Math Note of Class 11th Maharashtra Boards

Resonance Academy Coaching Classes JEEE / AIEEE
Maths Paper – II
Contents
No. Name of the Topic Page No.

1. Basic Maths
2. Trigonometry
Limit of A Function & Continuity of A
3.
Function
4. Continuity of Function
5. Differentiation & Application of Derivatives
6. Area
7. Integration
8. Differential Equations
9. Numerical Methods
10. Boolean Algebra
Manjusha Khanore/Gawande Madam, 9975777131 1

BASIC MATHS
(1) Expansion Formulae (×¾ÖÃŸÖÖ¸ü ÃÖæ¡Öê)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
(2) Some Important Conversion Formulae (ºþ¯ÖÖÓŸÖ¸êü)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
(3) Factor Formulae (†¾ÖµÖ¾Ö ÃÖæ¡Öê)

1)
2)
3)
4)

5)
6)
7) Factor Theorem : Let P(x) is a polynomial in x. If value of the polynomial at x = a is zero then
(x-a) is one factor. If value of the polynomial at x = -a is zero then (x+a) is one factor of P.
Other factor can be obtained by synthetic division (ÃÖÓ¿»ÖêÂÖÛú ³ÖÖÝÖÖ¸ü).

8)
9)
(4) For Perfect Square Polynomial
Let F = First Term, M = Middle Term, T = Third Term
1)
2)
3)
4) if co-efficient of first term is 1.

(5) Laws of Indices (‘ÖÖŸÖÖÓÛúÖ“Öê ×®ÖµÖ´Ö)
am = a x a x a x a x ……………. (m times)
e.g. 25 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 32
1) Product Law : am x an = am+n
If base is same in multiplication indices are added.
2) Division Law : If base is same, in division, indices are subtracted.
3) Power Law :
In the power of power indices are multiple
4)
Power of product = Product of powers.

5)
Power of division = Division of powers
6) a0 = 1
Any nonzero number raised to the power zero is equal to 1.
7)
If numerator and denominator are interchanged then sign of the index changes.
8) Important Note :
9) (i) (a + b)m  am + bm
10) (ii) (a - b)m  am - bm
11) If ax = ay then x = y (iii) am + an  am+n
12) If ax = by then a = b (iv) am - an  am-n
Examples :
1) 23 x 25 = 23+5 = 28 6)
2) 2-5 x 2-3 = 2-5-3 = 2-8 7) 20 = 1, 50 = 1
3) 8)
4) 9)
5) 10)
(6) Logarithm
m
If a = x ……. (1)
Then the index or exponent m is called as logarithm of the power x to the base a. This is
denoted as loga x = m ……. (2)

n n
Eq . (1) is called as exponential form or index form and eq . (2) is called as logarithmic
form.
e.g. 25 = 32, 77 = 49 If loga m = k then ak = m
log2 32 = 5, log7 49 = 2 If log m = k then ek = m
Note :
1) In logarithm base must be positive.
2) Zero (0) & -ve numbers have no logarithm.
3) The number 1 is never taken as base for logarithm.
Types of logarithm :
There are two important types of logarithm :
1) Common logarithm 2) Natural logarithm or Naperian logarithm
1) Common logarithm :
Logarithm of a number to the base 10 is called as common logarithm.
 Common logarithm of x = log10x = logx
The common logarithm is used in the numerical calculations. Logarithmic tables are prepared
for common logarithms.

2) Natural logarithm or Naperian logarithm
Logarithm of a number to base ‘e’ is called as natural logarithm. ‘e’ is an irrational number
between 2 & 3 and its approximate value is e = 2.71823. Hence natural logarithm of x = log ex.
This logarithm is used in calculus i.e. limits, differentiation and integration.
Laws of logarithm :
1) loga a = 1 : logee = 1
Logarithm of a number to itself as a base is 1.
2) loga1 = 0 : log 1 = 0
Logarithm of number 1 to any base is 0.
3) If loga x = loga y then x = y
If logarithms of two numbers to the same base are equal then the two numbers are equal.
4) Product law :
Loga (xy) = loga x + loga y
Logarithm of product is equal to sum of their logarithms. i.e. in multiplication logarithms are
added.
5) Division law :
loga = loga x – loga y

In division, logarithms are subtracted.
6) Power law :
Loga (xm) = mloga x
In case of logarithm of a power of a number the index is multiplied by logarithm of the
number.
7) Rule of change of base : If base is changed from a to b.
loga x = e.g.  i.e. 2 = 2

Logarithm of the number to the old base equal to logarithm of the number to the new base
divided by logarithm old base to the new base.
8) Let us change the base a to x,
,
If number and base are interchanged then we get reciprocal.

9) If base is changed from a to e then loga x =
10) 11)
12) logax x logxa = 1 13) log xn = n log x
14) 15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
21) loga 1 = 0
22) log10 10 = 1
23)
24)
log x = m log a + n log b + p log c – [s log u + t log v]
7) Sequences
1) Arithmetic Sequence (A.P.) :

(i) a = first term, d = common difference then the terms of the A.P. are a, a + d, a + 2d, a +
3d, …………
(ii) nth term is tn = a + (n-1)d e.g.
(iii) The sum of first n terms of A.P. is 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ………..
t1 = a = 2 d =5–2=3
(iv) three consecutive terms of A.P. are taken =8–5=3
as a – d, a, a + d = 11 – 8 = 3
(v) Four consecutive terms of an A.P. are taken etc.
as a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d
(vi) Five consecutive terms of an A.P. are taken
as a – 2d, a – d, a, a + d, a + 2d

2) Geometric Sequences (G.P.) :
(i) Let a = first term, r = common ratio of G.P. then the terms of the G.P. are a, ar,
ar2, ar3, ………….
(ii) nth term is e.g.
tn = a(r)n-1 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, ……
(iii) Sum of first n terms of G.P. is
(iv) Three consectutive terms in a G.P. as
(v) Four consecutive terms in a G.P. as
(vi) Five consecutive terms in a G.P. as
3) Sigma notation OR Summation notation :
Properties of sigma notation
(1) (2)
(3) (4) If K is a constant,
(5)
4) Three Important Sums :
(1) The sum of first n natural numbers

1 + 2 + 3 + ……. + n =
(2) The sum of squares of first n natural numbers.
12 + 22 + 32 + ……. + n2 =
(3) The sum of cubes of first n natural numbers.
13 + 23 + 33 + ……. + n3 =
5) Factorial Notation :
Ln = n! = 1  2  3  4  5  …………n product of first n natural number
Eg. 5 ! = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 = 120
0!=1
6) Binomial Theorem :
e.g. (1) (x + 2)4 = x4 + 8x3 + 24x2 + 32x + 16

(2) (3a + 2b)5 = 243a5 + 810a4b + 1080a3b2 + 720a2b3 + 240ab4 + 32b5
(3)
(4)
Note : x < < 1 then
(1) (1 + x)n = 1 + nx
(2) (1 + x)-n = 1 - nx
(3) (1 - x)n = 1 - nx
(4) (1 - x)n = 1 + nx
(5) st term or general term in the expansion of (x+a)n is
(8) Permutations & Combinations

(1) Factorial Notation : n ! = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x …………… x n
i.e. Product of first n natural numbers.
e.g. 5 ! = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 = 120
(2) Combinations : If n objects are given and we have to select r (r  n) out of them and the
order of selecting these r objects is not important, such a selection is called a combination of n
objects taken at a time.
The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is denoted as nC
(i)

