*9.

3 Singularity Functions to Determine Slope and Deflection

*9.3 SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS

TO DETERMINE SLOPE
AND DEFLECTION
The integration method provides a convenient and effective way of deter-
mining the slope and deflection at any point of a prismatic beam, as long
as the bending moment can be represented by a single analytical function
M(x). However, when the loading of the beam needs two different func-
tions to represent the bending moment over the entire length, as in Con-
cept Application 9.3 (Fig. 9.11a), four constants of integration are required.
An equal number of equations, expressing continuity conditions at point
D as well as boundary conditions at supports A and B, must be used to
determine these constants. If three or more functions are needed for the
bending moment, additional constants and a corresponding number of
additional equations are required, resulting in rather lengthy computa-
tions. Such is the case for the beam shown in Photo 9.2. This section sim-
plifies computations in situations like this through the use of the singularity
functions discussed in Sec. 5.4.

P
L/4
3L/4

Photo 9.2 In this roof structure, each of the open-web joists applies a concentrated
A B
load to the beam that supports it.
D
(a)
Consider again the beam and loading of Concept Application 9.3
(Fig. 9.11) and draw the free-body diagram of that beam (Fig. 9.18). Use Fig. 9.11 (repeated) Simply supported beam with
transverse load P.
the appropriate singularity function (Sec. 5.4) to represent the contribu-
tion to the shear of the concentrated load P, and write y P

2 P Hx 2 14 LI0
3P L/4
V1x2 5 3L/4
4
B x
A
Integrate in x and recall from Sec. 5.4 that, in the absence of any concen-
D
trated couple, the expression for the bending moment does not contain a
constant term, so 3 1
4
P 4
P

x 2 P Hx 2 14 LI
3P Fig. 9.18 Free-body diagram for beam
M1x2 5 (9.11)
4 of Fig. 9.11.
Deflection of Beams

Substituting for M(x) from Eq. (9.11) into Eq. (9.4),

d 2y
x 2 P Hx 2 14 LI
3P
EI 2 5 (9.12)
dx 4

and, integrating in x,

5 Px 2 2 P Hx 2 14 LI2 1 C1
dy 3 1
EI u 5 EI (9.13)
dx 8 2

Px 2 P Hx 2 14 LI3 1 C1x 1 C 2
1 3 1
EI y 5 (9.14)†
8 6

y
The constants C1 and C2 can be determined from the boundary con-
ditions shown in Fig. 9.19. Letting x 5 0, y 5 0 in Eq. (9.14),
[ x  0, y  0 ] [ x  L, y  0 ]
P H0 2 14 LI3 1 0 1 C2
1
A x 0502
B 6
Fig. 9.19 Boundary conditions for which reduces to C 2 5 0, since any bracket containing a negative quantity
beam of Fig. 9.11.
is equal to zero. Letting now x 5 L, y 5 0, and C2 5 0 in Eq. (9.14),

PL 2 P H4 LI 1 C1L
1 3 1 3 3
05
8 6

Since the quantity between brackets is positive, the brackets can be

replaced by ordinary parentheses. Solving for C1 gives

7PL2
C1 5 2
128

The expressions obtained for the constants C1 and C2 are the same
found in Concept Application 9.3. But the need for additional constants
C3 and C4 has been eliminated, and the equations expressing that the
slope and the deflection are continuous at point D are not needed.

†
The continuity conditions for the slope and deflection at D are “built-in” in Eqs. (9.13)
and (9.14). Indeed, the difference between the expressions for the slope u1 in AD and
the slope u2 in DB is represented by the term 212 P Hx 2 14 LI2 in Eq. (9.13), and this term
is equal to zero at D. Similarly, the difference between the expressions for the deflection
y1 in AD and the deflection y2 in DB is represented by 216 P Hx 2 14 LI3 in Eq. (9.14), and
this term is also equal to zero at D.

