DIVERSITY AMONG ORGANISMS IN THE PLANT KINGDOM

Organisms in the plant kingdom are the plants. These organisms (plants of all sorts) covering the
earth surface show immense variation structurally and functionally. Plants differ in external
morphology, internal structure, habitat, and habit/form, duration of life cycle and in many other
respects. The differences represent how highly diverse plants are. The diversity is shown by
individuals of different groups as well as by individuals of the same group. Some of the ways by
which plants differ will be discussed:

1. Habitat: This refers to the place where an organism lives. The nature of the habitat to
characterize diversity of plant is controlled by climate (light, temperature, humidity,
rainfall, wind speed and direction), soil (its physical and chemical components), its
typical flora and its typical fauna. In this respect, plants are categorized according to the
nature of their habitats as follows:
a. Hydrophytes: Plants growing in freshwater (ponds and pool) e.g. Nymphaea (water
Lilly), Utricularia (bladder worts), Lemna, Pistia stratiotes (water lettuce), Eichornea
crassipes (water hyacmth) e.t.c.
b. Halophytes: Plants growing in the saline waters such as mangrove plants e.g.
Avicennia, Rhizophora, e.t.c.
c. Xerophytes: Terrestrial or land plants growing in dry or xeric regions such as dry
savannas or even in deserts e.g. Cactus, Acacia, Gum Arabic e.t.c.
d. Mesophytes: Terrestrial plants growing in relatively moist environments where there
can be heavy or moderate rainfall forming evergreen or deciduous forests such as;
Milicia excelsa, Voacanga Africana, Harungana madagascariensis, Blighia sapida,
Chrysophyllum albidum, Albizia zygea, A. adianthifolia, Irvingia gaboensis,
Azadiracta indica, Morinda lucida, Pinus sylvestris, e.t.c.

2. Habit and form: This is a consideration usually given to the nature of the aerial part of
the plant, particularly the stem. In a way, habit and form has to do with the height of the
plant from the ground level or the nature of the stem which may be hard or soft. Some
stems are so soft that they cannot stand erect. Common habits and forms by which plants
are diverse include:
a. Herbs: Plants with soft and delicate stems which reach a few centimeters but less
than a meter from the ground level e.g. Zingiber officinale (ginger), Canna indica
(canna Lilly), Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic), Arachis hypogea
(groundnut), Tridax procumbens, Alternathera brasiliana, Tithonia diversifolia, Sida
acuta, Armaranthus hybridus, Celosia argentia, Oryza sativa e.t.c.

1
 b. Shrubs: Plants that are profusely branched with hard and woody stems, which give
them a bushy appearance. Shrubs are usually medium-sized, reaching to a little above
one meter above the ground e.g. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (rose hibiscus) Hibiscus
sabdarifa (rosselle), Gossypium hirsotum (cotton), Manihot esculentus (cassava),
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra) Coffea Arabica (coffee), e.t.c.
c. Trees: Plants with a distinct hard and woody stem which at maturity can reach a
considerable height of higher than two meters from the ground e.g Mangifera indica
(mango), Cocos nucifera (coconut), Threobroma cacao (cocoa), Citrus sinensis
(orange), Psidium guajava (guava), Milicia excelsa (iroko), e.t.c.
d. Others with soft stems that cannot be erect but needing a support. Such plants could
be creepers, climbers, twiners, lianas e.g. Oxalis spp. Bauhinia ficus, e.t.c.

3. Duration of life: Plants differ diversely in their longevity. While some plants
undergo/complete their life cycle in few months (e.g. maize, sorghum, cowpea), some
could take up to a year (e.g. cassava, yam) some could take two years (e.g. carrots) and
some could take many years. Either cultivated or wild, plants could be:
a. Annuals: Plants, mostly herbs, with a relatively short life span, living for a few
months to at most a year, within a growing season e.g. Oryza sativa, Zea mays,
Ipomoea batatas, Arachis hypogea, Amaranthus hybridus, Cochorus olitorius,
Asipilia africana, e.t.c.
b. Biennials: Plants which complete their life cycles in two growing seasons, using the
first season for vegetative growth and producing flowers and fruits (reproductive
structures) in the second season e.g. Cabbage, carrot, turnip, e.t.c
c. Perennials: These are plants with life span more than few years. They possess
perennating structures which mostly may be underground, which enable them to
produce new plants season after season. They may be herbs, shrubs but are mostly
trees e.g. Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Zingiber officinale, Tectona grandis (teak),
Gmelina arborea, Theobroma cacao, Pinus spp. e.t.c.