(ii) -------------- R.H.S. contains r factors.
n
(iii) Cr = nCn-r , this result is useful if r >
n
(iv) Cn = 1
n
(v) C1 = n
n
(vi) C0 = 1
e.g. (1)
(2)
(3)
(3) Permutations : If n objects are given and we have to arrange r (r  n) out of them on a line
and the order in which these objects are arranged is important, such an arrangement is called a
permutation of n objects taken r at a time.
The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time is denoted as nP
(i)
n
(ii) Pr = n(n-1) (n-2) …………. (n-r+1)
n
(iii) P1 = n
n
(iv) Pn = n!
n
(v) P0 = 1
e.g. (1) 10P3 = 10 x 9 x 8 = 720 (2) 4
P4 = 4! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 24
(4) First Fundamental Principle : If a certain act can be done in m different ways and another
act can be done in n different ways, then either the first act or the second act can be done n (m
+ n) different ways. In this case any act is to be done.
(5) Second Fundamental Principle : If a certain act can be done in m different ways and after it
has been done in any one of these ways, a second act can be done in n different ways then
both the acts can be done together in (m x n) ways.
Note : If any one of the acts is to be done then first rule is used and if all the acts are to done
then second rule is used.

TRIGONOMETRY
(1) Sexagesimal system for measurement In n rotation angle = 2nc

of angle : (5) Trigonometric ratios of acute angle :
One right angle = 900 = rad.

10 = 60’ i.e. 60 minutes
1’ = 60” i.e. 60 seconds
(2) Circular System :

One radian is defined as
an angle subtended at
the centre of a circle by
an arc of length equal to (1)
the radius of the circle.
(2)
(3) Relation between degree and radian :
1c = x 1 right angle (3)
(4)
= = 57017’44.8”, c =1800
(5)
c
x =
(6)
c
1 =
1800 = xc (6) Trigonometric ratios of any angle :
xc =
(4) Arc length = radius x angle in radian
S = r c
Angle =
 =
Let XOP =  is angle
P(x, y) is any point on the terminal ray at
Area of sector = x r2 x  c
In one rotation angle described distance r = from the origin
2c or 3600 then

Trigonometric ratios of  are defined as
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
(6)
(5)
(7) Relation between Trigonometric

ratios : (9) Fundamental identities :
(1) sin2 + cos2 = 1
(1) (2) sin2 = 1 - cos2
(3) cos2 = 1 – sin2
(4) sin =
Sin . cosec = 1 (5) cos =
(6) 1 + tan2 = sec2
(7) tan2 = sec2 - 1
(2) (8) sec2 - tan2 = 1
(9) 1 + cot2 = cosec2
cos . sec = 1 (10) cot2= cosec2 - 1
(11) cot2 - cosec2 = -1
(12) cosec2 - cot2 = 1
(3)
(10) Periodicity of Trigonometric ratios :
The value of T. ratios repeats when the
tan . cotc = 1
angle is increased by 2n
Where n = 1, 2, 3, ………..
(1) sin(2n + ) = sin
(4) (2) cos(2n + ) = cos
(3) tan(2n + ) = tan (2n + )
lies in
(4) cot(2n + ) = cot
I quadrant
(5) (5) sec(2n + ) = sec
(6) cosec(2n + ) = cosec
(8) Sign of Trigonometric ratios : (11) Range of Trigonometric ratios:

(1) -1  sin  1, -1  cos  1

n
(2) Range of the values of tan is R, the
Set of the real number. sin 0 1 0 -1 0
(3) cosec  -1 and cosec  1

cos 1 0 -1 0 1
(4) sec  -1 and sec   1
(5) Range of values of cot is R. tan 0 1  0  0
cot  1 0  0 
(12) Values of Trigonometric ratios of some
particular angles : sec 1 2  -1  1
cosec  2 1  -1 
(13) Trigoometric ratios (-) in terms of  :

(1) sin (-) = - sin (2) cos (-) = + cos
(3) tan (-) = - tan (4) cot (-) = - cot
(5 sec (-) = + sec (6) cosec (-) = -
cosec
(14) Addition formulae (Sum and difference
of two angles)
(1) sin (A + B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB
(2) sin (A - B) = sinAcosB - cosAsinB
(3) cos (A + B) = cosAcosB - sinAsinB
(4) cos (A - B) = cosAcosB + sinAsinB
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(15) Defactorisation formulae :
(Conversion of products into sums)
(1) 2sinAcosB = sin(A + B) + sin(A - B)
(2) 2cosAsinB = sin(A + B) - sin(A - B)
(2n - ) lies in (IV) quadrant (3) 2cosAcosB = cos(A + B) + cos(A - B)
(1) sin (2n - ) = - sin (4) 2sinAsinB = cos(A - B) - cos(A + B)
OR
(2) cos (2n - ) = cos
(3) tan (2n - ) = - tan
(4) cot (2n - ) = - cot (1) sinAcosB =
(5) sec (2n - ) = sec
(6) cosec (2n - ) = -cosec (2) cosAsinB =
Angle 0 c 2c (3) cosAcosB =

n n n n n n n
0 30 45 60 90 180 270 360

(4) sinAcosB = (3)

(16) Factorization Formulae :
(Conversion of sums into products)
(4)
(1) sinC + sinD =
(2) sinC - sinD =

(3) cosC + cosD =
cosC - cosD =
(4) (5)
(21) sin and cos in terms of tan

C>D
=
(1)
D>C
(17) Double angle formulae :
(1) sin2 = 2cossin
(2) cos2 = cos2 - sin2 (2)
(3) cos2 = 2cos2-1 (22) Other important formulae :
(4) cos2 = 1 - 2sin2
(1) cosec x + cot x = cot
(5) tan2 = (2) 1 + cos2 = 2cos2
(18) Triple angle formulae : (3) 1 - cos2 = 2cos2
(1) sin3 = 3sin - 4sin3
(2) cos3b = 4cos3 - 3cos (4) cos2 =
(3) tan3 = (5) sin2 =

(19) sin2 and cos2 in terms of tan :
(6) cosec x – cot x = tan
(1) sin2 =
(7) 1 + cos = 2cos2
(2) cos2 =
(20) Half angle formulae : (8) 1 - cos = 2sin2
(1) (9)
(2) (10)

(11)
The angles -, - , + ,  - ,  + ,
(12)
(23) Trigonometric ratios of Allied Angles : - , + , 2 + , 2 - , 2n + ,
2n - 
Where n  N, are called as allied angles.

