Plants - An Overview

Plant -An Overview (S.
R) 1
Multidisciplinary Course Course No. UMDBOT103

Plants - Importance and Propagation
Unit - I Plants - An Overview

Dr. Shah Rafiq
1.1 Plant Diversity:
T
he condition of having or being composed of differing elements: varieties.
Plant diversity refers to the variety of plant species that exist on Earth.
Plant diversity means “differences among the plants and varieties of characters
observed among them.
The plant kingdom has a huge varietal diversity among all groups of plants.
This includes all types of plants, from tiny mosses and ferns to towering trees and
flowering shrubs.
Plant diversity is enormous in tropical zones than temperate zones.
Need / Objectives of Plant Diversity
It provides knowledge of various forms of plants existing on Earth.
It helps in understanding of simplicity and complexity of plants.
It is very important in plant classification and taxonomical study of the plants.
The valuable characteristics of plants like life cycle, habit, mode of nutrition and
reproduction could be studied only by means of plant diversity.
Plants:
Plants are multi-cellular eukaryotic organisms.
Mostly photosynthetic organisms containing chloroplasts.
Non motile (fixed at one stop)
Cell walls made up of cellulose.
They are found essentially everywhere, both in water and on land.
The angiosperms or flowering plants are dominated the earth the last 70 million years.
3,00,000 angiosperm species growing on the earth which show enormous diversity in
size and form.
In India there are about 45,000 plant species are known that represent about 7% of the
world’s flora.
Nearly, 4900 species of angiosperms are endemic to India.
Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

Plant -An Overview (S.R) 2
The diversity in plant life can be understood from the following headings:
I. Diversity on The Basis of Habitat:
Habitat refers to the living or dwelling place of an organism. Plants grow in a variety of
habitats. Terrestrial plants grow on land, aquatic plants in water and those on other
plants as epiphytes. Terrestrial plant may be a mesophyte (growing in normal soil),
xerophytes (growing on dry habitats: psammophyte on sand, lithophyte on rock).
On the basis of habitat, plants may be classified into following groups:
1. Hydrophytes:
The plants growing near water or submerged under water
are called hydrophytes. Such plants have poor root
systems, soft stems and poor vascular tissue. The bulk of
the tissue is spongy and provided with air spaces.
These plants may be:

(i) Submerged (e.g., Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Potamogeton etc.),
(ii) free-floating and fixed-floating (e.g., Wolffia, Utricularia, Salvinia, Ceratophyllum,
Lemna, Pistia, Eichornia, Trapa, Azolla Nymphaea etc.), and
(iii) amphibious (only partly submerged, e.g., Ranunculus aquatilis, Alisma plantago,
Sagittaria, Limnophylla etc.).
Two angiosperms are also marine, e.g., Zostera and Thalassia.
2. Hygrophytes:
These plants grow in moist and shady habitats. Their
stem and roots are soft and spongy and show stunted
growth. The leaves are well-developed, provided with
stomata. Common examples are Ferns, Begonias, Aroid
and certain grasses.
3. Halophytes:
These plants grow in saline soil or saline water. They can

tolerate a relatively high concentration of salts (NaCl,

MgCl2, and MgSO4). They have characteristic negatively

geotropic breathing roots called pneumatophores.
Common examples are mangrove vegetations like
Rhizophora, Ceriops, Avicennia, Sonneratia etc.
4. Mesophytes:
The majority of angiosperms grow in places of moderate

water supply and are known as mesophytes. They are
usually large and fast-growing. They have well-
developed roots and leaves. Their stem may be
herbaceous or woody. There are certain mesophytes,
such as deciduous trees (viz., shedding leaves at a
certain season), which are mesophytic during the
summer and xerophytic during the winter.
5. Xerophytes:
The plants which grow in xeric or dry conditions or

where water availability is negligible, are known as
xerophytes, e.g., Euphorbia, Acacia, Argemone,
Amaranthus, calotropis, Nerium, Ziziphus etc. some
xerophytes store water in their stem (opuntia), leaves
(Aloe. Agava, Bryophyllum) or in roots (Asparagus) and are
called as Succulents.
Xerophytes may be further divided into following types:

i. Lithophytes – Plants growing on rocks
ii. Psammophytes – Plants growing in sandy soils
iii. Oxylophytes – Plants growing on acidic soil.
6. Epiphytes:
An epiphyte is a plant growing on other plants. Epiphytes are

known as “air plants” because they are not anchored in the

soil. Epiphytes derive nutrients from rainwater, air and from

other sources.
Epiphytes are found on branches, leaves, trunk and other
surfaces of plants. Epiphytes anchor themselves to a tree, but
do not obtain water or other nutrients directly from it.
Epiphytes are commonly found in rainforests.
Examples: Orchids, Tillandsia, Peperomia.
7. Parasitic plants:
Plant that obtains all or part of its nutrition from another

plant (the host) without contributing to the benefit of the host
and, in some cases, causing extreme damage to the host. The
defining structural feature of a parasitic plant is the
haustorium, a specialized organ that penetrates the host and
forms a vascular union between the plants.
Examples: Cuscuta, Striga (grows on roots of jowar).
II. Diversity on The Basis of Habit:

Habit of the plant refers to the general appearance, growth form, or architecture.
On the basis of habit (i.e., shape, size and form), angiosperms are classified into four
groups:
1. Herbs (Herbaceous):
The stem of those plants is green, delicate and

short. Usually, their life is short e.g., wheat, gram.
In some herbaceous plants, the underground part
of stem is greatly reduced but the aerial branch
with flowers at the top arises from underground
parts at the time of reproduction. Such a stem is
called scape e.g. onion.

2. Shrubs (= Shruby or Fruticose):
These plants are woody, branched and larger than

herbs. They are distinguished from trees by their
multiple stems and shorter height, less than 6–10 m
tall e.g., China rose, rose, henna. e.g., China rose, rose,
henna.
3. Trees (Arborescent):
In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated

stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and
leaves. Most plants classified as trees have a single
self-supporting trunk containing woody tissues, and
in most species the trunk produces secondary limbs,
called branches.
These are of the following types:
(a) Caudex:
The stem is un-branched and usually bears a crown of leaves at the apex e.g., Date-
palm (Fig. 1.3A).
(b) Excurrent:
The lower part of the stem is thicker which gradually tapers above. The plant appears
conical due to acropetal arrangement of branches on the main stem (Fig. 1.3B).