Concept Application 9.6

For the beam and loading shown (Fig. 9.20a) and using singularity
functions, (a) express the slope and deflection as functions of the dis-
tance x from the support at A, (b) determine the deflection at the mid-
point D. Use E 5 200 GPa and I 5 6.87 3 1026 m4.
(a) The beam is loaded and supported in the same manner as the
beam of Concept Application 5.5. Recall that the distributed load was
(continued)
 *9.3 Singularity Functions to Determine Slope and Deflection

P  1.2 kN replaced by the two equivalent open-ended loads shown in Fig. 9.20b.
w0  1.5 kN/m The expressions for the shear and bending moment are
M0  1.44 kN · m
C D
V1x2 5 21.5Hx 2 0.6I1 1 1.5Hx 2 1.8I1 1 2.6 2 1.2Hx 2 0.6I0
A E
E B
M1x2 5 20.75Hx 2 0.6I2 1 0.75Hx 2 1.8I2

1.2 m
1 2.6x 2 1.2Hx 2 0.6I1 2 1.44Hx 2 2.6I0
0.6 m 0.8 m 1.0 m
Integrating the last expression twice,
3.6 m

(a) EIu 5 20.25Hx 2 0.6I3 1 0.25Hx 2 1.8I3

1 1.3x 2 2 0.6Hx 2 0.6I2 2 1.44 Hx 2 2.6I1 1 C1 (1)
w
0.6 m
P  1.2 kN M0  1.44 kN · m EIy 5 20.0625Hx 2 0.6I4 1 0.0625Hx 2 1.8I4 1 0.4333x 3
w0  1.5 kN/m
2 0.2Hx 2 0.6I3 2 0.72Hx 2 2.6I2 1 C1x 1 C2 (2)
C B
A E
E x The constants C1 and C2 can be determined from the boundary
D conditions shown in Fig. 9.20c. Letting x 5 0, y 5 0 in Eq. (2) and not-
1.8 m ing that all the brackets contain negative quantities and, therefore, are
2.6 m
B equal to zero, we conclude that C2 5 0. Letting x 5 3.6, y 5 0, and
 w0   1.5 kN/m
C2 5 0 in Eq. (2) gives
A y  2.6 kN
(b) 0 5 20.0625H3.0I4 1 0.0625H1.8I4
1 0.433313.62 3 2 0.2H3.0I3 2 0.72H1.0I2 1 C1 13.62 1 0
y

[ x 5 0, y 5 0] [x 5 3.6, y 5 0]
A x Since all the quantities between brackets are positive, the brackets can
B
be replaced by ordinary parentheses. Solving for C1, we find
(c)
C1 5 22.692.
Fig. 9.20 (a) Simply supported beam (b) Substituting for C1 and C2 into Eq. (2) and making x 5 xD 5
with multiple loads. (b) Free-body 1.8 m, we find that the deflection at point D is defined by the
diagram of beam showing equivalent
loading system. (c) Boundary conditions.
relation

EIyD 5 20.0625H1.2I4 1 0.0625H0I4

1 0.433311.82 3 2 0.2H1.2I3 2 0.72H20.8I2 2 2.69211.82

The last bracket contains a negative quantity and, therefore, is equal

to zero. All the other brackets contain positive quantities and can be
replaced by ordinary parentheses.

EIyD 5 20.062511.22 4 1 0.0625102 4

1 0.433311.82 3 2 0.211.22 3 2 0 2 2.69211.82 5 22.794

Recalling the given numerical values of E and I,

1200 GPa2 16.87 3 1026 m4 2yD 5 22.794 kN?m3

yD 5 213.64 3 1023 m 5 22.03 mm
 5.4 Singularity Functions used to Determine Shear and Bending Moment
*

w0 Sample Problem 5.9

A B For the beam and loading shown, determine (a) the equations
D C E defining the shear and bending moment at any point and (b) the
shear and bending moment at points C, D, and E.
L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4
STRATEGY: After determining the support reactions, you can
2w0 write equations for w, V, and M, beginning from the left end of the
Slope  
2w0 L beam. Any abrupt changes in these parameters beyond the left end
w0 2w0
can be accommodated by adding appropriate singularity
A B
C B A C functions.
2w0
L/2 L/2 4w0 MODELING and ANALYSIS:
Slope  
L
Reactions. The total load is 12 w0 L. Due to symmetry, each reac-
Fig. 1 Modeling the distributed load as the
superposition of two distributed loads.
tion is equal to half that value as 14 w0 L.
w 2w0 Distributed Load. The given distributed loading is replaced by
k1 5 1 two equivalent open-ended loadings as shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
L
Using a singularity function to express the second loading,
B
A x
C
w1x2 5 k1x 1 k2Hx 2 12LI 5 Hx 2 12LI
2w0 4w0
4w0 x2 (1)
RA 5 14 w0L k2 5 2 RB L L
L
L/2 L/2
a. Equations for Shear and Bending Moment. V1x2 is
Fig. 2 Free body of beam with equivalent
distributed load. obtained by integrating Eq. (1), changing the signs, and adding a
constant equal to R A:
V 1
4 w0L
3
Hx 2 12LI2 1 14w0L
w0L w0 2 2w0
16
V1x2 5 2 x 1 (2) ◀
L L