Angle
1800 - 2700 + 3600 + 3600 n +
in 900 -  900 +  1800 +  2700 -  3600 -  -
   
Degree
Angle
in - + 2 -  2 +  2r +  -
radian
sin cos  cos  sin  - sin  - cos  - cos  - sin  sin  sin  - sin 
cos sin  - sin  - cos  - cos  - sin  sin  cos  cos  cos  cos 
tan cot  - cot  - tan  tan  cot  - cot  - tan  tan  tan  - tan 
cot tan  - tan  - cot  cot  tan  - tan  - cot  cot  cot  - cot 
cosec - cosec - cosec
sec - sec  - sec  cosec  sec  sec  sec  sec 
  
cosec - cosec - cosec - cosec
cosec sec  sec  - sec  - sec  cosec  cosec 
   
(24) Rules to determine Trigonometric

ratios
of allied angles :
(1) Determine the quadrant in which the
given angle lies, hence determine the sign (2) Cosine Rule :
of required trigonometric ratio.
(2) For the angles -,  - ,  + , 2 - , 2
+ , 2n - , 2n +  trigonometric ratio
of angles does not change, i.e. remains
the same.
e.g. sin  sin, cos  cos, tan  tan, cot 
cot, sec  sec, cosec  cosec.
OR
(3) For the angles , , , a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C
the trigonometric ratios change as
(3) Projection Rule :
sin cos
In ABC
tan cot
a = b cosC + c cos B
sec cosec
b = a cosC + c cos A
c = a cosB + b cos A
PROPERTIES OF A TRIANGLE :
(4) Area of a Triangle :
(1) Sine Rule :
In any ABC
A(ABC)= absinC
= bcsinA
= acsinB
(5) sinA, sinB, sinC in terms of sides :
(R is circumradius of circle)
Let

(1) (5)
(2)
(6)
(3)
(7)
(6) Trigonometric ratios of Half Angle of a
Triangle :
(8)
(1)
(9)
(2)
(7) Area of ABC in terms of sides :
(3)
(4)

LIMIT OF A FUNCTION &

CONTINUITY OF FUNCTION
LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
BASIC TERMS
Function : Let A and B be any two non-empty sets. If with every element x  A is associated in
some manner, one and only one element of B, then this association determines a function from the
set A to B. it is denoted as  : A  B.
(i) The association of every element of A with one element of B is defined by some rule.
(ii) Each element of A is associated with one element of B, every element of B need not get
associated to some element of A.
(iii) Usually the letter ‘’ denotes a function, but the letters g, h, k, s are also used to denote
function.
(iv) The set A is called as the domain of the function and the set B is called as the co-domain of
the function.
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13}, C = {2, 4, 6, 8}
x  A, y  B
Rule or equation of the function is y = 2x.
We have to study limits of following types of functions
(1) Algebraic functions
e.g. y = (x) = 2x2 + 5x - 7
(2) Trigonometric functions or Circular functions
e.g. y = (x) = sin x
(3) Exponential functions
e.g. y = (x) = ax & ex
(4) Logarithmic functions
e.g. y = (x) = log x OR y = loga x
(i) Function  is defined as (x),
Its value at x is given by (x) = 3x2 – 4x + 2.
Find (1), (2), (-3), (0),  ,

Ans : 1, 6, 41, 2, 3/4, 102/25
Basic Terms :
(1) Meaning of x  a :
xa–
xa+
Let x be a variable and a be a constant. If x assumes values nearer and nearer to a, but not
equal to a, then we say ‘x tends to a’. and we write is as x  a. also x  a+ and x  a-

(2) Meaning of x   :
Let x be a variable. If x assumes larger and larger values, we say, ‘x tends to infinity’. x  
(3) Meaning of x  -  :
Let x be a variable. If x assumes values which are larger and larger in magnitude but negative
in sign, then we say, ‘x tends to minus infinity’. x  -  :
(4) Meaning of the symbol (x) = l :

Let (x) be a function of x. If x assumes values nearer and nearer to a, (x) assumes values
nearer and nearer to l, then we say (x) tends to the limit l as x tends to a and we write it as
(x) = l .
Theorems on limit :
Let (x) = l . g(x) = m then
(1) [(x) + g(x)] = (x) + g(x) = l + m

Limit of sum of two functions = sum of their limits
(2) [(x) - g(x)] = (x) - g(x) = l - m
(3) [(x)g(x)] = (x) x g(x) = l x m
(4)
(5)
e.g.
Note : Each of these theorems is valid only if its R.H.S. is not meaningless.
(6) Sandwich Theorem OR Squeezing Principle : If f, g, h are real valued functions of a real
variable x having same domain say A, & if g(x)  f(x)  h(x) for every x  A and g(x) =
h(x) = l (finite) then f(x) = l.
(7) k f(x) = k f(x) = kl, where k is a constant.

Thus constant k can be taken outside the limit.

(8) for any non-zero function f(x)
(9) k = k where k is constant.

Limit of constant function is same constant.

Meaningless quantities or undefined symbols or indeterminant forms :
Limit of Algebraic Functions

Standard Limits :
(1) for polynomial function (2)

i.e. put x = a in the function and find its value.
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
(7) (8) k = k, where k is contant.
(9) k=k (10)
(11) (12)
LIMIT OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS (CIRCULAR FUNCTION)
Standard Limits :
Important Note : The angle  or x in calculus, is always expressed in radian and not in degrees.
(1) sin x = sin a
(2) cos x = cos a angle  or x0 =
(3) tan x = tan a
(4) cosec x = cosec a
(5) sec x = sec a
(6) cot x = cot a

Note : Results 1 to 6 are valid if R.H.S. is defined. i.e. not meaningless
(7)
(8)

LIMIT OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHIMIC FUNCTIONS
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Basic limits :
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
(7) (8)
(9) (10)
Note : Index of constant base a is in the denominator and index → 0.
‘L’ Hospital’s Rule :
Note :
(i) L’ Hospitals rule is applicable only when

(ii) if the from is not , simplify the given expression till it reduces to the form
and then use L’ Hospital’s rule.
(iii) For applying L’Hospital’s rule differentiate the numerator and denominator separately. Don’t
use division rule of differentiation.

CONTINUITY OF A FUNCION
Left hand limit :

(1)
If x < a and if x assumes values nearer and nearer to a, f(x) assumes values nearer and nearer
to l, then we say that, f(x) tends to the limit l as x tends to a from left and we write it as
Right hand limit :

(2)
If x > a and if as x assumes values nearer and nearer to a, f(x) assumes values nearer and
nearer to l, then we say that, ‘f(x) tends to the limit l as x tends to a from right’ and we write it
as
Note: (i) In the minus sign means ‘from feft of a’
(ii) In the plus sign means 'from right of a’
(3) Theorem: Existence of limit
as
Remark : It is clear that if then ) does not exist.

(4) Definition : Continuous function (If function is defined by only one rule)
A function is said to be continuous at a point x = a (i) is defined and
(ii)
Remark :
(i) For continuous function, limit of the function is equal to value of the function.
(ii) According to our definition a function is continuous at a point if its graph is continuous at that
point.
(5) Definition : Discontinuous or not continuous function
A function f(x) is said to be discontinuous at a point x = a, if t is not continuous at x = a.
i.e. if
Remark :
If a function is not continuous at a point then the curve has a break at that point. It is not
smooth continuous at that point.
(6) Definition : Continuous function :

When on either side of x = a, a function f(x) is defined by two different rules we have to find
and separately, while finding the left hand limit, we consider the values
of x less than a (x < a) and while finding the right hand limit, we consider the values of x
greater than a (x > a).
x < a, a > x a x > a, a < x
if then is continuous at x = a
if function is given continuous at a point then value = limit or
limit = value or
Left hand limit = value = Right hand limit
CONTINUITY IN THE INTERVAL
(1) Open ipterval (a, b) :
If x  (a, b) then a < x < b. It contains all numbers between a and b except a and b.
i.e. excluding a and b.
(2) Closed interval [a, b] :
If x  (a, b) then a ≤ x ≤ b. It contains all numbers between a and b including a and b.