(c) Deliquescent:
The apical bud of the main stem dies after some time and branches and sub- branches
spread in different directions e.g., Tamarindus, Ficus. (Fig. 1.3C).
4. Culms:
In these plants, nodes and internodes are extremely prominent, internodes of such plants
are usually hollow: These plants are grasses but cannot be considered as herbs or shrub
or tree, e.g., Bamboo. (Fig. 1.4)
III. Diversity of Angiosperms on The Basis of the Nature of Stem:
On the basis of the nature of stem, the angiosperm plants may be classified as given
below:
1. Erect:
These plants grow upright. Most trees, shrubs and some herbs have strong stem (axis)
and thus can stand erect on the soil.
2. Creepers:
These plants have trailing stem having roots
throughout its length. Since these plants have
weak, long and thin stem they creep on the
surface of the soil. Leaves emerge from nodes,
from the axil of which branches arise.
Adventitious roots arise from nodes throughout
the length of the stem, e.g., Oxalis; Cynodon
(doob grass) etc.
3. Trailers:
Stem sprawling on the ground with the help of
adventitious roots. These plants are like creepers with
the difference that here adventitious roots do not arise
from nodes.
A trailer may be procumbant or decumbent. In

procumbent trailer, the stem lies completely

horizontal (e.g., Basella), while in decumbent, the

apical part of the stem is raised above the ground (e.g.,
Lindenbergia).
4. Climbers:
These plants with weak stem climb on some support
by means of tendrils, petioles, spines, adventitious
roots etc., e.g., pea, betel etc.
IV. Diversity on The Basis of Life-Span:
On the basis of life-span, angiosperms are classified into following four groups: -
1. Ephemerals:
Such plants complete their life span within a very short period before the approach of
actual dry conditions. These are not true xerophytes, and often called as drought evaders
or drought escapers, e.g., Argemon mexicana, Solanum xanthocarpum, Cassia tora, Artemesia
etc.
2. Annuals:
They complete their life-cycle within one year or single growing season or few weeks to
a few months. They die after producing seeds, e.g., wheat, rice, gram mustard, pea. They
pass the unfavorable period in the form of seeds.
3. Biennials (or Biannuals);

These plants complete their life-cycle in two years. During first year they show only
vegetative growth, and during second year they develop flowers, fruits and seeds. They
die off after producing flowers and fruits eg. Radish, turnip, carrot is biennial in colder
areas. They become annual in warmer places. These plants are usually herbs.
4. Perennials:
A plant living for more than two years and flowering several times during the life span
(except in monocarpic plants which live for several years but perish after flowering, as
in several species of Agave and bamboos). In herbaceous perennials, the aerial shoot
dies back each winter, and the annual shoots are produced from subaerial stock every

year, those with a rhizome, tuber, corm or bulb better known as geophytes. A woody
perennial, on the other hand has woody aerial shoots which live for a number of years.
V. Diversity on The Basis of Size:

The angiospermic plants show great variation in their size. The smallest angiosperm is a
rootless aquatic Wolffia. It has a diameter of 0.1 mm. Aquatic Lemna has a diameter of 0.1
cm. The tallest angiosperm plant it is Eucalyptus regnans. It is over 100 meter tall. Some of
the Eucalyptus trees attain a height of 130 meter. The largest-sized plant is Banyan tree
(Ficus bengalensis). It can spread over an area of 2 – 5 acres with more than 200 prop roots.
VI. Diversity on The Basis of Nutrition:
On the basis of mode of nutrition, plants are classified as follows:
1. Autotrophic plants or autotrophs: Most of the plants are autotrophs as they are
green and manufacture their own organic food from inorganic raw materials (viz.
CO2 and H2O).
2. Heterotrophic plants or heterotrophs: These plants obtain a part or whole of their
nourishments from outside sources. Heterotrophs may be parasites, saprophytes,
symbionts and insectivorous.
Diversity with respect to Altitude:
Plants exhibit a diverse distribution based on altitude, which is influenced by various

factors like temperature, precipitation, and soil conditions. The distribution of plant
species within these altitude zones is a complex interplay of ecological and
environmental factors, resulting in distinct ecosystems and vegetation patterns. On the
basis of altitude plants are classified into four categories. Here's an overview of plant
diversity with respect to different altitude zones:
Tropical Zone: This zone, found at lower altitudes, typically includes tropical rainforests
and seasonal rainforests. They are defined by the tropic of cancer in the northern
hemisphere at 23°N and tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere at 23°S. In terms
of climate, the tropics receive sunlight that is more direct than rest of earth. The average
temperature of tropics in every month is above 18°C. It features a wide variety of plant
species adapted to warm temperatures and high rainfall. These areas are known for their

lush vegetation and diverse flora. The plants which grow in tropical areas are called
megatherms. Example: Tropical rainforest, coconut, tea, coffee, aloe vera, peace lilly etc.
Subtropical Zone: The region which has a hot and humid climate is called a subtropical
region or subtropical zone. The subtropical zone has most summer season and moderate
cold winter. Subtropical zones are mostly located at and near the coastal areas. Situated
slightly higher in altitude, the subtropical zone can include temperate giant rainforests
and areas with deciduous vegetation. The plant diversity here is influenced by a milder
climate compared to the tropical zone. The plants growing in the sub-tropics are called
mesotherms. Examples: mango, orange, litchi, bamboo, banana etc.
Temperate Zone: The area or region between tropic of cancer and the arctic circle in the
northern hemisphere and between the tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic circle in the
southern hemisphere. Temperate areas have higher altitude than subtropics, and is
characterized by temperate forests. These areas experience distinct seasons with cooler
winters and milder summers. The plant diversity includes a mix of deciduous and
coniferous trees, such as oaks, maples, and pines. The plants growing in the temperate
zones are called microtherms. Examples: Apple, peach, pear, almond, deodar, birch, oak,
maple etc.
Alpine Zone: A region that occurs above the tree-line and below the snow-line on
temperate and tropical mountains is called alpine zone. The vegetation is characterised
by an absence of trees, and varies greatly. At higher altitudes, the alpine zone features
unique plant life. Here, you'll find hardy, cold-resistant species, including low-lying
shrubs, grasses, and lichens. These plants have adapted to survive in harsh, cold, dryness,
ultraviolet, drought, wind, poor nutrient soil and short growing season. The plants here
include perennial grasses, sedges, forbs, cushion plants and lichens. The plants growing
in alpine zone are known as hekisotherms. Examples: Rhododendron, Aconitum, Saussurea,
Gentiana, Meconopsis, Primula, Pedicularis etc.