C E B
A x M(x) is obtained by integrating Eq. (2). Since there is no concen-
D
trated couple, no constant of integration is needed, so
3
2 16 w0L
Hx 2 12LI3 1 14 w0Lx
w0 3 2w0
M1x2 5 2 x 1 (3) ◀
1
2 w0 L
4
3L 3L

b. Shear and Bending Moment at C, D, and E (Fig. 3)

M 1
w0L2
12 At Point C: Making x 5 12L in Eqs. (2) and (3) and recalling that
11
w0L2 whenever a quantity between brackets is positive or zero, the
192
brackets can be replaced by parentheses:

1 L2 1 H0I 1 4w0L
w0 1 2 2w0 2 1
VC 5 2 VC 5 0 ◀
x L 2 L
A D C E B
1 L2 1 H0I 1 4w0L1 12L2
w0 1 3 2w0 3 1 1
Fig. 3 Shear and bending-moment diagrams. MC 5 2 MC 5 w0L2 ◀
3L 2 3L 12
(continued)
Analysis and Design of Beams for Bending

At Point D: Making x 5 14L in Eqs. (2) and (3) and recalling that
a bracket containing a negative quantity is equal to zero gives

1 L2 1 H24LI 1 4w0L
w0 1 2 2w0 1 2 1 3
VD 5 2 VD 5 w0L ◀
L 4 L 16

1 L2 1 H2 LI 1 4w0L1 14L2
w0 1 3 2w0 1 3 1 11
MD 5 2 MD 5 w0L2 ◀
3L 4 3L 4 192

At Point E: Making x 5 34L in Eqs. (2) and (3) gives

1 L2 1 H LI 1 4w0L
w0 3 2 2w0 1 2 1 3
VE 5 2 VE 5 2 w0L ◀
L 4 L 4 16

1 L2 1 H LI 1 4 w0L1 34L2
w0 3 3 2w0 1 3 1 11
ME 5 2 ME 5 w0L2 ◀
3L 4 3L 4 192
Deflection of Beams

w0 Sample Problem 9.4

For the prismatic beam and loading shown, determine (a) the equa-
A B
C tion of the elastic curve, (b) the slope at A, (c) the maximum
deflection.
L/2 L/2
STRATEGY: You can begin by determining the bending-moment
equation of the beam, using a singularity function for any transition
in loading. Substituting this into the differential equation of the elastic
curve, integrating twice, and applying the boundary conditions, you
can then obtain the equation of the elastic curve. Use this equation to
find the desired slope and deflection.
MODELING: The equation defining the bending moment of the
beam was obtained in Sample Prob. 5.9. Using the modified loading
diagram shown in Fig. 1, we had [Eq. (3)]:

Hx 2 12 LI3 1 14 w0 Lx
w0 3 2w0
M1x2 5 2 x 1
3L 3L

w 2w0
k1 5 1
L

B
A x
C
1 4w0
RA 5 4 w0 L k2 5 2 RB
L

L/2 L/2
Fig. 1 Free-body diagram showing
modified loading.

ANALYSIS:
a. Equation of the Elastic Curve. Using Eq. (9.4),

d 2y
Hx 2 12 LI3 1 14 w0 Lx
w0 3 2w0
EI 52 x 1 (1)
dx 2 3L 3L

and, integrating twice in x,

Hx 2 12 LI4 1
w0 4 w0 w0 L 2
EI u 5 2 x 1 x 1 C1 (2)
12L 6L 8

Hx 2 12 LI5 1
w0 5 w0 w0 L 3
EI y 5 2 x 1 x 1 C1x 1 C2 (3)
60L 30L 24

(continued)
 *9.3 Singularity Functions to Determine Slope and Deflection

y Boundary Conditions. Referring to Fig. 2,

[x 5 0, y 5 0]: Using Eq. (3) and noting that each bracket H I
[ x  0, y  0 ] [ x  L, y  0 ] contains a negative quantity and is equal to zero, C2 5 0.
A x
C B [x 5 L, y 5 0]: Again using Eq. (3),

w0 L4 w0 L 5 w0 L4
a b 1
L 5
052 1 1 C1L C1 5 2 w0 L3
Fig. 2 Boundary conditions. 60 30L 2 24 192