(3) Definition : A function f(x) is said to be continuous in an
open interval (a, b), if it is continuous at every point in the
interval (a, b) and its graph is continuous curve in (a, b).
(4) Definition :
A function f(x) is said to be continuous in the closed interval [a, b],

If (i) f is continuous in (a, b)
(ii)
(iii)
Definition : Let f be a function defined on the closed interval [a, b]. Then f is said to be
continuous on [a, b) if

(i) f is Continuous at each point c such that a < c < b. i.e. a < c < b,
(ii) f is Continuous at x = a from the right, i.e.
(iii) f is continuous at x = b from the left, i.e.

(5) Definition : A function f(x) is said to be discontinuous an open interval (a, b),
if it is not continuous in (a, b)
(6) Domain : Set of values of independent variable x is called as domain of the function.
(7) Standard continuous function :
(1) The polynomial function in x is always continuous for x  R.
(2) The trigonometric functions sin x and cos x are always continuous every where.
(3) The exponential functions ex, ax are always continuous every where.
(4) The function log x is continuous at every x > 0.
(8) Properties of continuous functions :
If f(x) and g(x) are continuous at x = a, then
(i) f(x) + g(x) is continuous at x = a (ii) f(x) - g(x) is continuous at x = a
(iii) f(x)  g(x) is continuous at x = a (ii) is continuous at x = a if g(a) ≠ 0

(9) Discontinuous in the two cases :
(i) At the points where denominator is zero.
(ii) At the point where the rule of the function changes  we have to test.
(10) REMOVABLE DISCONTINUITY :
We have seen that a function f is continuous at a point x = c of its domain, if
. It follows from this definition that the function f will be discontinuous at x

= c, if
(i) exists but is not equal to f(c), or
(ii) does not exist.
In the case (i), we can redefine the function f at x = c as f(c) = . Then the function
will be continuous at x = c and the discontinuity of f at x = c is removed. Hence this type of
discontinuity is called removable discontinuity.
In the case (ii), does not exist. Hence we cannot redefine f at x = c as in case (i), so
as to remove the discontinuity at x = c. This type of discontinuity is not removable, and we
call it irremovable discontinuity.

DIFFERENTATION & APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVES
Derivative of a function from first principles : (Definition)

Let y= f(x) --------- (1) is a function of x. Suppose x is increment or change in x and y is
corresponding increment in y then x changes to x t x and y changes to y + y
 new functional relation is
y + y = f(x + x) --------- (2)
 y = f(x + x) - y
y = f(x+x) - f(x) ---------- (3)
dividing by x to both sides
---------- (4)
This is called as incrementary ratio. Taking limit as x → 0
 ---------- (5)
 Limit on the L.H.S. is denoted as and is called as derivative of y w.r.t. x.

Thus derivative of a function is defined as the limit of its incrementary ratio as the increment
in independent variable tends to zero. Thus derivative is a particular case of limit.
This notation is Leibnitze notation.
Derivative is also denoted as f'(x) (another notation)
Let x and x + h lie in domain of f(x) then f'(x) =

Particular value of derivative at x = a is given by
The above method of finding derivative of a function is called as derivative by definition or

from first principles or by evaluating limit, or by fundamentals or by five step method.
The process of finding derivative of a function is called as differentiation.
To differentiate means to obtain derivative of the function.
DERIVATIVES OF SOME STANDARD FUNCTIONS
1) 2)

3) 4)
5) 6) , Thus derivative of constant is zero.
7) 8)
9) 10)
12)
11)
e.g. (1) y = 7x  (2) f(x) =3x  f'(x) =3x log 3

13)
15)
14)
e.g. (1) 
16)
(2) 
(3)
17)
e.g. (1) 
18)
Proof :
Let

put --------- (1)
 --------- (2)
and
from (1),
from (2),
by chain rule,
then
e.g. (1)
e.g. (2)
e.g. (3)
e.g. (4)

e.g. (5)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)
24)

25)
Proof :
Let
put -------------- (1)
 -------------- (2)
 and
 by chain rule
e.g. (1)

Note : x in standard function is replaced by (ax+b)
 derivative is multiplied by a.
e.g. (2)
e.g. (3)
e.g. (4)

e.g. (5)
e.g. (6)
e.g. (7)
e.g.
e.g.
26)
27)
28)
29)
30)
31)

32)
33)
34)
35)
If x is replaced by f(x) then derivative is multiplied by f'(x)
36)
Proof : Let
put ------------- (1)
 ------------- (2)
 and
by chain rule,
37)
38)

39)
40)
41)
e.g. (1)
e.g. (2)
3)
e.g. (
4)
e.g. (

5)
e.g. (
e.g. (6)
42)
3)
4
4)
4
In this case base is constant and index if function.
5)
4
6)
4
e.g.
e.g.

e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
47)
If x is replaced by f(x) and we have to find derivative of nth power of the function then we
have following results
48)
roof : Let
P
put --------- (1)

 --------- (2)
 and
by
(1)
e.g.
9)
4
)
50
)
51
52)

53)
)
54
Additional results :
5) If then
5
6) If then
5
7) If then
5
58) If
Standard Derivatives :
59)
60)

61)
62)
63)
64)
Derivatives of inverse trigonometric function in the most general from :
If x is replaced by f(x)
65)
66)
67)
68)
69)
70)
ALGEBRA OF DERIVATIVES
(Rule of Theorems of Differentiation)

(1) Addition Rule :
u and v are differentiable functions of x and then

If

e.g. (1) If
e.g. (2) If
e.g. (3) If
(2) Subtraction Rule :
u and v are derivable functions of x and then

If
e.g. (1) If
e.g. (2) If
e.g. (3) If

(3) Product Rule :

If
e.g. (1) If
e.g. (2) If
(4) Division Rule (or quotient rule) :

If
e.g. (1) If
e.g. (2) If

(5) Derivative of scalar multiplication of a function :
k is a constant and u is a derivative functions of x and if then

If
e.g. (1) If then
(6) Derivative of product of three function :
then
If
e.g. (1) If
(7) Rule of derivative of reciprocal of a function :
then
If
e.g. (1)

(8) Chain Rule of Differentiation :
If y is a derivable functions of u and u is a derivable functions of x then
e.g. (1)
put -------- (1)
 -------- (2)
from (1) From (1)
from (2)
by chain rule
e.g. (2)
put -------- (1)
 -------- (2)
from (1) and
from (2)
by chain rule

e.g. (3)
put -------- (1)
 -------- (2)
 by chain rule,
(9) Derivative of nth power of a function :
then
If
In this case is function and index is constant.
Note :
e.g. (1)
e.g. (2)
e.g. (3)

(10) DERIVATIVES OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS :
(Inverse Circular Functions)
Definition : Inverse of a given function is defined as "If then
or also we have and (Opposite operations)
Note : The relation may or may not be a function. is function if f is one-one and on
to function.
e.g. (1)  …… Rules are different
(2)
(3) 
Theorem (1) : If g is the inverse of f defined by and and if
then
(11) Another form of the theorem on derivative of inverse trigonometric functions :
Theorem (2) : If is a derivable function of x such that the inverse function
is defined, then , where .
Definition :
Inverse sine function :

(1)
and where then y is called as "Inverse sine of x" and it is

if
written as . represents the number between and , whose sine is x.
2) Inverse cosine function :

(

and where then y is called as "Inverse cosine of x" and it is
if
written as . Thus represents the number lyring between 0 and , whose
sine is x.
Inverse tangent function :