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS IN THE PLANT KINGDOM

Introduction:
For quite a long time, all organisms were placed in just two kingdoms – Plantae and
Animalia. The basic criterion used for such grouping was the mode of nutrition in
which animals are heterotrophic and plants are autotrophic.
However, organisms being cellular are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. The major
criterion for this grouping lies in the location of the DNA (i.e. the genetic material).
In prokaryotes, the DNA is not enclosed by the nuclear membrane but lie freely in the
cytoplasm. As such, they are said to lack true nucleus, hence the name prokaryote.

2
 The eukaryotes on the other hand have their DNA (genetic material) located within
the nuclear membrane. As such, they possess the true nucleus.
The problems with classifying cellular organisms as either plants or animals are as
follows:
1. The unicellular flagellates such as Euglena and Chlamydomonas were classified as
protozoans in the animal kingdom. But they and their relatives contain chlorophyll
and feed autotrophically by photosynthesis. There are as well some flagellates such as
Ochromonas which can swift from autotrophism to heterotrophism depending on
environmental conditions.
2. The case of the fungi which were classified as plants whereas they lack chlorophyll
and are known to feed heterotrophically though they have semblance to filaments of
simple multicellular algae. However, their cellular structures differ markedly to those
of plants in several ways.
3. The case of bacteria which are shown to possess prokaryotic cell structures along
with blue-green algae and are as such different from eukaryotic organisms.

To resolve this controversy, alternative classification schemes were suggested.

Among these, two are prominent. They are:
1. Whittaker’s classification scheme put forward by R.H. Whittaker in 1969. This
scheme divides organisms into five kingdoms as follows:
a. Animalia: multicellular motile organisms which feed heterotrophically.
b. Plantae: multicellular organisms which are autotrophic;
c. Protista: the protozoans and the unicellular algae;
d. Fungi: all fungi (formerly considered as plants);
e. Monera: the bacteria and the blue-green algae.
2. Margulis and Schwartz classification scheme put forward in 1982. This schemes also
divides organisms into five kingdoms, but in a different fashion as follows:
a. Prokaryotae: all bacteria and blue-green algae;
b. Protoctista: algae, protozoa, slime, moulds and oomycetes (primitive fungi);
c. Fungi: all heterotrophic fungi;
d. Plantae: all non-motile autotrophic organisms;
e. Animalia: all heterotrophic and motile organisms.

Prokaryotae and Protoctista are predominantly unicellular while Fungi, Plantae and
Animalia are predominantly multicellular.

3
 KINGDOM PLANTAE

This is the kingdom of multicellular eukaryotes with photosynthetic nutrition. Their

cells typically possess cellulose cell wall, sap vacuole, plastids and several
photosynthetic pigments, which always include chlorophyll a. They possess varied
methods of reproduction which could be sexual and/or asexual.

The kingdom consists of (i) multicellular algae, (ii) bryophytes, (iii) pteridophytes
(iv) gymnosperms, and (v) angiosperms.

A. THE ALGAE
The multicellular algae in the plant kingdom consist of:
1. Chlorophyta (Green algae):
 They possess chlorophyll a as the main photosynthetic pigment;
 Their thalli are usually filamentous or flattened with little or no cell
differentiation;
Examples; Spirogyra, Oedoogonium, Chlorella.
2. Rhodophyta (Red algae):
 Their photosynthetic pigments are chlorophyll a, the red pigment
(phycoerithrin) and the blue pigment (phycocyanin). However, the red
pigment predominates.
 They range in form from compact disc form to the multi-branched seaweeds.
Examples; Rhodomella.
3. Phaeophyta (Brown algae):
 Their photosynthetic pigments include chlorophyll a and the brown pigment
(fucoxanthin). The brown pigments however predominates hence the name
brown algae;
 This is the most complex of all algae due to considerable level of cell
differentiation in its members.
Examples; Fucus, Laminaria.