Substituting C1 and C2 into Eqs. (2) and (3),

y
Hx 2 12 LI4 1
w0 4 w0 w0 L 2 5
EI u 5 2 x 1 x 2 w0 L3 (4)
uA 12L 6L 8 192
A x
ymax B
Hx 2 12 LI5 1
w0 5 w0 w0 L 3 5
C EI y 5 2 x 1 x 2 w0 L3x (5) b
L/2 60L 30L 24 192
Fig. 3 Deformed elastic curve showing
slope at A and maximum deflection at C. b. Slope at A (Fig. 3). Substituting x 5 0 into Eq. (4),

5 5w0 L3
EI uA 5 2 w0 L3 uA 5 c b
192 192EI

c. Maximum Deflection (Fig. 3). Because of the symmetry of

the supports and loading, the maximum deflection occurs at point C
where x 5 12 L. Substituting into Eq. (5),

w0 L4
EI ymax 5 w0 L4 c 2 d 52
1 1 5
101 2
601322 24182 192122 120
w0 L4
ymax 5 w b
120EI

P Sample Problem 9.6

For the uniform beam ABC, (a) express the reaction at A in terms of
A
B C P, L, a, E, and I, (b) determine the reaction at A and the deflection
under the load when a 5 Ly2.
a
L STRATEGY: The beam is statically indeterminate to the first degree.
Using singularity functions, you can write the bending-moment equa-
tion for the beam, including the unknown reaction at A as part of the
expression. After substituting this equation into the differential equa-
tion of the elastic curve, integrating twice, and applying the boundary
conditions, the reaction at A can be determined, followed by the deter-
y mination of the desired deflection.
P

MC MODELING:
B C
A x Reactions. For the given vertical load P the reactions are as
a shown in Fig. 1. We note that they are statically indeterminate.
RA RC Shear and Bending Moment. Using a step function to repre-
L sent the contribution of P to the shear,
V1x2 5 RA 2 P Hx 2 aI0
Fig. 1 Free-body diagram.

Integrating in x , the bending moment is

M1x2 5 RAx 2 P Hx 2 aI1

(continued)
Deflection of Beams

ANALYSIS:
Equation of the Elastic Curve. Using Eq. (9.4),

d 2y
EI 5 RAx 2 P Hx 2 aI1
dx 2

Integrating twice in x,

5 EI u 5 RAx 2 2 P Hx 2 aI2 1 C1
dy 1 1
EI
y dx 2 2
[ x 5 0, y 5 0 ]

EI y 5 RAx 3 2 P Hx 2 aI3 1 C1x 1 C2

[ x 5 L, u 5 0 ] 1 1
[ x 5 0, y 5 0 ] 6 6
A x
C
Boundary Conditions Referring to Fig. 2 and noting that the
bracket Hx 2 aI is equal to zero for x 5 0 and to (L 2 a) for x 5 L,
L

3 x 5 0, y 5 04 :
Fig. 2 Boundary conditions.
C2 5 0 (1)

3 x 5 L, u 5 04 : 1
2 RAL
2
2 12P1L 2 a2 2 1 C1 5 0 (2)

3 x 5 L, y 5 04 : 1
6 RAL
3
2 16P1L 2 a2 3 1 C1L 1 C 2 5 0 (3)

a. Reaction at A. Multiplying Eq. (2) by L, subtracting Eq. (3)

member by member from the equation, and noting that C 2 5 0, we
obtain

RAL3 2 P1L 2 a2 2 3 3L 2 1L 2 a2 4 5 0
1 1
3 6
a 2
RA 5 P a1 2 b a1 1 bx
a
b
L 2L

The reaction is independent of E and I.

P
b. Reaction at A and Deflection at B when a 5 12 L (Fig. 3).
C Making a 5 12 L in the expression obtained for RA,
A
yB
RA 5 P 11 2 12 2 2 11 1 14 2 5 5Py16
5
RA 5 Px b
RA B 16
L/2 L/2
Substituting a 5 Ly2 and RA 5 5Py16 into Eq. (2) and solving for C1,
Fig. 3 Deformed elastic curve C1 5 2PL2y32. Making x 5 Ly2, C1 5 2PL2y32, and C 2 5 0 in the
showing deflection at B.
expression obtained for y,

7PL3 7PL3
yB 5 2 yB 5 w b
768EI 768EI

REFLECT and THINK: Note that the deflection obtained at B is not

the maximum deflection.