (LAD).

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)- Is a hypothetical tool in the brain proposed

by linguist Noam Chomsky that allows human beings to learn a language.

Ex: Mara, a 1 year old baby wants to eat biscuits. She begins to form sounds in
attempt to communicate with those around her. With that, her LAD activates.
Words and sentences follow quickly because she already has an innate knowledge
of the basic rules of language. "MOMMY BISCUITS"

- By saying that language is an innate faculty, chomsky implies that

children are born with a set of rules about language in their head which he calls
the "Universal Grammar".

Universal Grammar- A set of innate principles and adjustable parameters that are
common to all human languages. Focuses on the structural relationships rather
than the linear order of the words.

Ex: Your cat is friendly?- Is your cat friendly?

Language acquisition is instinctive

Criticisms of Chomsky’s Model

 The model ignores the importance of social interaction.

 The model cannot explain why individuals with certain learning disabilities
such as Down’s Syndrome have delayed language.

3. Theorist and Cognitive Theory

Basic Cognitive Concepts

 Schema- the building blocks of knowledge.

 Assimilation- the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive structure or schema.
 Accommodation- the process of creating a new schema.
 Equilibration- achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accomodation.

4 Stages of Cognitive Development

 Sensori-motor stage (birth-2 years) - children will learn predominantly

through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.
 Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)- children begin to develop symbolic
thought and can create an internal representation of the world via
language and mental imagery.
 Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)- children begin to think more
logically about concrete events and solve problems.
 Formal operational stage (ages 12 and up)- involves increased logical
thought and the beginning of the ability to understand more abstract and
theoretical concepts.

4. Theorist and the Functional Approaches

Michael Halliday

 He was a British linguist who studied child language acquisition.

 Halliday suggested that communication and language acquisition begins
before children can speak.

What is Functional Approach?

Also known as the functionalist perspective, is a major sociological theory

that views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability.

Types of Functional Approaches

Instrumental Function- Language that is used to fulfill a need, such as to obtain

food, drink or comfort.

Ex: "I want," "Can I have," "I need"

Regulatory Function- Language that is used to influence the behaviour of others
including persuading, commanding or requesting.

Ex: "Let's go home now," "You need to finish that work by tomorrow," "Can you
give me the report from yesterday?"

Interaction Function- Language used to form relationships, express emotions,

and strengthen bonds with others.

Ex: "I love you, mom," "Thank you so much"

Personal Function- Language used to express personal opinions, emotions, and

identity, as well as to seek information about the world.

Ex: "Me good," "Me happy," "What's that?"

Heuristic Function- Language associated with discovery and explanation, often

through questions and self-narration.

Ex: "The horsey goes over to the dinosaur and says hello," "What's that?"

Representational Function- Language used to request and relay information

between people, exchanging facts and experiences.

Ex: "What's that?" "What does that do?" "I was walking down the street and a cat
jumped out in front of me."

Imaginative Function- Language used in storytelling and imaginative play,

creating fictional scenarios and characters.

Ex: Pretending to be in a house, spaceship, or adopting different characters during

play.

5. Theorist and Stages in Child Language Acquisition

 Language development begins from the very first day after birth. By the
age of 5, the child knows most of the system of language and it continues
even after the age of 5.
 Research indicates babies listen to their mother's voice during the last few
months of pregnancy.
 Over the first few years of life, children progress through predictable
stages of language development, marked by significant milestones in their
ability to understand and produce speech.

