CRN: 32718

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING & ENVIRONMENT

PROGRAMMES:

BEng/MEng AERONAUTCAL ENGINEERING

BEng/Meng AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING WITH PILOT STUDIES

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES E2

MONDAY 17th MAY 2021 09:00- 16:00

Instructions to Candidates

Answer ALL Questions (Sections A & B)

Full marks may be obtained for correct answers to ALL questions.

Selected Formulae and relevant data sheets are included at the back of this Exam
Paper.

Approved electronic calculators may be used.

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SECTION A

1. a) An, L, shape beam cross section is shown in Figure 1. Two bending moments
are applied along the centroidal axis, yz, of the section, as shown.

(i) Determine the position of the centroidal cross section, C, along the, y, axis
datum and, z, axis datum. Use the notation shown in Figure 1.
(7marks)

(ii) Determine the values of the section second moments of area, Iyy, Izz and Iyz,
using the tabular method with reference from the centroidal axes yz, and the

effective bending moments

my and
mz. (8 marks)

(iii) Calculate the bending stress at point A for the applied bending moments.
(2 marks)
z’, Datum
All Dimensions in mm
4
A

100 MNmm
1 z
60
150 MNmm
C y
8

y’, Datum
2
20 8 4
Figure 1

b) A buckling pin valve is shown in Figure 2. The length, L, of the pin is150mm
and the valve is required open at a relief pressure of 6 N/mm 2. Determine the
cross-sectional area, radius of gyration and slenderness ration of the pin and
show that it will Initially buckle as a long column (Euler Buckling). Assume
Fixed-Fixed conditions for the pin.
(13 marks)

Pin
Use the following information:
Disk Diameter = 14 mm
Modulus of Elasticity of the pin = 200x103 N/mm2
Disc Yield Stress of Pin = 440 N/mm2

Figure 2 (Bulking pin valve)

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Pressure
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2. a) A thin cylindrical shell has an internal diameter of 1.2 m and thickness of 5mm. The
shell material has a yield stress of 420 Nmm-2.

i) Determine the internal pressure, P, that will cause the material to fail according to the
Tresca and VMH failure criteria with a factor of safety of 2 for the Yield stress.
(7 marks)

ii) Using the Tresca failure criteria, determine the thickness, t, of the cylindrical shell if
the internal pressure has increased to 2.2 N/mm 2 (for the same material and factor of
safety).
(5 marks)

Use the following relationships for thin cylindrical shells:

Pr Pr
Circumferential (Hoop) Stress, σH = t and Longitudinal Stress, σL = 2t
Where, r, is the radius

b) An elastic system consisting of four nodes and four springs is shown in Figure 3.
Nodes 1 and 4 are firmly fixed at the two walls and two loads are applied at nodes 2
and 3. Use the DSM method to determine the displacements of nodes 2 and 3, the
reactions at the walls and the forces in each of the four springs. Use the notation as
shown in Figure 3.

F2 =20N F3 =25N
5N/mm 10N/mm 10N/mm

1 a 2 b 3 c 4
d

15N/mm
Figure 3
(13 marks)

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SECTION B

3. (a) A Three-Point-Bend test was conducted on a metal specimen and the plane
strain fracture toughness, KIC, was calculated at a value of 58.75 MPam1/2.
Determine the fracture load, PQ that the specimen failed and if the test is valid.

Use the following information, related to specimen'smaterial properties and

geometry:
Yield stress = 417 MPa
Width, W = 50 mm
Breadth, B = 24 mm
Fracture length, a = 22.95 mm
(including fatigue pre crack)
a/w 0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009

Stress intensity factor coefficient (Compliance factor)Y1

0.450 9.10 9.13 9.15 9.18 9.21 9.23 9.26 9.29 9.32 9.35
0.460 9.37 9.40 9.43 9.46 9.49 9.52 9.54 9.57 9.60 9.63
0.470 9.66 9.69 9.72 9.75 9.78 9.81 9.84 9.87 9.90 9.93
0.480 9.96 9.99 10.03 10.06 10.09 10.12 10.15 10.18 10.21 10.25
0.490 10.28 10.31 10.34 10.38 10.41 10.44 10.48 10.51 10.54 10.58
0.500 10.61 10.65 10.68 10.71 10.75 10.78 10.82 10.85 10.89 10.93
Part of the Stress intensity factor coefficients for Three-Pointbend specimen
(8 marks)

(b) After several years in service, a component was inspected and an edge crack,
ao, of 2.7mm was discovered. The component was subjected to a fatigue stress
with a maximum tensile value of 147.5 MPa. How many days can the
component survive at the same loading condition if it is known that the stress
cycle reverses every 3 hours, and the component works the full 24h/day.