Algae show great diversity in forms and body sizes. They could be unicellular (e.g.
Chlamydomonas, Euglena), colonial (e.g. Volvox, Pandorina, Pediasrum), filamentous (e.g.
Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Oedogonium), pseudoparenchymatous (e.g. Fucus) or parenchymatous (e.g.
Laminaria). Algae possess chlorophyll and other pigments which may make them red or brown.
As such, they are classified as green, red or brown algae. Possession of chlorophyll a enables
algae to carry out photosynthesis and as such, they are autotrophic in nutrition.

4
Algae are mostly aquatic organisms. They occur in freshwater, marine water and brackishwater.
Few species occur in moist terrestrial habitats such as moist rock surfaces, walls and wood
substrates. As a result of their characteristic small body sizes, algae are efficient in the utilization
of solar energy. This makes aquatic habitats in which they occur to be an important location of
primary production. This property makes them to be producers in various feeding structures of
aquatic organisms. As such, algae are very important in the food web of aquatic ecosystems.

BRYOPHYTA

These are mainly the mosses and liverworts. They are considered to be the simplest and most
primitive land plants. Although terrestrial in habitat, bryophytes require water for fertilization
during reproduction. Thus they mostly occur in moist habitats. Bryophytes are adapted to
terrestrial habitats in two major ways:

(i) Possession of definite structures for absorbing water and nutrients from their
substratum, which divide their plant body into an aerial part located above the soil
surface and a subterranean portion, the rhizoid, located at low depth in the soil;
(ii) Exposure of the aerial portion to sun, requiring some structural modification, which
prevents excessive loss of water through the thalloid plant body and structures for
gaseous exchange and transpiration.

Bryophytes possess three main plant body (thalloid) forms:

(i) Flattened and dichotomously branched body, found among liverworts and hornworts;
(ii) Prostrate leafy thalli found among liverworts;
(iii) Erect, leafy thalli found in mosses.

They lack true stems and leaves. They feature prominently in early stages of ecological
succession of tree trunks and rock surfaces. As terrestrial organisms, they possess varying
degrees of tolerance to desiccation, as opposed to algae as well as amount of light and mineral
nutrient requirements of their habitats. They occur as epiphytes on tree barks, degraded soils and
walls of houses. Being small and primitive land plants, strengthening and conductive tissues are
either lacking or poorly developed in bryophytes. There is no development of true vascular
tissues of xylem and phloem. They also lack true roots. They are anchored to their substratum by
thin, root-like filaments called rhizoids which grow from the stem. Usually, water and mineral
salts are absorbed by the whole surface of the plant, including the rhizoids. The body surface of
bryophytes mostly lack cuticle. Thus, there is no barrier against loss of water from their thalloid
leaves.

General Characteristics of Bryophytes

5
 (1.)They undergo alternation of generation in which the gametophyte generation is dominant;
(2.)They lack vascular tissues i.e. no xylem, no phloem;
(3.)Their plant body is called thallus;
(4.)They do not possess true roots, stems or leaves. They only possess thalli with root-like
filamentous rhizoids;
(5.)Their sporophyte is attached to and is dependent upon the gametophyte for nutrition;
(6.)They occur mainly in damp and shady places.

Classification of Bryophytes

Bryophytes are classified into three classes as follows:

1. Class Hepaticopsida or Hepaticae: These are generally called liverworts. Their

gametophytes are usually thalloid but may, in advanced forms, be foliose, in which the
leaves lack midrib. Their rhizoids lack septa. The cells of the thalli possess chloroplasts
which lack pyrenoids. Their capsules lack columella.
The class is subdivided into four orders:
(i) Carlobryales e.g. Carlobryum;
(ii) Jungermaniales e.g. Pellia;
(iii) Marchantiales e.g. Riccia, Marchantia;
(iv) Sphaerocarpales e.g. Sphaerocarpus.

2. Class Anthocerotopsida or Anthocerotae: These are called hornworts. Their

gametophytes are thalloid. Rhizoids are without septa. Cells of the thalli possess large
chloroplasts with pyrenoids. Capsules possess columella.
The class has only one order – Anthocerotales e.g. Anthoceros.
3. Class Bryopsida or Musci: These are generally called mosses. Their gametophytes are
differentiated into a prostrate protonema and an erect gametophores. The gametophores is
foliose (leaf-like) in nature. They bear rhizoids with septa.
The class is subdivided into three orders:
(i) Sphagnales e.g. Sphagnum;
(ii) Andreales e.g. Andrea;
(iii) Bryales e.g. Funaria.