I. Pre-linguistic Stage (2-6 months)

 Pre-linguistic stage typically occurs anywhere within the first 2 and 4

months of a child's life.
 This stage tends to last until the child is six months old, though this varies
depending on their individual development.
  The first main stage of language acquisition in children follows their initial
crying and fusing periods
 Some of the sounds, such as crying, are non-reflexive. Others, such as
cooing, are 'alleviation sounds' and are a (of the beginning of vocal tract
development.
 Babies aged two to six months may also engage in vocal play.
 The Pre-linguistic stage of language acquisition is characterized by
the following: Grunts, sighs, coos, squeals, snorts, growls, yells

II. Babbling Stage (6-12 months)

 Babbling stage typically occurs from around the 6-month mark following
birth, depending on the child's development.
 It's at this point of their linguistic development that children begin to use
their speech organs to create a series of non-coherent sounds, hence the
name babbling.
 Alongside babbling, children also begin to make a series of extended
sounds that resemble syllables in many instances.
 The sounds produced are random because babies are just experimenting
with making noise and getting ready to talk, even though they're not saying
actual words yet.

III. Holophrastic or One-Word Stage (12-18 months)

 In the holophrastic or one-word stage, children begin to use single words

to convey whole ideas or intentions.
 These single words are often used holophrastically, meaning that one
word stands for an entire phrase or concept.
 For example, a child might say "milk" to request a glass of milk or "up" to
indicate a desire to be picked up.

IV. Two-Word Stage (18-24 months)

 Most commonly begins at somewhere between the one year and one and
a half year mark.
 This is the primary stage at which children begin to articulate actual words.
 Children start combining words to form simple two-word phrases or mini-
sentences.
 These utterances often consist of a noun and a verb or an adjective and a
noun, such as: big dog, eat banana

V. Telegraphic Stage (2-3yrs)

 The telegraphic stage occurs at around the 24-month mark, but can
sometimes occur as late as the 30-month mark.
 During the telegraphic stage, children begin to verbalize more complex
sentences.
  One of the main identifiers of the telegraphic stage is that children begin
to use 'substance' semantic words but don't yet use connective language
such as 'is', 'can', 'too’, and 'an'.
 Children start to become more expressive when speaking. ‘What that?’,
‘Cat on bed’, ‘Me get drink’, ‘Where mummy?’, ‘No stay here’

VI. Grammatical Development Stage/ The Complex Period (3-5 yrs)

 Children continue to expand their vocabulary and acquire more complex

sentence structures.
 They develop a deeper understanding of grammar, including verb tense,
plurals, pronouns, and syntactic rules.
 By 5 years old: acquisition becomes slow but vocabulary continues to
grow.
 Developing morphology: start using functional words.
 Overgeneralization of rules: the child applies -s to the words like 'foots' or
'mans’.
 Developing semantics: overextend the meaning of a word on the basis of
shape and size. For example, use ball to refer all round things like an
apple, an egg, or a grape.

Influencing Factors in Language Acquisition

Environmental Factors:

 The linguistic input provided by caregivers and the linguistic richness of

the child's environment play crucial roles in language development.
 Children raised in bilingual or multilingual environments may follow
different language acquisition trajectories.

Social Interaction:

 Social interactions with caregivers, siblings, and peers provide

opportunities for language learning.
 Conversations, storytelling, and play activities facilitate language
development by exposing children to rich and varied language input.

Cognitive Factors:

 Cognitive abilities such as attention, memory, and processing speed

influence language acquisition.
 Children with certain cognitive impairments or developmental disorders
may experience delays or differences in language development.

Individual Differences:
  Each child's language acquisition journey is unique, influenced by factors
such as temperament, personality, and learning style.
 Some children may be early talkers, while others may take longer to
develop their language skills.

Challenges and Variability

Language Disorders:

- Some children experience language delays or disorders, such as specific

language impairment (SLI) or developmental language disorder (DLD), which
require specialized intervention and support.

Variability in Language Development:

- There is considerable variability in the rate and pattern of language development

among children.

- Factors such as socio-economic status, cultural background, and individual

differences contribute to this variability.

Critical Period Hypothesis:

- Some researchers propose that there is a critical period during early childhood
when language acquisition is most efficient and optimal.

- The critical period hypothesis suggests that language learning becomes

increasingly difficult after a certain age, although the exact timing and duration of
this critical period are still debated.