1.2 Basic Archetecture of a Plant (Diversity in Body organisation)
P
lant architecture is defined as the three dimensional organisation of the plant
body. For the parts of the plant above ground, this includes the branching pattern,
as well as the size, shape and position of leaves and flower organs. Plant
architecture has long been the only criteron for systemic and taxonomic classification,
and, even today, it is the best means of identifying a plant species. But it is also of major
agronomic importance, strongly influencing the suitability of a plant for cultivation, its
yield and efficency with which it can be harvested.
A plant has many parts. Different parts perform different functionalities. The part of the
plant that appears above the ground level is called the shoot system while the part of the
plant which lies underneath the soil is called the root system.
I. Roots System
Roots are the most important and underground part of a plant, which are collectively
called the root system. They are the major part that anchors the plant firmly in the soil.
They absorb water and minerals from the soil, synthesise plant growth regulators, and
store reserve food material. The apical part of the root is covered by the root cap that
protects the root apex.
The direct elongation of radicle leads to the formation of primary roots that grow inside
the soil in dicots. It bears lateral roots that are known as secondary and tertiary roots. In
monocots, the primary root is replaced by a large number of roots because it is short-
lived. In some plants such as Banyan tree, the roots arise from the parts of the plant and

not from the radical. Such roots are known as adventitious roots. A few plants that grow
in swampy areas have roots growing vertically upwards to get oxygen for respiration.
Such roots are known as pneumatophores.
i). Tap root system: It consists of primary root (tap root)

and its branches (lateral roots). It is present in dicots.
Primary root elongates from the radicle. It grows into a
straight, slender, and very thick mass. Tap root are deeply
established and difficult to remove. Tap roots develop in
acropetal succession, which means that younger roots
grow towards the growing end of the taproot while older
roots grow near the base of the system.
ii). Fibrous root system: Thin, branched roots that arise

from the base of the stem are known as fibrous roots. A
fibrous root system is universal in monocotyledons and
ferns. The roots are moderately branched, but once a true
fully matures it gives a mat-like appearance.
iii). Adventitious root system: Roots that grow out from

any structure of the plant excluding the roots of the plant.
Adventitious roots usually sprout from the stems or leaves
of plants, and, in reaction to stress situations such as
flooding, nutrient restriction and injury. The adventitious
roots are either aerial or undergound (present on nodes of
the horizontal stems).
Functions of roots:
The important functions of root are:
i. Roots perform various functions that are necessary for the survival of the plants.
They are an integral or integrated system that helps the plant in:
ii. Anchoring: Roots are the reason plants remain attached to the ground. They support
the plant body, ensuring that it stands erect.
iii. Absorption: Primary function of the roots is to absorb water and dissolved minerals
from the soil. This is crucial as it helps in the process of photosynthesis.
iv. Storage: Plants prepare food and store in the form of starch in the leaves, shoots and
roots. Prominent examples include carrots, radish, beetroot, etc.

v. Reproduction: Even though roots are not the reproductive part of plants, they are
vegetative parts. In some plants, the roots are a means of reproduction. For instance,
new plants arise from creeping horizontal stems called runners (stolons) in jasmine,
grass, etc. This type of reproduction is called vegetative propagation.
vi. Ecological Function: They check soil erosion, provide sustenance and also habitat to
various organisms.
II. Shoot System:
The shoot system is the aerial parts of the plant, that are positively phototrophic. It
consists of stem and its organs like branches, leaves, flower, buds and fruits. Togather
they make up the shoot system. The word shoot generally refers to the main stem. The
plant shoot enables the plant to respond to sunlight by moving the shoot, or stem towards
the dirrection of sunlight.
As we move from the ground surface to the terminal bud we see nodes and internodes.
Nodes are the points where leaves/branches are attached, and internodes are the places
on the stem between the nodes.
Types of shoot system:
1). Stem: The stem is the part of the plant which is found above the ground. It forms the
basis of the shoot system and bears leaves, fruits and flowers. The region where the leaves
arise is known as the node and the region between the nodes is known as the internode.
Stems arise from the plumule, vertically upwards to the ground. Initially, stems are
usually weak and cannot stand straight. It eventually grows to become the toughest part
of the plant called the trunk. The trunk is covered by a thick outer covering known as the
bark. Overall stem provides a definite framework and structure to a plant, which later
develops into a tree.
A bud refers to a small, undeveloped or embryonic shoot, leaf, or flower that is found on
the stem of a plant. These buds can grow into various plant parts like leaves, flowers, or
branches as they mature.
There are three types of buds:
i). Auxillary buds: Auxilary buds lie between stem and

nodes. These are dormont nodes that are not developed
but have the potential to grow into vegetative branches.

ii). Terminal buds: This is the main node of the plant on

which the plant focuses most of its resources. It grows out
of the apex of the plant. The terminal bud facilitates the
growth of the plant.
iii). Adventitious buds: Adventitious buds are those that

grow on the roots, leaves, or trunk of a plant, excluding
the typical growth locations like leaf axils or stem tips.
Modifications of stems:
There are various types of plants present in various parts of the world. To survive they
have to adopt to the eenvironment. The shoot system of plants have modified themselves
into different types to fit with the environment, such as the following.
a) Stem tendril: They are slender and spirally a b
coiled, week structures and hence take the

support of neighbouring plant to grow. Fig. a.
b) Thornes: They are hard structures and act as a
defence mechanisim and avoid the loss or act as
a climbing organs. They protect plants from
browsing animals. Fig. b.
c) Phylloclade: They are flattened or fleshy, green c d
and cylinderical stems, containing chlorophyll
for photosynthesis. They are found in
xerophytic plants. Fig.c.
d) For food Storage: The underground stems of
many plants like potato, ginger, turmeric etc
store food in them. They also act as organs of
perennation to tide over conditions
unfavourable for growth. Fig. d.
e) Stolon: It is a lateral branch that arises from the
base of the main axis and after growing aerially
for some time arch downwards to touch the
ground.
f) Offset: It is a lateral branch with short
internodes and each node bearing a rosette of
leaves and a tuft of roots.