6
 PTERIDOPHYTA

Some classification models regard this division as Filicinophyta. They are commonly referred to
as ferns. Plants in this division are regarded to be the most primitive vascular plants. As land
plants, which still require water for fertilization (like Bryophytes), they are referred to as
“amphibious plants” of Kingdom Plantae. From evolutionary point of view, they constitute the
first land plants. Pteridophytes show alternation of generation in which the sporophyte
generation is the dominant phase in the life cycle. The plant body is the sporophyte and is
autotrophic.

Pteridophytes occur between the bryophytes (cryptogams) and the higher vascular plants
(spermatophytes). They resemble bryophytes mainly due to zoidogamous fertilization (necessity
of water for fertilization) and differ from them in possession of sporophytic plant body as well as
development of vascular tissues (xylem and phloem). Possession of these vascular tissues marks
their close affinity (relationship) to the gymnosperms (of spermatophytes) but pteridophytes do
not bear seeds like gymnosperms and angiosperms (spermatophytes) do.

General Characteristics of Pteridophytes

1. They show alternation of generation in which the sporophyte generation is dominant;

2. The gametophyte is reduced to a small and single prothallus which is short-lived and
which bears the sex organs;
3. The sporophyte is the plant body, possessing roots (rhizoids), stems and leaves;
4. The plant body possesses vascular tissues (xylem and phloem);
5. Their leaves are relatively large, called fronds.

Pteridophytes occur in a variety of habitats. Most of them are terrestrial, growing in moist and
shady places e.g. Psilotum, Lycopodium, Selaginella, Adiantum. Few are aquatic e.g. Azolla,
Marsilea, Nephrolepis. Some (though few) are xerophytic e.g. Equisetum and some species of
Selaginella. Some ferns are also epiphyitic, growing on trunks of large trees e.g. Lycopodium,
Pleopeltis.

Most ferns are small annual herbs e.g. Azolla, Selaginella but few are perennial and tree-like e.g.
Angiopteris. Their plant bodies consist of roots (rhizoids), stem and leaves. The young
sporophyte first develops a primary root which is soon replaced by adventitious roots found on
the adult plant. The stem is usually branched, forming an underground rhizome. Leaves are
usually scaly, simple and sessile. In some species, the leaves are large and pinnately compound
e.g. Dryopteris, Adiantum, Nephrolepis. The vascular tissues of roots and stems consist of xylem
and phloem. The xylem is made up of only tracheids while the phloem is made up of sieve tube
but no companion cells. Cambium is characteristically absent. Thus, pteridophytes do not
undergo secondary growth.

7
Classification of Pteridophyta

The division Pteridophyta is subdivided into the following classes:

1. Class Psilopsida
 Plant body (sporophyte) is relatively less differentiated;
 Members of the class are regarded as the most primitive and oldest vascular plants
bearing close affinity to the bryophytes;
 They lack roots. Instead, like bryophytes, they possess much-branched rhizoids;
 Their aerial axis is either naked or may have spirally arranged leaves.
Examples: Psilotum, Tmesipteris
2. Class Lycopsida
 Plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves;
 Leaves are small with a single unbranched veins;
 Sporangia develop in the axil of the sporophylls
 Sporophylls generally form compact strobili
Examples: Lycopodium, Selaginella.
3. Class Sphenopsida
 Plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves;
 The stem is differentiated to form nodes and internodes;
 Their leaves are small and borne in whorls on nodes;
 Their sporangia are borne on the sporangiophores which form compact cones at
the apex of fertile branches.
Example: Equisetum
4. Class Pteropsida
 Their plant body is differentiated into root, stem and leaves;
 Leaves are relatively large, described megaphyllous, and pinnately compound;
 They bear sporangia on the ventral surface of the sporophylls which are usually
aggregated into sori (singular: sorus).
Examples: Dryopteris, Pteridium, Polypodium, Nephrolepis.

All groups of plants so far discussed – Algae, Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) and
Pteridophytes (ferns) – are regarded as seedless and/or lower plants. They are also refered to as
Cryptogams.

SPERMATOPHYTA

Spermatophytes are the higher plants. They are the seed plants. They are classified as
phanerogams. They belong to two large groups – Gymnospermae (Coniferophyta) and
Angiospermae They are considered to be the most advanced and most successful among all
groups of plants. This feat is due to evolution of seeds by them, the main unifying attribute. A

8
seed is defined as a fertilized ovule which, after fertilization may be borne naked (as is the case
among gymnosperms) or covered/enclosed within an ovary wall to form fruits (as is the case
among angiosperms). Spermatophytes are also characterized by the structure of their
reproductive organs which in gymnosperms are cones and among angiosperms, flowers.

Spermatophytes occur in different life forms or habits. These are trees, shrubs and herbs. Many
are erect (trees and shrubs) while others occur as climbers, lianes, creepers, vines etc. They are
autotrophs with some parasitic (mistletoe) and some insectivorous (Nephentes). They occur in
varying sizes as big trees (Adansonia digitata) and small herbs.

Seed plants include cycads and pines/conifers (Gymnosperms) as well as palms, bamboos, fruit
and food crops, timber plants, bananas, weeds, ornamental plants, fibre-producing plants,
medicinal plants, wind breakers, among a host of others. Along this line of categorization, human
civilization and culture have put spermatophytes as domesticated, semi-wild, conserved
(protected) and wild plants. Many of these plants are used by humans as food, feeding stuff and
livestock feeds e.g. cereals and pulses (maize, guinea corn, rice, millet, wheat, beans, groundnut,
soyabean etc), fruits (mango, orange, African star apple, cashew, guava, dates) beverage plants
(colanut, cocoa, coffee, coconut, raphia palm), vegetables (tomato, peppers, garden egg, carrot,
amaranths, jute mallows, Celosia, pumpkins, water mellon), grasses ( Andropogon, Pennisetum,
Panicum, Cyperus), medicinal/drug plants (Artemisia, Rauvolfia, Azadirachta, Moringa,
Morinda, Vernonia, Aloes, Senna spp., Agerathum conizoides), spices (Ocimum, ginger, onion,
garlic, black pepper, Parkia biglobosa – Locust bean), timber trees (Gmelina arborea, Tectona
grandis, Terminalia spp, Albizia spp., Milicia excelsa, Mahogany), ornamental plants (lilies,
roses, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Acalypha, Ixora, Allamanda), cordage plants (Corchorus, okra,
Hibiscus cannabinus, Hevea brasiliensis), fibre plants (Gossypium - cotton), weeds (Eleusine
indica, Sida acuta, Tithonia diversifolia, Commelina nudiflora, Cyperus spp., Chromolaena
odorata, Asipilia spp.).

Spermatophytes exist in varying habitats. They adapt to extremes of temperatures, water regimes
and nutrient levels. They occur in brackish water, freshwater, wet/moist, arid and even rocky
habitats.

Characteristics of Spermatophytes

 The sporophyte is the dominant generation while the gametophyte is severely reduced
and dependent on the sporophyte;
 The sporophyte produces two types of spores – microspores and megaspores – which
respectively form into the pollen grains and the embryo sac. Hence, they are
heterosporous;
 Their embryo sca remains completely enclosed in the ovule which upon fertilization
forms the seed;

9
  They undergo siphonogamous fertilization, thus not needing water for sexual
reproduction. This implies that male gamete do not swim in a film of water but are
conveyed to the ovum by a pollen tube;
 They possess complex vascular tissues well established in the roots, stem and leaves.

Spermatophytes are classified into Gymnospermae/Coniferophyta and Angiospermophyta

Classification of Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms are subdivided into two divisions – Cycadophyta and Coniferophyta

Cycadophyta is characterized by the possession of unbranched stem and large foliage leaves. It
consists of three orders as follows:

1. Cycadofilicales e.g. Lyginopteris;

2. Bennetitales e.g. Cycadeoidea;
3. Cycadales e.g. Cycas, Zamia.

Coniferophyta is characterized by long and profusely branched stem and simple small leaves. It
consists of four orders as follows:

1. Cordaitales e.g. Cordaites;

2. Ginkgoales e.g. Ginkgo biloba;
3. Coniferales e.g. Pinus;
4. Gnetales e.g. Ephedra, Gnetum.

The Angiosperms

These are plants that bear flowers as their reproductive organ. Thus, they are called flowering
plants. They are better adapted to life on land than any other land plants. Possession of flowers
by these plants enables them to utilize insects and sometimes birds or bats as agents of
pollination – transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the male part of the flower or plant to
the stigma of the female part of the flower.

Angiosperms may be herbaceous (i.e. non-woody) or woody. Woody angiosperms are the shrubs
and trees. These plants grow large amount of secondary xylem that offers support and act as
conducting tissue, transporting water and mineral nutrients absorbed by the roots to various parts
of the plant. Wood is added yearly by the xylem as a result of the activity of the vascular
cambium present in the vascular tissues as a layer of cells between the xylem and the phloem.

Herbaceous angiosperms, mostly herbs, rely on the turgidity and small quantities of mechanical
tissues such as collenchymas, sclerenchyma and xylem for support. They are smaller plants. It is
either they lack vascular cambium or when present, its activity to form secondary xylem is

10
restricted. Many herbaceous plants are annual plants – plants that complete their life cycles
(sporophytic and gametophytic) from germination to seed production within one season of
growth, which may be less than or equal to one year. Some herbaceous plants produce organs of
perrenation such as bulbs, corms, tubers, rhizomes which they use to survive periods of adverse
condition in their environment such as drought, during dry season. Such plants may be biennial
or perennial. Biennial plants usually use the first year of their growing season for vegetative
growing season for vegetative growth and production of seeds takes place in the second season.
Perennial plants survive from one year to another and live for many years. Shrubs and trees are
perennial plants. These may be evergreen, when they produce and shed leaves all the year round
in a manner that leaves are always present on the plant or may be deciduous, when they shed all
leaves on the stem during a season – dry or cold.

Angiosperms are subdivided into two major groups which many consider to be classes. These
are: (1.) Monocotyledonae – monocotyledonous plants (monocots) and (2.) Dicotyledonae –
dicotyledonous plants (dicots).

Differences between Monocots and Dicots

STRUCTURE MONOCOT DICOT

Leaf (i)Leaves show parallel venation
Morphology
(ii)Leaves are long and thin, usually
sessile (without leaf stalk)
(iii)Dorsal and ventral surfaces of the
leaf are usually identical
Stem Anatomy (i)Vascular bundles are scattered in the
cortex or ground tissue
(ii)Vascular cambium is usually absent
(iii)They do not usually undergo
secondary growth (except in Palmae)
Root Primary root of the radical develop
Morphology into numerous adventitious roots to
form fibrous root system
Root Anatomy (i)Root possess many groups of xylem
tissue of up to 30
(ii)Vascular cambium usually absent
and no secondary growth
Seed Embryo has only one cotyledon
Morphology
Flowers (i)Floral parts are usually in threes
(ii)Floral parts may not bear distinct
petal and sepal, thereby forming into
perianth
11
Leaves show reticulate or net
venation
Leaves possess broad lamina, usually
with petiole (petiolate-possession of
leaf stalk.
Dorsal and ventral surfaces of the
leaf differ.
Vascular bundles are arranged in ring
form in the cortex.
Vascular cambium is usually present
They usually undergo secondary
growth.
Primary root persists as a tap root,
with lateral roots as secondary roots
to form tap root system.
Few groups of xylem are present, 2 –
8.
Vascular cambium is often present,
giving rise to secondary growth.
Embryo has two or at times more
cotyledons
Floral parts are usually in fours or
fives
Floral parts usually possess distinct
petals and sepals.
 (iii)Flowers are often wind-pollinated Flowers are often pollinated by
insects, birds or bats.

Angiosperms occur in many families, some of which are as follows:

Poaceae – Maize, Rice, Sorghum, Wheat, Millet, Barley, Sugarcane, Pennisetum, Andropogon.

Palmae – Oil palm, Date palm, Raphia palm, Royal palm, Coconut, Roystonea oleracia.

Sterculiaceae – Cocoa, Colanut.

Anarcadiaceae – Mango, Cashew.

Cucurbitaceae – Citrulus, Fluted pumpkin, Water mellon, Luffa, Sour mellon.

Solanaceae – Capsicum spp., Tomato, Garden egg, Tobacco, Irish potato.

Malvaceae – Okra, Hibiscus spp.

Asteraceae – Chromolaena odorata, Tithonia diversifolia, Tridax procumbens, Vernonia.

Musaceae – Bananas, Plantains.

12