(3)
if and where then y is called as "Inverse tangent of x" and it is
written as . Thus represents the number lyring between and

whose tangent is x.
Inverse cosecant of x :
(4)
if and where , then y is called as "Inverse cosecant of
x" and it is written as .
Inverse secant of x :
(5)
if and where then y is called as "Inverse secant of x" and it
is written as .
Inverse cotangent of x :
(6)
if and where then y is called as "Inverse cotangent of x" and it

is written as .
Important Results Regarding Inverse Circular Function useful is differential & Integration:
and
&
(1)
&
(2)
&
(3)

&
(4)
&
(5)
&
(6)
7) (8)
(
9) (10)
(
11) (12)
(
13) (14)
(
(16)
(15)
7) (18)
(1
9) (20)
(1
21) (22)
(
23) (24)
(
(25) Important Substitutions to Reduce the Function to a Simpler Form :
Expressions Substitutions
Put or
Put or
Put or
Put

Put
(26)
Provided and
(27)
if and
(28)
if and
(29)
if and
(30)
(31)
(32)
(12) LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION :

whenever a function is the product or quotient of a number of factors or is of the from
, it is usually convenient to differentiate the logarithm of the function to find

its derivative. In such a case we find logarithms of both sides and then use differentiation to
finally find . This method is known as logarithmic differentiation.
Type I : where u, v, w are functions of x and m, n, p are constants.
Method : Let

Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x we get

Type II : uv where u and v are functions of x.

Method : Let y = uv


Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x
Type III :
: We can not directly take logarithm of both sides as . In this
Method
case we use the substitution as and then
 ----------- (1) ;
 ----------- (2) ;
 ----------- (3)
By logarithmic differentiation find & hence
(13) DERIVATIVE OF IMPLICITLY DEFINED FUNCTIONS :
The relations of the form are called as implicit functions.

Method : We differentiate the terms containing only x in the usual way, while the derivatives
of the terms containing y will involve . Then we collect the terms containing and solve the

resulting equation to find the value of . e.g and
(14) DERIVATIVE OF PARAMETRIC FUNCTIONS :
If the variables x and y are the functions of third variable t and are defined as ---- (1)
and ------ (2) then here exists a relation between x and y which can be a function and
may be obtained by eliminating the variable t. The above equations are called as parametric
equations and the third variable t is known as parameter.
Theorem : If and are two derivable functions of t such that y is defined
as a function of x, then prove that, , where
(15) SECOND AND HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES :
If is a function then, is first order derivative
is second order derivative
is third order derivative
 order derivative is denoted by
(16) nth ORDER DERIVATIVES :

The derivative of a derivable function is itself a function. We assume it also possess a
derivative, which we denote by and call it the second derivative of . The third derivative
of which is the derivative of is denoted by and so on. Thus the successive
derivatives of are represented by the symbols, , , , …… , ……..

If we write ,
The symbols , , , …… , ……..
Or , , , …… , ……..

(17) DIFFERENTIABILITY ON AN INTERVAL :

A function , defined on , is said to be differentiable on if it is differentiable
at every and both
and
exist.
(18) TEST OF CONSTANCY :
If at all points of a certain interval, , then the function has a constant value
within this interval.
(19) DIFFERENTIATION OF A DETERMINANT :
If
Then
But if
Where u, v, w, l, m, n are constant, then
(20) SUCCESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION :
(i) If , then
If m is an integer,
then , then

(ii) If , then
(iii) If
then
(iv) If and
if then
(21) DIFFERENTIATION OF A FUNCTION IN THE FORM OF A DETERMINANT :
If
Then
Note that differentiation of a determinant can be done in columns also.

APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
Applications of geometry :
Theorem (1) : Let be a differentiable function of x. is any point on the graph of
the function . Then gives the slope of the tangent to the curve, at point P.
Proof :
Let is any point on the curve P T be the tangent at P. be

a neighboring point of P on the curve. Line PQ is secant of the curve slope of secant
From the fig. it is clear that, as along the curve and the limiting
position of secant PQ is the tangent at P.
 tangent at
 slope of tangent at
Normal : Normal is a line perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact.
 Slope of normal =
Approrimate values and errors :
(1) The derivative of a function f at a point x = a of its domain is defined as
This means that approaches as
Thus if h is very small then we can say that is approximately equal to

, we can Write this as
This is the formula for finding approximate value of when h is very small and
(2) Also
 approximately,
= approximate error in y.
= Relative error in y.
percentage error in y.
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
Increasing Function :
(1) For any such that or if
or then the function f
is said to be increasing in the interval

(2) A function f is said to be increasing at a point x = C,
if there exists an interval around x = C in which f is
increasing.
Decreasing function :
(1) For any such that or
if or then
the function f is said to be decreasing in the

interval
(2) A function f is said to be decreasing at a point x = C, if there exists an interval around x = C in
which f is decreasing.
Interpretation of sign of or : Let a function f is defined by then=
(1) If for all then the function f is said to be increasing in the interval .
(2) If at then the function f is increasing at .
(3) If for all then the function f is decreasing in .
(4) If at then the function f is decreasing at .
(5) If at then the function f is neither increasing nor decreasing at then it is

called as stationary at .
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
(1) A function f has a maximum at , if in some

neighborhood of it increases from lfet upto
C and decreases to the right of . This means
that is +ve for values of x to the left of C
and is -ve to the right of C.
(2) A function f has a minimum at , if in some

neighborhood of it decreases from left upto C and increases to the right of . This
means that is negative for values of x to the left of and values of x to the right of
. From this definition, at the function is neither increasing nor decreasing 
. This is the necessary condition for a maximum or minimum of at
First order derivative test for maxima and minima :
(1) Let is given function, find and solve the equation . Let is the
solution.
(2) Let h is small positive number i.e. h > 0, find the sign of and .
(3) If , +ve and , -ve i.e. sign of derivative changes as positive to
negative from left to right of then is maximum at and maximum value is
(4) If , -ve and , +ve i.e. sign of derivative changes as negative to
positive from left to right of then is minimum at and minimum value is
Second order derivative test for maxima and minima : Let is the given function
find
(1)
(2) put and solve for x. Let
(3) find .
(4) Find sign of .
(5) If i.e. -ve then f has maxima at and maximum value is .
(6) If + then f has minimum at and minimum value is .
AREA
Areas of Some Geometrical Figures :
Sr.
Name Figure Formula for area
No.

Area of a rectangle
1. Rectangle = length x breadth
=
Area of a Square
2. Square = (side)2
= (a)2
Area of a right triangle
= (product of side containing

3. Right triangle
the right angle)
=
Area of a triangle
4. Triangle = × base × height
=
Area of a triangle
5. Triangle =
where
Area of a equilateral triangle
Equilateral
6. =
Triangle
Area of a parallelogram
Parallelogram = base × height
7.
Triangle
=
Area of a rhombus
8. Rhombus = product of diagonals

Area of a trapezium
= (Sum of parallel sides ×

9. Trapezium
height)
Area of a regular hexagon
Regular
10. =
hexagon
(a) Area of a Circular disc of

radius
(b) Area of a hollow disc of inner
radius r and outer radius
Circular
11.
disc
(c) Area of a circle of radius
(e) Circumference of a circle of

radius
Surface Area =
12. Sphere
Volume =
6 faces
Total surface Area =
13. Cube Volume =
Diagonal of a face =
Diagonal of the cube =
Total surface Area
Rectangular
14. Parallelepiped
(Box)
Diagonal
Lateral surface area

Right circular
15.
cylinder Total surface area
Volume

l = (slant height)
Right circular
16.
cone Total surface area
Volume
l = (slant height) = 1

Frustum of
17.
Right circular cone Total surface
Volume
INTEGRATION
INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
Definition : If  is a differentiable function of x, such that then we say that
integral of w.r.t. x is . It is symbolically expressed as Here is
called as a primitive, or antiderivative or the indefinite integral of . The function is

called integrand.
The symbol is purely a symbol of operation, which means, integral of …… w.r.t.

x. The process of finding integral of a function is called as "Integration".
Since that
 , where C is an arbitrary constant, called as constant of integration.
Standard Integrals :
(1)

(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)

(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
(31)
(32)
(33)
(34)
(35)

(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
(42)
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
(47)
(48)
(49)

(50)
(51)
(52)
(53)
(54)
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
RULES OF INTEGRATION
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
then
e.g.
(1)
(2)

(3)
(4)
(5)
Important Types of Integration
(1) Integration by substitution : The given complicated integral can be reduced to a standard
form by changing the independent variable x to a new variable t by making a suitable
substitution.
Theorem on method of substitution : If is a differentiable function of t, then prove
that
(2) Standard Trigonometric Substitution :
If the example contains an expression under the square-root sign, generally use the following
substitution.
Expression Substitution
(1) or
(2) or
(3) or
(4) or
(5)
(6)

(7)
(3) INTEGRATION BY PARTS :
The method of finding an integral of a product of two functions is called as ‘Integration by
parts’
Rule (or theorem) of integration by parts : (Product Rule of Integration)
If u and v are derivable functions of x then
 Integral of the product of two functions = (first functions) × (Integral of second function)
- integral of (derivative of the first function × integral of the second function)
Note : To determine order use
LIATE

DEFINITE INTEGRAL
(1) Definition:
If , then the difference is called as the definite integral of
over the interval and it is denoted by
The number a is called the lower limit and the number b is called the upper limit of
integration. While finding the definite integral from its indefinite integral we may omit the
arbitrary constant because.
Thus C gets cancelled.
 Definite integral is a real number.
(2) Rules of finding definite Integral :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4) Integration by parts in case of definite integral is done as follows.

e.g. (1)
e.g. (2)
e.g. (3)
e.g. (4)
Put  When
When
Given integral
Let us resolve the integral into partial fractions
Let
Put . Put

e.g. (5)
Put  ; When
When
e.g. (6)
Put  ; When
When
(3) PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRAL :
(1)
Note : Limits of integration are equal the value of definite integral is equal to zero.
(2)

Note : Limits of integration are inter changed the value changes in sign only.
(3)
Note : Variable x can be replaced by another variable t or u or any other variable, value
remains same. But rule of the function should not change.
(4)
Note : x is replaced by (a - x) in the function value remains same.
(5)
Note : x is replaced by (a + b - x) in the function value remains same.
(6)
Note : Interval [a, b] is splited into two intervals [a, c] and [c, b] as a < c < b
(7)
Note : Upper limit 2a becomes half i.e. a.
(8) (i) , if is an even function &
(i) , if is an odd function.
e.g. (1) --------- (1)
using the property
--------- (2)

Adding (1) and (2)
e.g. (2) --------- (1)
(4) Reduction Formula :
(1)
(2)
Standard Integral :

(5) If n is positive integer :
if n is odd
if n is even
(6) The integral as the limit of a sum :
The fundamental theorem of integral calculus : If f is continuous on [a, b] and there exists
a function  such that for and if exists, then
this limit is equal to i.e. .
Thus , where
(7) Useful Basic Results :
Properties of notation.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

(7)
Imp :
e.g. (1) .......... (1)

Partition (1, 3) as {1, 1+h, 1+2h, .......... 1+(r - 1)h, 1 + rh,1 + nh = 3}
where
(8)
(9)
(10) Geometric sequence (G.P.)
(11) Arithmetic sequence (A.P.)

e.g. (2)
Partition (0, 2) as {0, h, 2h, ....... (r - 1) h, rh, ....... nh = 2}

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
(1) Differential equation :

An equation involving derivatives is called a differential equations.
e.g. (1)
(2)
(2) Ordinary differential equation :
If in a differential equation there is one and only one independent variable then it is called an
ordinary differential equation.
(3) Order of an differential equation :
The order of a differential equation is order of the highest ordered derivative in it.
(4) The degree of a differential equation :
It is the index of the highest ordered derivative in it when it is written such that
(i) no derivative is present under a radical sign.
(ii) no derivative is in the denominator.
Formation of a differential equation :

Consider an equation in x and y and n arbitrary constants C1, C2, C3 .......... Cn &
................. (1)
differentiating (1) successively n times w.r.t. x we get n equations. On eliminating the n
arbitrary constants between these n equations & the given equation (1) we obtain a
differential equation of order n.
Solution of a differential equation:

(1) Solution of a differential equation : is a relation between the variables which is not
involving derivatives or differentials and which satisfies the differential equation.
(2) Types of Solution :
(1) General solution (2) Particular solution
(1) General solution : A general solution of a differential equation is a solution in which the
number of arbitrary constants is equal to the order of the differential equation.
(2) Particular solution : A particular solution of a differential equation is a solution which is
obtained from the general solution of that differential equation by giving particular values to
arbitrary constants.
First order and first degree differential equations in which the variables are separable :
The general form of a differential equations of the first order and first degree is

.......... (1)
where M and N are any functions of x and y or constants.
If , then the equation (1) takes the from
.......... (2)
Integrating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
i.e .......... (3)

which is the solution of (2)
The method of solution suggested in (3) is known as the method of separation of variables.
The equation (2) may be expressed in the notation of differentials as
such a form is called the variables separable form.

Its solution is obtained by direct integration as
; C = constant of integration.
Differential equations reducible to variables separable form :

Sometimes the variables x and y in a differential equation are not separable such equations,
can be reduced to the separable variables form by suitable substitutions.
We solve this new equation, and then resubstitute for the new variable. This gives the solution
of the given differential equation.
Equations Homogeneous in x and y : (Homogeneous Equations in x and y)

Equations homogeneous in ‘x’ and ‘y’ can be put in the form
............... (1)
where f1, f2 are expressions homogeneous and of same degree in 'x' and 'y'.
Put
Differentiating on both side we get
The eqn. (1) is homogeneous hence the R.H.S. can be expressed as a function of i.e in v.
The given eqn. (1) becomes
............... (2)
The eq. (2) can be written as

(Variables separable form) .............. (3)
on integrating (3), we get the relation between ‘x’ and ‘y’ i.e. beteen y and which satisfies
the original equation.
Differential Equations Reducible to Homogeneous form :

A differential equation of the form
.............. (1)
is non-homogeneous differential equation and can be reduced to homogeneous form. There
are two cases.
Cass 1 : When
In this case, we put , where h, k are constants and to be determined.
 and

Hence, the differential equation (1) becomes
.............. (2)
n
We choose h and k such that eq . (2) becomes homogeneous, this requires
and
Then eqn. (1) becomes
which is homogenous equation in X and Y, and can be solved by the substitution y = vX.
Case 2 : When
Let