The value of, A = 5.35 x 10-12 and m = 5 for the Paris Law equation (Δσ in
MPa, ΔK in MPam-1/2 and crack length, a, in m). The material has a KIC, value
of 33 MPa m1/2. Also, use ψ =1.1
(9 Marks)

(c) Determine the general Arrhenius equation for an age hardening aluminium-
copper alloy and determine the time to reach a maximum hardness at an aging
temperature of 1280C. Take 0 0C = 273 K.

Use the following age hardening information for the alloy

Aging Temperature Time to reach maximum hardness

(oC) (hours)
97 105
192 18
(8 Marks)

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 CRN: 32718

4. (a) A metal alloy component has a Larson Miller Parameter, LMP, diagram as
shown in Figure 4 and an equation in the form:

LMP = T (C + log10tr)×10-3 , where; T = Temperature (K) and tr= Rupture Time (hours)

i) A specimen made from the above metal alloy was tested at a creep
temperature of 700 oC and a stress of 580 MPa. The rupture time, t r,
was measured at 986h. Show that the constant, C, of the LMP equation
for this alloy is 19 (to the nearest whole value). Use 0 0C = 273 K

ii) A component, made from the above metal alloy, is expected to be

subjected to three deferent creep combinations, as shown in the table
below. Determine the unknown temperature, T3, of combination 3, for
the full life of the component.

Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3

Stress (MPa) 400 310 220
Temperature (0C) 720 680 T3
Required Time (hours) 300 20000 130000

Stress (MPa)
580
Figure 4
Larson Miller Parameter
400 for the Titanium Alloy
310 (not to scale)

220

21.4 22 23.1 24 LMP

(b) A composite laminate is reinforced with 31% (by volume) long continuous length
fibres. Two stresses, σx (20.5 MPa) and σy (15.7 MPa), are acting on the
reference axis (x, y) at an angle of 420 to the principal materials axis (1, 2).
Determine:

(i) the stresses acting on the principal axes (parallel and perpendicular to the
direction of fibres) of the laminate and,
(8 Marks)
(ii) the strains acting on the principal axes of the composite laminate.
(6 Marks)
Use the following information for the composite system:
Young’s Modulus of the fibres = 165 GPa
Young’s Modulus of the matrix = 4.15 GPa
Shear Modulus of the fibres = 21.8 GPa
Shear Modulus of the matrix = 3.17 GPa
Poison’s Ratio, υ12 = 0.25
FORMULAE SHEET (Section A)

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Pr Pr
Cylinder: Circumferential Stress = t & Longitudinal Stress = 2t

S1  Y S1  S 3  Y S 1
2 2 2

 S 2   S 2  S 3   S 3  S1   2Y 2

 FL  F ' 
Q j
=    
 AE  Q j 
members  

d2y m P
 2 
dx 2 EI EI

d 4 GJ
J k
32 l

The effective bending moments on a general cross section are:

m y−mz I yz /I zz mz −m y I yz /I yy
m̄ y = : { m̄ = ¿
1−I
yz 2 / ( I yy I zz ) z
1−I
yz 2 / ( I yy I zz )

The bending stress at any point in a cross-section is:

The orientation of the neutral axis can be calculated from:

The second moments of area of a cross-section are defined as:

The parallel axis theorem states that the second moment of area about any axis y' parallel to a
centroidal axis y is given by:
I y ' y '  I yy  AZ 2
The tabular method features the construction of a table with the following entries:

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Element A z' Az' Az'2 Ioyy y' Ay' Ay'2 Iozz Ay'z' Ioyz

:.
.
S

The position of the centroid and the second moments of area are then calculated from:

∑ ( Ai y ' i) ∑ ( Ai z ' i)
ȳ '= z̄ '=
∑ Ai ∑ Ai

The critical buckling load is:

Radius of gyration: R=
√ I
A
Slenderness ratio: S R=
kL
R
Column buckling const.: C c =
√ 2 Eπ2
σy

3 4
bd πd
I rectangle= I circular =
12 64

Single stiffness matrix: [ ][

F1
=
k −k u 1
F2 −k k
.
u2 ][ ]
Internal force of element: [ f ] =[−k k ] . []
u1
u2

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FORMULAE SHEET (SECTION B)