g) Sucker: It is the lateral branch that arises from

the basal underground portion of the main stem,
it grows horizontally beneath the soil and come
out obliquely upward giving rise to leafy shoots.
The important functions of a stem include:
i. A stem carries out a number of functions essential for various processes such as
photosynthesis.
ii. Provides a definite framework and structure to a plant which later develops into a
tree.
iii. Support: Primary function of the stem is to hold up buds, flowers, leaves, and fruits
to the plant. Along with the roots, a stem anchors the plants and helps them to stand
upright and perpendicular to the ground.
iv. Transportation: It is the part which transports water and minerals from the root and
prepared food from leaves to other parts of the plant.
v. Storage: Stems are one of the storerooms of plants where the prepared food is stored
in the form of starch. The stems of a few plants in the desert areas, such as Opuntia,
get modified into thick, fleshy structures that store food and prevent excessive water
loss due to transpiration.
vi. Reproduction: A few stems help in reproduction through vegetative propagation and
also help to bear flowers and to produce fruits.
vii. Guards: Protects Xylem and phloem allowing them to perform their functions. The
stem tendrils are spirally coiled and help the plant to climb support. The axillary
buds also get modified into thorns that protect the plant from grazing animals.
viii. The stems of a few plants in the desert areas, such as Opuntia, get modified into thick,
fleshy structures that store food and prevent excessive water loss due to
transpiration.
2). Leaf:
It is a lateral flattened structure borne on the stem. It develops at the node and bears a
bud in its axil. The auxilary bud later develops into a branch. Leaves originate from shoot
apical meristem and are arranged in an acropetal manner. They are important vegetative
organs for photosynthesis. They are in general characterised by their thin and expanded
form. A leaf consists of a stalk called petiole and an expanded portion called leaf blade
or lamina which provides large surface for photosynthesis. The leaves are arranged in a
definite patern on the stem called phyllotaxy. The leaves may be arranged in alternate
(a single leaf arises at each node in alternate manner), opposite (a pair of leavesarises at

each node and lie opposite to each other) or whorled (two or more leaves arises at a node
and form a whorl) patterns.
Parts of a leaf:
i). Leaf base: Portion of the leaf where it is attached to the stem is called leaf base. It may
bear 2 lateral leaf-like structures called stipules. In monocots, the leaf abse expands into
a sheath covering the stem partially or wholly. In some leguminous plants, the leaf base
may become swollen. It is called pulvinus.
ii). Petiole: A stalk that attaches petiole to the stem is called petiole. It helps to hold leaf
blade to light.
iii). Lamina (leaf blade): The green expanded part with veins and veinlets is called
lamina. The middle prominent vein is called midrib. Veins provide rigidity to lamina and
act as a channels of transport of water, minerals and food materials. Many small and
minute pores called stomata are present on the lamina which help in gasseous exchange.
Types of leaves:
Simple leaf: Here the leaf lamina is entire or when incised, the incisions do not touch the
midrib.

Compound leaf: Here the leaf lamina is not entire and the incisions may reach upto the
mid rib breaking it into a number of leaflets.
Functions of the leaf:
Leaves have several important functions in plants:
i. Photosynthesis: Leaves are the primary sites for photosynthesis. They capture
sunlight and convert it into chemical energy, producing sugars and oxygen in the
process.
ii. Gas Exchange: Leaves facilitate the exchange of gases. They absorb carbon dioxide
(CO2) from the atmosphere and release oxygen (O2) through tiny pores called
stomata.
iii. Transpiration: Leaves help regulate the water content in plants through
transpiration. Water evaporates from the leaf's surface, creating a flow of water and
nutrients from the roots to other parts of the plant.
iv. Storage: Some leaves can store water, nutrients, or even toxins. For instance,
succulent leaves store water, while certain plants store toxins in their leaves to deter
herbivores.
v. Leaves play a crucial role in a plant's survival, serving as its primary food factory and
aiding in its interaction with the environment.
3). Flowers:
A flower is the reproductive unit in the angiosperms and is meant for sexual
reproduction. A flower is a modified shoot wherein the shoot apical meristem changes
into floral meristem. Internodes donot elongate and the axis gets condensed. The apex
produces various floral appendages laterally at sucessive nodes insteed of leaves.
Arrangement of cluster of flowers on the floral axis is called inflorescence.
Parts of a flower:

A flower has a stalk (pedicel). Its swollen end is called thalamus (receptacle). Reduced
leaf found at the base of the pedicel is called bracts. A typical flower has 4 kinds of whorls
arranged on thalamus.
Sepals: The outer parts of the flower (often green and leaf-like) are called sepals. Sepals
are also known as calyx.
Petals: The parts of a flower that are brightly coloured and attract bees, insects and birds
are called petals. Petals are also known as corolla.
Stamen: This is the male reproductive organ of the flower and produces pollens in
anther. Stamens are also known as androceium.
Carpel (pistil): This is the innermost part and female reproductive part of a flower.
Carpel has three parts- stigma, style and ovary. Carpels are also known as gynoecium.
Functions of flowers:
Flowers serve several essential functions in the life cycle of plants:
i. Reproduction: The primary function of a flower is sexual reproduction. Flowers

produce male (pollen) and female (ovules) reproductive structures. The male
reproductive organ is called the stamen, which produces pollen, and the female
reproductive organ is the carpel (or pistil), which contains the ovules. The transfer of
pollen from one flower to another allows fertilization and the formation of seeds.
ii. Attraction: Flowers are often brightly colored and emit pleasant fragrances to attract
pollinators, such as bees, butterflies, and birds. These pollinators help in the process
of pollination by carrying pollen from one flower to another as they seek nectar.
iii. Protection: Sepals, the outermost part of the flower, protect the developing bud. They
encase the flower when it is in the bud stage, shielding it from potential damage.
iv. Seed Production: After successful fertilization, flowers develop into fruit, which
houses the seeds. This is crucial for the dispersal of plant offspring.
v. Diversity: Flowers come in a wide range of shapes, colors, and sizes, contributing to
plant diversity and adaptation to different environments.