 Equation (1) becomes

Put

where the variable are separated.
NUMERICAL METHODS
Solution of Non-linear Algebraic Equations

i) Algebraic equation : An equation of the form f (x) = 0 where f (x) is a polynomical in x is
called an algebraic equation.
ii) Non linear algebraic equation : If the degree of the polynomial is greater than one then the
equation f (x) = 0 is called a non linear algebraic equation. e.g.
i)
ii)
are non-linear algebraic equations.
if α is a root of the equation f (x) = 0 then f (α) = 0.
We shall discuss three standard methods of finding approximate roots of non linear algebraic
equations. These are
1) Bisection method
2) False Position method
3) Newton Raphson method
We shall now state below a few results which are useful in the discussion.
1) An algebraic equation of degree n has n roots
2) Algebraic functions are continuous. Hence their graphs are continuous curves
3) Intermediate Value Theorem :
If a function f (x) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b] and if f (a) and f (b) have opposite
signs then there exists at least one number C  (a, b) such that f (c) =0
and if f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs, then there is at least one root of f (x) = 0 between a
and b.
Bisection Method : This method is based on repeated application of the intermediate value
theorem

In this method, we choose two points x = a and x = b for the curve y = f (x) such that f (a) and
f (b) have opposite signs (so that f (a).f (b) < 0) and we consider as an approximate root
of f (x) = 0.
Let f (x) = 0 be the equation. Suppose that. f (a) > 0 and f (b) < 0. Then a root lies between a and b.
Let Then x1, bisects the interval (a, b) and is the first approximation to the
required root. We now find f (x1). Then we have following three cases
If f (x1) = 0 then x, is the required root
If f (x1) < 0, then f (a). f (x1) < 0). Hence the root lies in the interval (a, x1).
If f (x1) > 0, then f (x1). f (b) < 0). Hence the root lies in the interval (x1, b). In case (i), the process
terminates.
In cases (i) and (ii), we bisect the interval as before and repeat the process until the root is obtained
to the desired accuracy.
Above method is called iterative method and each repetition is called an iteration
False Position Method : This method is also based on repeated application of the intermediate
value theorem.
In this method we choose this points x = a and x = b for the curve y = f (x) such that f (a) and f (b)
have opposite signs.
Let f (x) = 0 be the equation. Suppose that f (a) > 0 and f (b) < 0.
The first approximation to the root of f (x) = 0 is giver by
We now find then we have the following three cases :
i. If , then is the required root of the equation
ii. If then . Hence the root is lies in the interval
iii. If then . Hence the root lies in the interval .

In case (i) the process terminates. In cases (ii) and (iii) we repeat the process until the root is
obtained to the desired accuracy.
Newton Raphson Method : In this method we begin with an approximate root x0, of the equation
f (x) = 0.
First approximation to the root
The successive approximations are given by

Where

This is called Newton-Raphson formula. The process is continued until he root is obtained to
the desired occuracy.
Forward Differences:
Backward Differences :
Shift operator E :
Inverse shift operator E:
Properties of operater  :
is constant
Note : All above properties are also valid for operators  and E.
Relations between the operators :

Newton's Forward Interpolation Formula :
Where i.e.
i.e.
Newton's Backward Interpolation Formula :
Where i.e.
i.e.
Trapezoidal Rule :
Where
n = any number (positive integer) of equal intervals
Simpson's 1/3rd Rule :
Where
n = even number of equal intervals
Bisection Method
This method is based on repeated application of the intermediate value theorem.

In this method, we choose two points x = a and x= b for the curve y = f(x) such that f(a) and
f(b) have opposite signs (so that f(a).f(b) < 0) and we consider an an approximate
root of .
Let be the equation. Suppose that and . Then a root lies between
a and b.
Let Then x1, bisects the interval (a, b) and is the first approximation to the required
root. We now find f(x1). Then we have following three cases
i. If then x1 is the required root
iv. If then . Hence the root lies in the interval . In case (i) the
process terminates.
In cases (ii) and (iii) we bisect the interval as before and repeat the process until the root is
Above method is called iterative method and each repetition is called an iteration
False Position Method

This method is also based on repeated application of the intermediate value theorem.
In this method we choose this points x = a and x = b for the curve y = f (x) such that f (a) and
f (b) have opposite signs.
Let be the equation. Suppose that and .
The first approximation to the root of is given by
We now find then we have the following three cases :
i. If , then is the required root of the equation
iii. If then . Hence the root lies in the interval .

In case (i) the process terminates. In cases (ii) and (iii) we repeat the process until the root is
Type III - Newton Raphson Method
In this method we begin with an approximate root x0 of the equation .

The first approximation to the root

The successive approximations are given by

Where
This is called Newton-Raphson formula. The process is continued until he root is obtained to
the desired occuracy.
Interpolation
Let y = f (x) be any function. Then x is called independent variable and y is called dependent
variable.
Let the variable x assume the value a, a + h, a+h, a+2h,.......... a+nh and let corresponding values of
y be f (a), f (a+h), f (a+2h),........... f (a+nh).
The values of x are called arguments and the corresponding values of y are called.
Properties of operator  :
1. is constant
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Note : All above properties are also valid for operators  and E.
Relation Between The Operators
1.
Prof : We have,
and
Since is arbitrary.


2.
Prof : We have,
Since is arbitrary.

3.
Prof : We have,
and
Thus

4.
Prof : We have, ......... (1)
and ......... (2)
by (2)



5.
Prof : We have, ......... (1)
by (1)

6.
Prof : We have,
now
Thus

7.
Prof :

Newton's Forward Interpolation Formula

1. Newton’s formula for forward interpolation :
Where i.e.
i.e.
This is useful for finding f (x) when x is closed to the first value.
Newton's Backward Interpolation Formula

2. Newton’s formula for backward interpolation :
Where i.e.
i.e.
This is useful for finding f (x) when x is closed to the first value.
Boolean Algebra
10.1 Introduction :
Logic is the basis of Boolean Algebra. In logic, we draw conclusions from the given
Statements and hypothesis. If there are few statements. conclusion can be drawn easily, but if there
are various statements and hypothesis mixed together, it is difficult, if not impossible, to draw valid
conclusion. If these statements of logic are converted into symbols and by some technique they can
given algebraic treatment, then it is easy to handle them and draw inferences. In ordinary algebra,
we form equations talking the unknown quantities as x, y, z etc. Then the equations can be solved
easily. If we do not apply algebra, we can not find unknown quantities only by imagination so
many conditions.
George Boole (1815-1864), observed the similarity between logic and set theory. He
evolved certain rules, parallel to set theory, to deal with the logical statements by giving them
algebraic treatment. This algebraic structure is known as Boolean Algebra.
In 1930, Claude Shannon noticed an analogy between switching devices and logical

connectives.
The laws of Boolean Algebra can be applied to simplify electronic circuits, to design
computer chips and in various other fields.
10.2 Definition :
A non empty set B, together with two binary operations “+” (called addition), “+” (called
multiplication, one unary operation “ ' ” (called complementation) and two special elements 1
(called unit) and 0 (called zero) is said to be a Boolean algebra if the following six axioms hold :
(1) Closure property :
For all a, b  B
(i) (a + b)  B (ii) a . b  B
(2) Commutative property :
For all a, b  B
(i) a + b = b + a (ii) a . b = b . a
(3) Associative property :
For all a, b, c  B
(i) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
(ii) (a . b) . c = a . (b. c)
(4) Distributive property :
For all a, b, c  B
(i) a + (b . c) = (a + b) . (a + c)
(ii) a . (b + c) = (a . b) + (a . c)
(5) Existence of identity :
There exists two unique elements denoted by 0 and l in B, such that, for all a  B,
(i) a + 0 = a (0 is an identity element for +)
(ii) a . 1 = a (a is an identity element for .)
(6) Complement laws :
For each a  B, there exists an element a in B, called the complement of 'a', such that :
(i) a + a' = 1 (ii) a . a' = 0
This complete structure of Boolean algebra is expressed by the notation (B, ‘+’, ‘.’, ‘ ' ’, ‘0’,
‘1’ or by simply stating let B is Boolean Algebra.
10.3 Important Note

(1) The binary operations "+" and "." defined above are not ordinary "plus" and
"multiplication" symbols. They are just binary operations having properties define above. That is
why a + (b. c) = (a + b) . (a + c) is true in Boolean algebra where as it is not true in ordinary
algebra. Also 1 and 0 are not ordinary numbers, but they are unique elements.
The confusion, if any, will be avoided, if we think operation "+" as '' i.e. union of sets and
the operation "." as '' i.e. intersection of sets. Or, '+' correspond to "." and "." correspond to ""
in logic. The complement " ' " in Boolean algebra correspond -------- implement in a set theory Or
negation in logic.