FRACTURE

Plane Strain Fracture Toughness; K IC=σψ √ πa

Leak-Before-Break Condition : K IC=σ √ πt (If no crack isdetected)

Fracture Toughness with crack tip correction; Plain strain condition (thick sections),


KIc  Ψσ πa  ry   Ψσ π a 

KIc  
2



σ2 
6πy 2 
 Ψσ πa  6σy 2 
1 
  

PQ Y
Three Point Bend; K IC= 1
, and For Validity; B  2.5(KIc/y)2
B √W

FATIGUE
 N  C1 a
Basquin Equation; f

Miner's Rule; Σ N/Nf = N1/Nf1 + N2/Nf2 +N3/Nf3 + …. = 1

ac
1 da
Nf 
A  m
m2
a0
 m
am 2
Paris law;
Nf = Number of cycles to failure, between a0 and ac
a = Crack length
ao = Initial crack length
ac (or acrit) = Final, critical, length
Δσ = Stress range (can be taken as the maximum fatigue stress in tension)
A and m are material constants
Ψ = Flow shape parameter

f     FOS 
a  1   m 

FOS   y 
Soderberg Relation;
σa = Stress amplitude
σm = Mean stress
σy = Yield stress
σf = Fatigue limit (or Endurance limit or Fatigue strength, when applicable)
FOS = Factor of Safety

CREEP

Robinson’s Rule; Σ t/tr = Σ t1/tr1 + t2/tr2 + t3/tr3 + …. = 1

AGE HARDENING

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Rate = 1/t = Ae(-Q/RT), where, t, is in hours and, T, in Kelvin.

LONG CONTINUOUS COMPOSITE LAMINATES

Vf + Vm = 1

Ec = E1 = EmVm + EV

1= 1 = Vm + V
Etc E2Em E

1 =Vf + Vm
G12 Gf Gm

COMPOSITE LAMINATES (Strains)

The strain law for an orthotropic material under plane stress conditions, referred to the
material axis (1 and 2), has the following form;

 1   1 
    S  
 2  2
 12   12 

Where [S] is termed the Compliance matrix, written in the form:

 S11 S12 S13 

 
 
S   S 21 S 22 S 23 
 
 
 S 31 S 32 S 33 

Where: S11 = 1/E1 S22 = 1/E2 S33 = 1/G12

S21 = -υ12 = S12= -υ21
E1 E2
And, S13 = S23 = S31 = S32 = 0, for an orthotropic material under plane stress conditions.

Also; υ12 = υ21

E1 E2

Where;
G12 = In-plane shear modulus
E1 = Young’s Modulus in the 1 direction
E2 = Young’s Modulus in the 2 direction
υ12 = Poisson’s ratio with stress in the 1 direction and contraction in the 2 direction.
υ21 = Poisson’s ratio with stress in the 2 direction and contraction in the 1 direction.

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COMPOSITE LAMINATES (Stresses)

The stress law for an orthotropic material under plane stress conditions, referred to the
material axis (1 and 2), has the following form;

 1   1 
   Q   
 2  2
 12   12 

Where, [Q], is termed the Stiffness matrix (which is the inverse of [S]). In general, the
stiffness matrix is written in the form;

Q11 Q12 Q13 

 
 
Q  Q21 Q22 Q23 
 
 
Q31 Q32 Q33 

E1 E2
Q11  Q22 
Where; 1   12 21 1   12 21 Q33= G12
 21 E1  E
Q12  Q21  12 2
1   12 21 = 1   12 21

And, Q13 = Q23 = Q31 = Q32 = 0, for an orthotropic material under plane stress conditions.

COMPOSITE LAMINATES (Arbitrary Orientation)

If the principal materials axis, or material axis (1 and 2) of the lamina do not coincide with
the reference axis, or laminate axis (x and y), at some arbitrary orientation with angle, θ, then
use the following relations to transform the stresses and strains;

 1   x   x   1 
   T     1  
 2  y  y   T   2 
 12   xy   xy   12 
  and  

 1  x  x   1 
    T      1  
 2  y   y   T    2 
 12   xy   xy   12 
  and  

Where, [T] is the transformation matrix and [T]-1 is the inverse of [T], written in the form;

 c2 s2 2cs 
 
 
T    s 2 c 2  2cs 
 
 
 cs cs ( c 2  s 2 )
 
c 2 s 2  2cs 
 
 
T 1  s 2 c 2 2cs 
 
 
 cs  cs ( c 2  s 2 )
and  

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Where, c = cosθand s = sinθ.

END OF EXAMINATION