4). Fruit:
A fruit is the fleshy or dry ripened ovary of a flowering plant, enclosing the seed or seeds.
It is the characteristic feature of the flowering plants. Botanically, a fruit is a mature ovary
and its associated parts. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants disseminate their
seeds. They are the rich source of vitamins, minerals and fibers.
The main purpose of fruits is that they protect the seeds during development. Since they
are often colourful and emanate a delectable odour, they help in attracting birds and
other animals to eat seeds. This way the seeds get dispersed to other areas for generating
new plants.
Parts of a fruit:
A fruit comprises a wall or pericarp and seeds. The pericarp can be dry (e.g., mustard,
nuts) or fleshy (e.g., mango, guava). The pericarp is the wall of the ovary that develops
as the wall of the fruits. When the pericarp is thick and fleshy, it is further differentiated
into three layers namely epicarp/exocarp (outermost layer, forms the peel), mesocarp
(middle layer, fleshy, edible portion) and endocarp (innermost layer, where seed is
accommodated).

Functions of Fruit:
Fruits serve several essential functions for plants, aiding in their reproduction and
survival. These functions include:
a. Seed Protection: Fruits act as protective coverings for seeds, shielding them from
physical damage, herbivores, and harsh environmental conditions, ensuring the
seeds' viability for future growth.
b. Seed Dispersal: Fruits facilitate the dispersal of seeds to new locations. They use
various methods such as wind, animals, and water to transport seeds away from the
parent plant, helping plants colonize new areas and reduce competition with the
parent plant.
c. Energy Source: The edible part of fruits, such as the flesh, contains sugars and
provides a source of food and energy for animals, including humans.
5. Seeds: Seeds are the ripened, fertilized ovules that develop after fertilisation. It is an
embryonic plant enclosed in a protective covering. A seed is made up of seed coat and
embryo. Embryo is made up of radicle, an embryonic axis and one (wheat, maize) or two
cotyledons (Gram, Pea).
Structure of a seed:
The outermost covering of a seed is called sead coat.

Sead coat has two layers outer testa and inner tegmen.
On the seed coat there is a scar called hilum through
which the developing seed is attached to the fruit.
Above the hilum is a small pore called micropyle.

Functions of seed:
The seed of a plant serves several essential functions:
i. Germination: Seeds enable the growth of new plants. They contain the embryo,
which is the young plant in its earliest stage of development, ready to sprout when
conditions are favorable.
ii. Food Reservoir: Seeds often store nutrients in the form of endosperm or cotyledons.
These reserves provide essential nourishment for the germinating plant until it can
establish its own roots and leaves to photosynthesize independently.
iii. Protection: The seed coat, or outer covering, acts as a protective layer. It shields the
delicate embryo and its nutrient stores from environmental stresses, pathogens, and
physical damage.
iv. Dispersal: Many seeds are adapted for dispersion, whether through wind, water,
animals, or other means. This helps plants colonize new areas and reduce
competition with parent plants.
v. Metabolic Functions: During seed development, the seed coat can serve metabolic
functions, and in some cases, the pericarp may also have metabolic roles in protecting
and nourishing the developing seed.

1.3 Diversity in Plant Adaptations
A
daption refers to the behavioral or physical attributes of a plant that helps them
survive better in its ecosystem. Different plants have developed different
adaptations to survive in their habitat. The meaning of adaptation implies how
a species changes its body and behaviour to better suit its natural environment.
There are an estimated 8.7 million species currently living on earth. They are found across
a wide and diverse natural environment, ranging from frozen and desolate Arctics to the
sweltering sands of the Sahara. Adaptation can be defined as “The process where a
species or an organism gradually becomes better acclimated to its environment.”
Why plants need to adopt?
Plants need to adapt for three main reasons:
i. to survive harsh environmental conditions such as the climate;

ii. to protect themselves against predators;
iii. and to be more successful when living alongside competitors. This includes fighting
for space, water, or nutrients.
Plants have adaptations that help them to survive, live and grow in certain environments.
These adaptations are special features that help them to make the most of the
surrounding area. Generally, plant adaptations are specific to particular habitat, making
it difficult for the plant to survive anywhere else. They also explain why some plants are
found in certain areas, but not in others. For example, you wouldn't see a cactus living in
the Arctic. Nor would you see lots of really tall trees living in grasslands. There are a
variety of adaptations that a plant can acquire to increase their chance of surviving,
ranging from physical to behavioral adaptations.
Plant adaptation is when a species develops special features to improve its chances of
survival. Adaptations evolve over a long period of time, and they are inheritable,
meaning they are passed on to offspring.
Types of Adaptation in Plants
There are three types of adaptation - structural adaptation, behavioral adaptation, and
physiological adaptation.
A structural adaptation is a physical feature that an organism has evolved in order to

survive. Structural adaptation of plants can include spines like those found on a cactus

or rose. These spines protect the plant from predators. Another important structural
adaptation in plants is large and wide leaves, waxy leaves or different root structures.
Desert Plant Adaptations
Some plants, called succulents, store water in their stems or leaves;

Some plants have no leaves or small seasonal leaves that only grow after it rains. The lack
of leaves helps reduce water loss during photosynthesis.
Long root systems spread out wide or go deep into the ground to absorb water.
Some plants have a short life cycle, germinating in response to rain, growing, flowering,
and dying within one year. These plants can evade drought.
Spines to discourage animals from eating plants for water;
Waxy coating on stems and leaves help reduce water loss.
Flowers that open at night lure pollinators who are more likely to be active during the
cooler night.
Temperate Grassland Plant Adaptations:
Some prairie trees have thick bark to resist fire

Prairie shrubs readily resprout after fire
Roots of prairie grasses extend deep into the ground to absorb as much moisture as they
can
Extensive root systems prevent grazing animals from pulling roots out of the ground
Prairie grasses have narrow leaves which lose less water than broad leaves.