The symbol 1 can be thought as a universal set (all) and symbol O as empty set Ø (nothing)
in sets.
Or we may think 1 as a tautology (t) and O as a contradiction (C) in logic.
Many confusions in operations with Boolean algebra can be avoided, if we compare it with
set theory
For example :
(i) In Boolean algebra : x + x + x... n times = x
In set theory : A  A  A ..... n times = A
(ii) In Boolean algebra : x. x. x ... n times = x
In set theory A  A  A ... n times = A
(iii) In Boolean algebra : 1 + x = 1, 1 = All
In set theory : X  A = X,
X = Universal set, A  X
(iv) In Boolean algebra : 1 . x = x
In set theory : X  A = A
(v) In Boolean algebra : x + x' = 1
In set theory A  A' = X
(vi) In Boolean algebra : x.x' = 0
In set theory : A  A' = Ø
(vii) In Boolean algebra : x + y. z
ie. x + (y.z) = (x + y) . (x + z)
In set theory A  (B  C) = (A  B) (A  C)
(2) Distributive law holds only + over. or . over +.
i.e. a. (b + c) = (a.b) + (a.c) etc.
But 'plus' does not distribute over 'plus' and 'dot' does not distribute over 'dot'.
Hence a + (b + c)  (a + b) + (a + c)
But a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c = a + b + c
10.4 Principle of Duality :

The dual of a Boolean expression is obtained by replacing + with ., . with +, 0 with 1 and 1
with 0.
Thus, the dual of x + 1 = 1 is x . 0 = 0.
Note that the complements remain same in duals.
Thus, the dual of x + x' = 1 is x, x' = 0.
If any result is true in Boolean algebra, then its dual is also true.
10.5 Boolean Algebra and Switching Circuits :

In an electric circuit, a switch is a device which connects two terminals. A switch is a two
device called "closed" and "open". In the 'closed' or 'on' state, the current lows from one terminal
other and in 'open' or 'off' state, current does not flow from one terminal to other. Switching circuit
is connection of finite number of switches connected in series and parallel.

In an electronic circuit switches produce signals 'on' and 'off', generally denoted by 1 and 0
respectively. If the circuit in 'on', its value is 1 and if it is 'off' its value is 0.
Now consider a switch x1. Let x'1 be a switch representing complementary state of switch x1.
x1 x'1
1 0
(closed) (open)
0 1
(open) (closed)
Two switches can be connected in parallel or in series.
Switches in series :
If two switches are in series, then the current will flow in the circuit if both the switches are closed.
Input Output
x1 x'2 x'1 . x'2
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
Switches in parallel :
In the above circuit two switches are in parallel. The current will flow in the circuit it at
least one switch is closed.
x1 x'2 (x'1 + x'2)
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
10.6 Boolean Variable :

Any variable x, y, z ... representing element of Boolean algebra is called a Boolean variable.
Example (i) x + y' (ii) x . y + z
10.7 Boolean Expression and Boolean Function
(i) Boolean Expression : The expression in terms of Boolean variables x, y, z... involving

Boolean -------- is called Boolean expression.
(ii) Boolean Function : The Boolean expression itself is called a Boolean function.
Example :
(1)
(1)
10.8 n-place Boolean function :
Consider B = An where A {0, 1}
Let n = 2,
B = A × A = {(1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 1), (0, 0)}
Let f : B = An  A.
Now onwards, we consider this special function in Boolean algebra in study of logic
circuits. It is called n-place Boolean function.
10.9 Value of Boolean Function :
Given a Boolean function, we can write its value in tabular form, by considering all the
possible values for given variables. i.e. all possible combinations of the values of variables. This is
just like writing the truth table for the logical statements.
Recall the following from logic.
p q (P)' (p + q) (p . q)
~P (p  q) (p  q)
T T F T T
T F F T F
F T T T F
F F T F F
Example :
..

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Resonance Academy Coaching Classes JEEE / AIEEE

No. Name of the Topic Page No.

Manjusha Khanore/Gawande Madam, 9975777131 1

(2) Some Important Conversion Formulae (ºþ¯ÖÖÓŸÖ¸êü)

(3) Factor Formulae (†¾ÖµÖ¾Ö ÃÖæ¡Öê)

Manjusha Khanore/Gawande Madam, 9975777131 2

Other factor can be obtained by synthetic division (ÃÖÓ¿»ÖêÂÖÛú ³ÖÖÝÖÖ¸ü).

4) if co-efficient of first term is 1.

Manjusha Khanore/Gawande Madam, 9975777131 3

10) (ii) (a - b)m  am - bm

11) If ax = ay then x = y (iii) am + an  am+n

12) If ax = by then a = b (iv) am - an  am-n

Manjusha Khanore/Gawande Madam, 9975777131 4

Manjusha Khanore/Gawande Madam, 9975777131 5

loga = loga x – loga y

loga x = e.g.  i.e. 2 = 2

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9) If base is changed from a to e then loga x =

log x = m log a + n log b + p log c – [s log u + t log v]

1) Arithmetic Sequence (A.P.) :

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(ii) nth term is tn = a + (n-1)d e.g.

(iv) three consecutive terms of A.P. are taken =8–5=3

(v) Four consecutive terms of an A.P. are taken etc.

(vi) Five consecutive terms of an A.P. are taken

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2) Geometric Sequences (G.P.) :

ar2, ar3, ………….

(ii) nth term is e.g.

tn = a(r)n-1 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, ……

(iii) Sum of first n terms of G.P. is

(iv) Three consectutive terms in a G.P. as

(v) Four consecutive terms in a G.P. as

(vi) Five consecutive terms in a G.P. as

3) Sigma notation OR Summation notation :

Properties of sigma notation

(3) (4) If K is a constant,

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e.g. (1) (x + 2)4 = x4 + 8x3 + 24x2 + 32x + 16

(8) Permutations & Combinations

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(ii) -------------- R.H.S. contains r factors.

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(1) Sexagesimal system for measurement In n rotation angle = 2nc

One right angle = 900 = rad.

(2) Circular System :

1c = x 1 right angle (3)

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(7) Relation between Trigonometric

(8) Sign of Trigonometric ratios : (11) Range of Trigonometric ratios:

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(3) cosec  -1 and cosec  1

(13) Trigoometric ratios (-) in terms of  :

Angle 0 c 2c (3) cosAcosB =

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(4) sinAcosB = (3)

(2) sinC - sinD =

(21) sin and cos in terms of tan

(3) tan3 = (5) sin2 =

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Where n  N, are called as allied angles.

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