Tropical Rainforest Plant Adaptations
Drip tips and waxy surfaces allow water to run off, to discourage growth of bacteria and
fungi.
Buttresses and prop and stilt roots help hold up plants in the shallow soil.
Some plants climb on others to reach the sunlight
Some plants grow on other plants to reach the sunlight
Flowers on the forest floor are designed to lure animal pollinators since there is relatively
no wind on the forest floor to aid in pollination
Smooth bark and smooth or waxy flowers speed the run off of water
Plants have shallow roots to help capture nutrients from the top level of soil.
Drip tips Butress roots Epiphytes Large colored flowers
Temperate Rain Forest Plant Adaptations

Epiphytes such as mosses and ferns grow atop other plants to reach light.
Cool temperatures lead to slow decomposition but seedlings grow on "nurse logs" to take
Advantage of the nutrients from the decomposing fallen logs.
Trees can grow very tall due to amount of precipitation.

Temperate Deciduous Forest Plant Adaptations

Wildflowers grow on forest floor early in the spring before tree’s leaf-out and shade the
forest floor.
Many trees are deciduous (they drop their leaves in the autumn, and grow new ones in
spring).
Most deciduous trees have thin, broad, light-weight leaves that can capture a lot of
sunlight to make a lot of food for the tree in warm weather; when the weather gets cooler,
the broad leaves cause too much water loss and can be weighed down by
too much snow, so the tree drops its leaves.
Trees have thick bark to protect against cold winters.

Tundra Plant Adaptations

Tundra plants are small (usually less than 12 inches tall) and low-growing due to lack of
nutrients, because being close to the ground helps keep the plants from freezing, and
because the roots cannot penetrate the permafrost.
Plants are dark in color—some are even red—this helps them absorb solar heat.
Some plants are covered with hair which helps keep them warm.
Some plants grow in clumps to protect one another from the wind and cold.
Some plants have dish-like flowers that follow the sun, focusing more solar heat on the
center of the flower, helping the plant stay warm.
Plant Adaptations in Water
Underwater leaves and stems are flexible to move with water currents.
Some plants have air spaces in their stems to help hold the plant up in the water.
Submerged plants lack strong water transport system (in stems); instead, water,
nutrients, and dissolved gases are absorbed through the leaves directly from the water.
Roots and root hairs reduced or absent; roots only needed for anchorage, not for
absorption of nutrients and water.
Some plants have leaves that float on top of water, exposing themselves to the sunlight.
In floating plants chlorophyll is restricted to upper surface of leaves (part that the
sunlight will hit) and the upper surface is waxy to repel water.
Some plants produce seeds that can float.

II. Behavioral adaptations are the plant’s behavior’s that provide them with an
advantage or to improve its survival. Behavioral adaptations are the way something acts
naturally or by instinct. An example of this in plants is how they grow towards the sun,
or close their leaves during hot times in the day. Growth towards the light and other
tropisms ensure that plants can respond to change in their climate. This type of
behavioral adaptations in plants are called phototropism.
Examples of some behavioral adaptations in plants.
Adaptations of plants to get food:
Plants lean or grow towards sunlight.
Vines climb up the trees to catch sunlight to maximise photosynthesis.
Insectivorous plants like pitcher plant, venus fly trap catches insects for food.
Adaptations to get water and nutrients:
Desert plants can stay dormant for months, only coming to life after a rainfall.
Desert plants have sunken stomata, surrounded by hairs, traps water vapor and hence
reduce transpiration.
Roots grow down into soil towards water to maximize photosynthesis.
The thick cuticle on leaves reduces water loss.
Adaptations for reproduction:
Plants drop seeds to grow new offsprings.
Plants reproduce by pollinators and by seeds dispersal.
Flowers produce scent to attract insects
III. Physiological adaptations:
Physiological adaptation is an internal body process to regulate and maintain
homeostasis for an organisms to survive in its environment, in which it exists. These are

somethings that happen within an organism to change the chemical processes going on
inside its cells. Plant physiological adaptations are the internal processes that enable them
to compete and survive in different conditions.
Examples of physiological adaptations in plants:
1. One common physiological adaptation is the ability to adjust their stomatal openings
to regulate water loss through transpiration. In arid environments, plants may have
adaptations such as succulence, which allows them to store water in their tissues.
2. Plants may develop chemical defenses against herbivores or produce compounds that
attract pollinators.
3. Production of poisons and toxins that help protect them from predators. E.g.,
temperature regulation, release of antifreeze proteins to avoid freezing in cold, release
of seed dormancy.
4. Nutrients are absorbed by the submerged plants through the general plant surface. The
gases are exchange from the water through the surface cells.

1.4 Concept of Evolution and Speciation
E
nglish philosopher Herbert Spencer (1820 -1903) coined the term ‘evolution’ to
represent the phenomenon that brings about continuous and orderly changes in
nature. The word 'evolution' was derived from Latin word “evolvere” where 'e’
means ‘out’ and ‘volvere’ means to roll or unfold. Evolution is described as change
through time. It can be used to represent any change in physical or biological world. Lots
of things in our surroundings change over the time: the leaves on trees change colour
and fall, plants grow and die, mountain ranges rise and erode, languages and cultures
change. As a matter of fact, evolution occurs at different levels and involves all the
components of universe both living or nonliving.
It may be:
at the molecular level (chemical evolution).

at the level of physical objects like change in land topography (physical/inorganic
evolution).
at the level of stars and planets in the universe (stellar evolution or cosmic
evolution).
at the level of living objects (biological evolution).
Evolutionary Biology
Evolutionary Biology is defined as the process of gradual changes in organisms to form

more and more complex forms over a long period of time.
Darwin has defined evolution as ‘Descent with modification’.
Theodor Dobzhansky has defined ‘evolutionary biology' as the study of history of

evolution of newer and more complex forms of life on the Earth from pre-existing
simpler ones over a period of time.
The term 'bioevolution' or 'evolutionary biology' was introduced by Mayr (1970). It is

also called organic evolution or biological evolution. Biological evolution is not just a
change in time. It deals with very specific type of changes such as changes in the
frequency of different genes in the organisms of a population or species over generations
or large-scale changes leading to the origin of new species from a common ancestor over
many generations. The central idea of biological evolution is that all life on Earth shares

a common ancestor, just as you and your cousins share a common grandmother or
grandfather. Through the process of descent with modification, the common ancestor of
life on Earth gave rise to tremendous diversity over a very very long period.
Biological evolution or organic evolution is defined as 'the process of continuity of life

with constant modifications.’ It means living organisms modify and adapt according to
the everchanging environmental needs. These modifications keep accumulating in the
organisms generations after generations, resulting in more complex and better adapted
new species.
The basic concept of organic evolution envisages 'continuity of life with constant
modification'. It suggests that:
Environmental conditions in nature are everchanging.

Organisms have an inherent tendency to change in response to the changing
environmental conditions. This is called adaptability or adaptation.
Such adaptive changes in organisms are inherited by the offspring and lead to the
'Origin of new species' (Evolution).
Since changes in the organisms are due to adaptations, new species are always better
adapted and more organised than their ancestors.
Different members of a species, on being adapted to different environments,
diversify and evolve along several divergent lines and form new species.
All the present-day species had a common ancestor at some or other time of their
evolution (Monophyletic genealogy).
Individuals migrate from their place of origin to varied geographical areas and
gradually adapt to different environmental conditions. This results in the formation
of several new species from one ancestral species (Divergent evolution).
Organisms from varied regions also migrate to a common habitat and modify to
adapt to that habitat. As a result, organisms from distantly related groups develop
common features (Convergent evolution).
Evolution is a very complex and extremely slow process. It is not possible to see one
type of animals/plants changing to other, but presence of integrading organisms
(Intermediate) supports the concept of evolution.
Evolutionary changes are continuous. They occurred in past, are continuing in
present, and will continue in future.

Evolution may speed in either progressive or retrogressive way.

Both these processes of evolution are proceeding simultaneously in nature.
Progressive evolution leads the simple forms towards the complex structural and
physiological organizations.
Plant Evolution
The possible derivation of fungi from algal ancestors as a result of loss of chlorophyll, the
development of structurally simplified types of flowers from more elaborate and more
complex flowers, change from autotrophic nature to parasitic mode of nutrition in
parasitic Cuscuta due to loss of chlorophyll are some of the important examples of
retrogressive evolution in the plant kingdom.
Plants are thought to have evolved from an aquatic green alga. Later, they evolved
important adaptations for land, including vascular tissues, seeds, and flowers. Each of
these major adaptations made plants better suited for life on dry land and much more
successful. Bryophytes were the first plant to colonies lands and were evolved before the
vascular plants like pteridophytes and gymnosperms. The evolution of plants occurred
by a gradual development of novel structures and reproduction mechanisms. Embryo
protection developed prior to the development of vascular plants which, in turn, evolved
before seed plants and flowering plants.
The oldest-known vascular plants have been identified in deposits from the Devonian.
One of the richest sources of information is the Rhynie chert, a sedimentary rock deposit
found in Rhynie, Scotland, where embedded fossils of some of the earliest vascular plants
have been identified.
Plants evolved a number of adaptations that helped them cope with these problems on
dry land. One of the earliest and most important was the evolution of vascular tissues.
Vascular tissues form a plant’s “plumbing system.” They carry water and minerals from
soil to leaves for photosynthesis. They also carry food (sugar dissolved in water) from
photosynthetic cells to other cells in the plant for growth or storage. The evolution of
vascular tissues revolutionized the plant kingdom. The tissues allowed plants to grow
large and endure periods of drought in harsh land environments. In addition to vascular

tissues, these early plants evolved other adaptations to life on land, including lignin,
leaves, roots, and a change in their life cycle.
• (Lignin is a tough carbohydrate molecule that is hydrophobic (“water fearing”). It adds

support to vascular tissues in stems. It also waterproofs the tissues so they don’t leak,
which makes them more efficient at transporting fluids. Because most other organisms
cannot break down lignin, it helps protect plants from herbivores and parasites.)
Speciation
A species can be defined as one or more populations of interbreeding organisms that are
reproductively isolated in nature from all other organisms. For taxonomists, species is
the lowest taxonomic group of biological classification. It represents a group of
individuals closely resembling each other. In evolutionary studies, a species means a
group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. This is called
biological species concept (BSC). Today, biologists define species as populations of
organisms that have a high level of genetic similarity, share a common gene pool and
are potentially capable to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Different Criteria to Define a Species
1) Morphological Similarities: A species is a group of individuals that resemble in
most of their visible morphological characters, sex for sex and variety for variety.

2) Ecological Basis: A specie s is a group of organisms that share the same ecological
niche. No two species can share the same ecological niche.
3) Genetic Basis: A species is a group of organisms that show close similarity in their
genetic karyotype.
4) Evolutionary Aspect: A species is a group of organisms that share a unique similarity
in structural and functional characteristics.
5) Biological Aspect: A species is a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring.
Speciation:
Formation of new species from the parental species is called speciation or origin of
species. As natural selection adapts populations occupying different environments, they
will diverge into races, subspecies, and finally separate species. When populations no
longer interbreed, they are thought to be separate species.
Speciation is of four types:
1. Allopatric Speciation: Allopatric speciation is the divergence of physically separate
populations of a species, occupying separate geographical areas into new species. This is
also called Speciation by geographic isolation.
Physical isolation of an original large population of a species may occur in three ways:
by physical splitting of a large habitat with a wide spread population by some new
physical barrier into two or more large isolated areas (Vicariance).
by Divergence of a few members of a widely distributed population to some new
habitat (Founder effect).
by the extinction of intermediate link s in a chain of interconnected populations.
The physical splitting of habitat is called vicariance. Speciation that begins with
physical isolation of populations either by dispersal or vicariance is called allopatric
speciation. Volcanoes, earthquakes, storms, tidal waves, glaciers, floods and formation
or destruction of mountains and forests, and appearance/disappearance of water
bodies act as vicariance agents for speciation in terrestrial populations.
The geographically separated population are exposed to variable forces of natural
selection, genetic drift, mutations, random mating that cause their gene pools to diverge.
Their gene pools become so different that the free gene flow between isolated
populations is totally prevented and reproductive isolation is established. Finally, these

reproductively isolated populations become independent species. In case, the

geographic barrier is lifted, the members of these species meet but do not interbreed.
Stages in Allopatric Speciation by Vicariance:
Allomen (1992) divided the process of allopatric speciation into following three stages:
Fragmentation of a wide spread population due to geographical barriers and
separation of its gene pool.
Persistence of isolation of populations and their gene pools, so that their gene pools
become different from that of parental population, i.e., genetic divergence.
Establishment of reproductive isolation between new populations and formation of
new species, i.e., speciation.
2. Peripatric speciation:
It occurs when the individuals lying on the periphery, or border of a huge population
split off from the main group and result to a new species in course of time. Such
populations are also called marginal isolates. Differentiating it from allopatric
speciation can be hard. When the population that branch off enters a distinct biological
niche, like feeding on different food or surviving in a different environment, peripatric
speciation occurs. Often these new populations that split away from the existing one are
typically small, so this can have an effect on the proportion of some characteristics in the
new population compared with the old one. Say for instance, that there is a bird
population that is mostly blue, but some are red. A smaller group of birds splits out of
the main group, and red is the majority of this smaller group. It is probable that their
descendants will also be mainly red, which is different from the main group. This type
of change in gene frequency is referred to as genetic drift. Many changes can take place
over time, and these, combined with the effects of genetic drift, can cause new species to
evolve.

3. Parapatric speciation:
Parapatric (para, near) speciation is the development of reproductive isolation among
the members of a continuous population or spatially distinct populations, between
which there is some gene flow in the absence of geographical barrier. It means
Parapatric populations occupy adjacent regions with different selective pressures. They
coexist only in one or more overlapping regions at the peripheries of their
geographical distributions and are not completely isolated.
Parapatric speciation occurs in neighboring populations of a widely distributed species.
Though separated, they share a border zone. Most individuals mate within their own
populations, but a few go and mate with individuals present in the border zone. Such hybris
formed in the border zone are genetically different from the two original populations and
form the initial step toward formation of a parapatric species.
This is referred as ring species. That means within the group, the population does not
mate randomly, but rather individuals’ mate with their nearest geographical neighbors
more generally resulting in unequal gene flow. Non-random mating could increase the
rate of dimorphism within populations, in which differed morphological aspects of the
same species are exhibited.
Parapatric speciation results in one or more distinct sub-populations (termed as ‘sister
species’) that have small continuous overlaps in their biogeographic range and are
genotypically dimorphic.

4. Sympatric speciation (Speciation without geographical separation):

Sympatric (same country) speciation refers to the origin of new species due to the
appearance of some biological barrier in the individuals of an initially randomly mating
population that live in the same geographic area.
Characteristics of Sympatric Speciation
Sympatric species occur in the same geographic area.
Populations are not separated by any physic al barrier.
There are no physical barriers to prevent free gene flow between members of the
populations.
Sympatric populations may be isolated by preferences for different habitats or
niches.
Sympatric speciation occurs by genetic divergence in the gene pools and reduced gene
flow between members of populations. In sympatric speciation, the gene flow between
the members of a single population in a given area may get reduced by:
➢ Ecological isolation or habitat differentiation and disruptive selection.
➢ Polyploidisation or change in chromosome number.
➢ Chromosomal aberration or change in chromosome structure
➢ Introgressive hybridisation.

Plants - An Overview

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Plants - An Overview

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Plant -An Overview (S.

Multidisciplinary Course Course No. UMDBOT103

Unit - I Plants - An Overview

1.1 Plant Diversity:

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

I. Diversity on The Basis of Habitat:

On the basis of habitat, plants may be classified into following groups:

These plants may be:

These plants grow in saline soil or saline water. They can

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

MgCl2, and MgSO4). They have characteristic negatively

The majority of angiosperms grow in places of moderate

The plants which grow in xeric or dry conditions or

Xerophytes may be further divided into following types:

An epiphyte is a plant growing on other plants. Epiphytes are

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

soil. Epiphytes derive nutrients from rainwater, air and from

Plant that obtains all or part of its nutrition from another

Examples: Cuscuta, Striga (grows on roots of jowar).

II. Diversity on The Basis of Habit:

The stem of those plants is green, delicate and

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

2. Shrubs (= Shruby or Fruticose):

These plants are woody, branched and larger than

In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

III. Diversity of Angiosperms on The Basis of the Nature of Stem:

A trailer may be procumbant or decumbent. In

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

horizontal (e.g., Basella), while in decumbent, the

IV. Diversity on The Basis of Life-Span:

3. Biennials (or Biannuals);

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

V. Diversity on The Basis of Size:

VI. Diversity on The Basis of Nutrition:

On the basis of mode of nutrition, plants are classified as follows:

Diversity with respect to Altitude:

Plants exhibit a diverse distribution based on altitude, which is influenced by various

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

1.2 Basic Archetecture of a Plant (Diversity in Body organisation)

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

i). Tap root system: It consists of primary root (tap root)

ii). Fibrous root system: Thin, branched roots that arise

iii). Adventitious root system: Roots that grow out from

The important functions of root are:

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

Types of shoot system:

There are three types of buds:

i). Auxillary buds: Auxilary buds lie between stem and

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

ii). Terminal buds: This is the main node of the plant on

iii). Adventitious buds: Adventitious buds are those that

a) Stem tendril: They are slender and spirally a b

coiled, week structures and hence take the

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

g) Sucker: It is the lateral branch that arises from

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

Functions of the leaf:

Leaves have several important functions in plants:

Multidisciplinary Botany Semester Ist

Flowers serve several essential functions in the life cycle of plants: