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Brief Contents
Part I Principles
CHAPTER 1 Observation: An Introduction 3

CHAPTER 2 Lenses and Filters 46

CHAPTER 3 Observing Through the Lens

of Early Childhood Development 85

CHAPTER 4 Observing Children Through the

Lens of Play 144

Part II Protocols
CHAPTER 5 Narratives 197

CHAPTER 6 Methods of Observing and Recording 233

Part III Priorities

CHAPTER 7 Observing and Evaluating Children’s
Environments 297

CHAPTER 8 Observations That Give Cause for

Concern 364

Part IV Practices in Authentic Assessment

CHAPTER 9 Authentic Assessment and Portfolios 411

CHAPTER 10 Documentation and Reflection 472

CHAPTER 11 Analyzing Observations and Evidence

and Responding to Findings 513

v
 Ensuring There Are High Standards in Authentic
Assessment 521
Documentation as Authentic Assessment 521
Context 521
The Roots of Authentic Assessment 523
An Authentic Assessment Continuum 523
Triangulation: Strengthening Results 525
Critical Thinking and Analytical Processes 526
A Problem with Critical Thinking 526
Asking and Answering Questions 527
Intuition 527
Tacit Knowledge 528
Analyzing Observations and Other
Evidence 529
A. Review the Material 529
B. Develop a Plan for your Analytical Process 529
C. Review What Information the Particular Method
is Revealing 530
Analyzing Children’s Art 532
D. Reduce the Amount of Material 536
E. Summarize the Data (Observations and Other
Evidence) 537
F. Make Inferences and Check Them 537
Inferences 537
Analysis Flow 540
The Intellectual Activity of Analyzing 541
Why Go through This Complicated Process? 541
How to Make Your Analysis as Strong as
Possible 542
1. Look: Focus on Current Behaviour 542
2. Record Only What You See Using a Sound
Method 542
3. Sort and Summarize 542
xii Detailed Contents
4. Reflect 542
5. Analyze 542
Respond to Observational Data and Analysis 547
Portfolio Assessment 547
Rubrics as Part of Portfolio Assessment 555
The Analysis 555
Culturally Appropriate Assessment 555
Inquiry and Co-Inquiry in Portfolios 556
Group Observations: Analysis 556
Analyzing Documentation 557
1. General Considerations 558
2. Analysis within the Documentation of the Reggio
Emilia Approach 559
3. Analysis within the Documentation of the Project
Approach 562
4. Analysis within the Documentation of the Playing
to Learn Approach 565
5. Learning Stories beyond New Zealand 571
Using Observational Data to Plan 571
Linking Observations and Authentic Assessments to
Programming 574
Individual Program Plans 575
Observation as Part of Curriculum Planning 581
Using Planning Models 583
Planning Models Based on Observation 583
Current Directions in Curriculum Design 583
Summary 593
Key Terms 594
Weblinks 594
Glossary 596
Bibliography 610
Index 521
Preface
AUTHOR’S NARRATIVE

Courtesy of Sue Martin

Courtesy of Sue Martin

Sue while at The Froebel Institute, London England 1971; Sue, Toronto 2017, with grandchildren

My earliest observational studies of young children were undertaken at the Froebel

Institute in London, England, during the very early 1970s. The idea that even a naive,
young teacher could have something to offer children if their focus was observing really
appealed to me. “The so-called higher learning is usually based on observations which
the simplest person is in a position to make, if he knows how to use his eyes; he can
easily make observations better than those made by the costliest equipment...” (Froebel
1887, p. 148)
The observations I made of children included babies in day nurseries and older chil-
dren in local authority schools (infants and juniors aged four to eight years). I remember
observing one small group of junior boys when they heard that Chelsea had won the FA
cup final—it was 1970. In more serious scenarios, I observed children of various ages at
Froebel’s own independent school, Ibstock Place—some performing a few of the classic,
rather boring Piagetian tasks that demonstrated their understanding, or lack of it, of con-
servation or one-to-one correspondence.
A big learning experience, and for me an emotional journey, started at a hospital
where I observed several children who were warehoused with some extreme special needs.
That is where I undertook my major observational study of children who had untreated
spina bifida and hydrocephalus. In these places I practised my earliest observational skills;
mostly it was for my benefit so that I could acquire the skill of observation. As a young
teacher it was my intention to put this skill to good use in understanding the development
of these children and then for me to be in a better position to respond to their devel-
opmental needs. At that time I was strongly shaped by Froebel’s ideas, but Jean Piaget’s
developmental psychology was starting to influence the lens through which I learned to
see children. Developmental processes and structured domains provided a useful way of
getting to understand what I was observing, and they helped me to know what to look for.
Practice as a nursery teacher (with children aged three to five years) helped me appre-
ciate the realities of the classroom experience and how challenging it is to record obser-
vations and make sense of them while juggling responsibilities. I realized that teachers
needed tools to assist them with the practicalities, and I began my quest to provide them.
My first assistant, a nursery nurse (early childhood educator), and others in that role
taught me much about making observations from the rigours of their training programs.

Preface xiii
 Later, while teaching in colleges and universities in the UK, United States, and Canada,
I came to grips with the problems of those needing skills and knowledge in observation
and portfolio use when preparing to work with children of varying ages in a variety of con-
texts. They needed a thorough preparation to do an effective job in their role as observer,
recorder, and responder. We all grow as we develop personally and professionally. Having
the opportunity to see children in many different contexts; participate in international
organizations concerned with teaching, learning, and children’s rights; and further my own
education has contributed to what is offered in this text. A focus on adult education at
the master’s level (in Vermont) was helpful in understanding how adults learn and how to
provide them with learning experiences I could facilitate. My doctoral courses, especially
those with Dr. Suzanne Miller, and qualitative inquiry at University of Buffalo, New York,
offered almost as much learning as my teaching experience there. Having an established
network of teachers with whom I communicate around the world—from Finland to New
Zealand to Scotland and beyond—is exciting and keeps me fresh and challenged. My own
daughter’s involvement in Waldorf education and my grandson’s schools and child-care
experiences in Ontario have all contributed to my understandings. Researching and work-
ing on my other texts regarding young children have helped.
What started out as a skills-based text situated within a fairly traditional framework
has evolved into a much broader and deeper book. While it still offers help with the
essential skills necessary for good observational work, it also helps the reader—whether a
young early childhood educator or maybe a seasoned teacher—to place their work as an
observer within a culturally sensitive perspective and appreciate the complexities of their
role within their particular context. While at one point the lens we used was predomi-
nantly developmental, that viewpoint has to be challenged, at least in terms of assuming
that it is the only lens. One direction offering us a much wider set of lenses comes from
Vygotsky and socio-cultural theory. Barbara Rogoff has influenced Canadian practice in
education as well as other jurisdictions, such as New Zealand, that entertain authentic
assessment more fully. Reggio Emilia’s influence is much stronger in Canada in recent
years, although adapted to practice here in what is a different socio-political climate.
The democratic principles of their programs support efforts to ensure children’s rights are
respected. These are issues that are important to how learning is perceived and how it
should be documented. “Making learning visible” is an idea integral to Reggio Emilia, but
it is becoming evident in curricula and formal documents that do not specify its source;
it is common practice. Similarly, different forms of documentation are practised across
Canada, with some more closely aligned with the Malaguzzi’s original ideas. We cannot
but shift our thinking and practice as we evolve professionally, but how that occurs will
vary. Working on a project for the YMCA of Greater Toronto, we developed a non-
prescriptive curriculum based on play, “Playing to Learn,” and documentation that fit the
responsive approach. That is one example of how forms of documentation are developing.
Margaret Carr’s insightful work has provided us with some very different ways of
thinking about how we can be with children and observe and record their experiences
through learning stories. Canadian Andy Hargreaves offers us insight into the newest
waves of global educational reform and is shaking up some of the traditional ways of
thinking about teaching and learning (Hargreaves 2012). Pasi Sahlberg, a supporter of
Hargreaves and a well-known writer and educator from Finland, the country that leads
the world in education, explains that Finland has no standardized tests (Sahlberg 2011)
and has a culture and belief system close to that of Canada—one that focuses on equity as
a central principle. We are certainly learning from these things, along with learning from
what were probably the biggest errors in early years education—the overly academic cur-
ricula for young children, along with inappropriate testing and what is sometimes called
datafication. There has not been adequate recognition of the needs of Canada’s First

xiv Preface
Nations’ Children, with three-quarters of those children having no access to child care.
My studies and recent experience have made this a pertinent issue. There have been some
changes in the past few years that have led to the development of new kindergarten edu-
cation and early childhood care and education programs across Canada at the provincial
level. Observation, assessment, and documentation requirements for both teachers and
early childhood educators are much clearer in these and are aligned with the philosophies
and pedagogies. Some collaboration between teachers and early childhood educators has
improved; there is also some better continuation of early years programming between
child care and schools. Ontario, as one example of professional recognition, has now real-
ized the value of including the observations of RECEs on kindergarten children’s formal
report cards within the education system.

The readers
Take a Look: Observation and Portfolio Assessment in Early Childhood is intended
for people who seek a deep and reflective approach to working and being with young
children. Most of those who use the book are likely to be learners who are in college or
university programs studying early childhood education or child studies at the diploma or
bachelor’s degree level. Previous editions have been used by master’s level students and
teachers taking upgrading or special certification courses.
Further to those, there may be readers from a variety of experiences and backgrounds:
practising educators, student teachers, kindergarten and elementary school teachers
(K–3), parents of young children, resource teachers, teachers who work with children
who have special needs/special rights, early interventionists, child and youth workers,
play workers, Montessori teacher education workers, inclusion specialists, educational
psychologists, child development researchers, researchers, online course students, child-
life specialists, and social workers. Throughout the book we address readers as educators,
because they are, whatever their specific role.

The text’s philosophy

The philosophy of the book is situated within current early childhood education practice,
but it is forward looking and responsive to individuals. The approach honours the historic
“giants in the nursery” (a phrase coined by David Elkind), including Froebel, Waldorf,
Montessori, Piaget, and Vygotsky. However, their ideas have needed to evolve, and as
they have had a strongly European influence, there was a need for deep research that is
international and reflective of other “ways of knowing.” We look to the future without
making assumptions about technology and social change except the will to work for social
justice.
There is much to be learned from Scandinavian countries, especially Finland, but
their culture differs from Canada’s, so replicating their approach isn’t helpful, except for
some details. The same goes for some approaches in other countries, but New Zealand’s
Maori people contribute to their early years curriculum and provide a model useful for
ours. The oral culture, respect for families, inclusion and small-scale, family-oriented
programming is desirable. Telling stories about our experiences helps us make sense of
our world, and this is true for children too, who can be part of learning story processes.
There is belief that the child is competent, their rights are of paramount importance,
and socio-cultural-political perspectives are essential to understanding who they are.
Families and communities are part of the child’s bioecological system, and that must be
recognized rather than seeing them as only their behaviours. We are fortunate to be able

Preface xv
 to be partners with parents, and they should be respected. Being part of the child’s life is a
significant responsibility and gift. We may collaborate with parents on any child observa-
tion process and offer opportunities for genuine sharing and meaning making. Taking a
look at children must be done through a lens that is shaped accordingly.
There is more than one way of offering a strong and appropriate program for young
children—and many inappropriate ones. Whereas we once saw children from a deficit
point of view, always seeing what they couldn’t yet accomplish, today we can see them
through a lens that is positive, and we build on developmental strengths. Development
unfolds naturally for most children, so observing closely and intervening little is often
helpful. As play is the kingdom of childhood, we should honour play for its own sake and
not only for what adults want to do with it. Play is a vehicle for learning and has enormous
possibilities—ones that we may observe with some reverence. Adult involvement can be
to create play environments, to help facilitate play, and to be play partners, not hijack
that play and spoil it. Academic programming has been shown to be damaging for young
children, although we should not underestimate a child’s learning power. Using a variety
of observation tools helps with understanding what is going on with a child’s development
and learning and what we might do to extend their play. Nurturing intrinsic motivation
is important at any point; our guidance approach needs to be gentle, firm, and supportive.
How we document the processes of development, play, and learning demands knowledge
of methods and specific skills; writing documentation without those, or without a deep
understanding of children’s development, makes the documentation worthless.
Reggio Emilia is far more than an approach or pedagogy; it is a way of thinking and is
steeped in values that emanate from its source. We have had much to learn from its ethos,
and the shift in thinking is not at a surface level; it is about democracy, rights, equity, and
co-inquiry. Its focus turns many traditional ideas on their heads, but how this fits Canadian
communities isn’t entirely clear. We take from it some parts, but that is lip service. Work-
ing with a Reggio-inspired setting warrants some different ways of thinking—a shifting
from positivistic ideas and a rejection of traditional developmental views, especially those
involving normative perspectives. This is a huge leap that is taken tentatively in the text
while being mindful of straddling two main educational views and observational practices.
Observing and documenting a child’s experience has numerous purposes, including
having adults understand it better. Assessment is useful if it is needed and authentic, but
it can be intrusive and detrimental to development if it involves inappropriate testing,
takes time, is stressful, or the results are used to make decisions that are unfair. There are
different ways of satisfying the observational requirements—a ministry’s specifications,
school board guidelines, or perhaps to show how each child has met particular learning
outcomes—but there is no need to compromise with one’s own philosophy. Understand-
ing observation principles and practices and knowledge of different methods of observing
and strong analytical skills may allow for a bridge to be built. Providing suitable docu-
mentation may be possible when they are requiring only formal assessments. Educators
may solve problems this way if they have these skills and knowledge base. The greatest
pedagogical problems come when there is an inability of a program to meet the account-
ability standards that are written in the language of a different paradigm. Take a Look
can teach practising educators to overcome this and addresses the basic challenges of the
student educator.

Instructor Choice
Take a Look may fit one specific course on observation and assessment or on documenta-
tion, or it might supplement one or more child development, curriculum, or guidance
course that has a strong observational component. Some instructors find the text straddles

xvi Preface
several courses in a program, and they might adopt it for use for more than one semester:
for a foundations course, for example, and then for a higher-level documentation courses,
or possibly to provide resources for a course on children who have special needs or rights,
or on observation and planning.
Knowing why educators observe and how it is the essence of practice and guides
all decision making is how the book begins. Understanding the professional principles
and ethical standards associated with observing is the foundation of practice, so the text
explains these early on.
The book offers readers a sequenced approach to learning to look at babies, toddlers,
and young children. There is repetition of the word lens, because it is essential to under-
standing how we see children and what we look for. One component of the lens is the
personal one that automatically shapes what we focus on and makes unintended meaning.
Examining inbuilt biases and a cultural world view are essential. These perceptions are
not necessarily wrong, but a good observer must be aware of them.
Observing through the lens of children’s development provides the backbone of what
to look for in children’s development and helps learners frame most future observational
work. This chapter helps learners link their observational work with child development
studies in a rich way. Having the opportunity to delve into play in an observation book
is unusual in the detail the text offers. Rather than merely explain play only theoreti-
cally, this new edition supplies a wide range of well-defined areas of play, along with clear
observable indicators. These can be used in a variety of ways.
Using narratives can be a challenge, especially for those learners whose first language
is not English or for whom it is a struggle to write. Suggestions are offered to address that,
and several different strategies provide easier ways to do what have always been a descrip-
tive challenge. Combining the variety of narrative options with a toolkit of observation
methods to help solve observational challenges, record patterns of behaviour, and address
the practical issues that most educators encounter rounds out a practical set of useful
methods.
Environments, as well as the children in them, are enormously important. A chap-
ter explores many aspects of how environments contribute to children’s experiences,
especially the importance of outdoor spaces, and greening. Looking for trouble can be a
negative mindset, but a chapter in the text does help educators sort out how they deter-
mine whether what they observe is a cause for concern. There may be developmental
challenges they notice or even potential abuse. The educator will have adequate skills to
navigate some tough decisions about course of action based on those tricky observations.
Portfolios can be much more than a collection of observations, art work, background
information, and so on, but if that were all they were they would be incredibly useful in
providing a through record of a child’s achievements, development, and change. Port-
folios have a multitude of purposes. That chapter outlines building on the skills already
acquired and using the observation techniques learned in earlier chapters. Developmental
profiles are also offered as examples of work done in the UK. Following that is a detailed
exploration of Reggio Emilia’s pedagogical documentation and other documentation
approaches. There is a shift in approach in this chapter to do the work justice, and the
reflective nature of documentation is highlighted with examples. Making meaning is a
part of the ongoing reflective process, and we pick that up again in the final chapter, deal-
ing with analytical processes that can be used with specific observational methods and in
general. Here, learners are supported to think critically and make appropriate judgments
and decisions about children from the observational data they collect. From making
developmental statements about what they recorded, learners are encouraged to respond
to their findings by planning according to various models.

Preface xvii
 Take a Look aims to help readers achieve the following general outcomes:
1. Develop a philosophy of observation and authentic assessment of children, and
articulate how this would work in practice.
2. Recognize the cultural and other lenses through which they observe; be aware of
how they shape how they influence how they perceive children; and collaborate with
parents in observational and assessment processes.
3. Compare and contrast a variety of observation and recording methods, and select
and use those that best meet the needs regarding individual children and children
in groups
4. Gain understanding of children’s development by practising narrative and other
methods of recording children in a wide variety of everyday situations.
5. Observe children engaged in different types of play, using a variety of recording
strategies.
6. Evaluate children’s environments by observing the way they are structured and used
by children.
7. Observe and respond appropriately to causes for concern in a child’s behaviour that
might indicate potential abuse, developmental challenges, challenging behaviour,
health concerns, or other issues.
8. Create a comprehensive observation, documentation, or portfolio record-keeping sys-
tem suited to the needs of an early childhood agency or school (may include achieve-
ment of learning outcomes, screening tools, developmental profiles, etc.).
9. Use documentation in one of several different forms (e.g., Reggio Emilia–inspired or
Playing to Learn) to “make learning visible.”
10. Write meaningful learning stories that capture children’s experiences.
11. Analyze observational, narrative, contextual, digital, or other data to make meaning
and/or create holistic and sympathetic assessments of individual children.
12. Advocate for authentic assessment in the context of cultural sensitivity.

Why Have a Seventh Edition?

The field of early childhood care and education has changed in the years since the first edi-
tions of this text. We are better informed by science, particularly of brain functioning, and
research that helps explain many aspects of children’s development, such as self-regulation
and resilience. Responses to the needs of families and broader social justice issues have
made a big difference to what is being offered, although demand is rarely met for spaces,
and advocates might say there is a long way to go for equity and affordable access to child
care. It is essential for student practitioners to learn about observation, documentation,
and assessment tools that reflect current theoretical perspectives, research, and practice.
Children’s rights are threaded through our work, with the UN Convention on
the Rights of the Child impacting practice; these have been driving forces for change.
Respect, permission to observe, and including children in decision making are some of
the practical implications. It is notable that the increasingly strong pull toward Malaguzzi-
inspired influences is raising issues of democracy and children’s rights. Our personal image
of the child has a significant impact on our work; it shapes the lens through which we
see children. Malaguzzi ends his well-known article, “Your Image of the Child,” by saying,
“…[W]e need to give them [children] the recognition of their rights and of their strengths”
(https://www.reggioalliance.org/).

xviii Preface
 At the same time, we have grown as a profession. This is evidenced in several ways,
including improved status and accountability. The recent publication by the Ontario
College of Early Childhood Educators of the Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice for
Early Childhood Educators is a good example (www.college-ece.ca). Their statements on
curriculum and pedagogy include that ECEs
3. Are knowledgeable about methods in observation, pedagogical documentation,
planning, implementation and assessment in order to support children’s individual and
group learning experiences. (ibid., p. 10)
The Canadian Occupational Standards for Early Childhood Educators provides a
clear outline of what a professional should know and be able to do, including “Use a
variety of observation and documentation techniques” (http://www.ccsc-cssge.ca), and it
specifies how this relates to domains of development as well as play. From how the stan-
dards are written it is clear that children’s development is important, but the way in which
a role is performed is not framed according to one, single pedagogy.
In recent years, we have moved from the more mechanistic styles of observing and
assessing children. These were reliant on ideas of children’s development that assume
that stages are universal across different populations of children. Additionally, in major
work with First Nations, Jessica Ball at the University of Victoria speaks of cultural safety,
permissions, attitudes, the need to triangulate (do three or more observations to check
perspectives), and trying to find culturally relevant ways to observe and assess children
as important; one-size observation or assessment does not fit all. Today, we have a much
wider variety of tools that can assist us to observe in ways that contextualize chidren’s
development as well as see them as individuals.
Whatever the pedagogical approach, it is dependent upon educators observing chil-
dren closely. Educators need observation skills to learn about children, to create suitable
environments for them, and to respond to them sensitively and appropriately. This applies
across all paradigms. Some pedagogies lean toward recording and making meaning from
observations in particular ways, but the starting points are similar, and the techniques
overlap. Early childhood students need to learn about different approaches, even if their
placements require only one kind of practice. To be a professional requires having knowl-
edge that is broadly based and skills that are varied.
Play is the common denominator of all early childhood programs in Canada. The
challenge for many educators is to come to grips with the complexity of play. It is like
quicksand: one minute you think you are holding it, and the next it has fallen through
your fingers. The American Journal of Play recently published an article on “Vygotsky
meets Neuroscience” (Volume 9, Number 2 ,Winter 2017, or http://www.journalofplay.
org) in which Larry Vandervert suggests a theory that culture emerges from the cerebel-
lum. This is not an easy read, but it is an example of the extraordinary material that is
propelling understandings of what we actually observe in play. Play, being playful, see-
ing the potential for using play to facilitate learning and observing, and recording those
things in a variety of ways, with children of different ages, in different contexts, and
involved in different types of play, suggest a vast number of variables. Add to that a list of
possible observation techniques for recording and many ways to make meaning from play
behaviour, and it all points to some of the fascinating challenges.

New Features for the 7th edition

■■ New chapter on observing children through the lens of play featuring detailed
observable indicators of a wide number of areas of play—this is not covered in other
texts.

Preface xix
 ■■ Chapter on observing through the lens of children’s development is moved to the first
section and strengthened, with increased content on what to look for in children’s
development.
■■ New chapter that builds on previous material on Reggio Emilia and pedagogical
documentation, with threads relating to Reggio Emilia and socio-cultural perspec-
tives running throughout the text.
■■ Methods of observing and recording (some that are the more traditional techniques
updated) presented to show how they do not have to be used with biased outcomes
and that they can be part of authentic assessments of various types.
■■ Increased emphasis on the vision, or image, of the child and how that shapes how
educators observe. A chart of various alternative “visions” is offered in this edition.
Also, emphasis is on practice within authentic assessment. Even though many prac-
titioners may not use that term, their practice fits certain values and conforms to
observation practices that are respectful and culturally appropriate.
■■ Great new examples of learning stories, children’s art work, portfolios, and profiles,
as well as sample documentation.
■■ Colour photographs, including a wider variety of children in different settings
(including a children at a forest school, at international locations, First Nations chil-
dren, a Jewish Montessori school, home-schooled children, Syrian refugee children
in BC, outdoor environments, children’s art, home child care, sport, YMCA child-
care centres, Waldorf schools, infants and toddlers, children who have special needs/
rights, UK pupil profiles, learning stories, and teen parent program).
■■ Suggestions to request material from the Instructor’s Manual for further resources
on topics covered in the text as well as further samples, and new content on media
techniques, measuring outcomes, screening and assessment, rating scales and picto-
rial representations, and more.
There are trends in early childhood education in Canada and elsewhere, and these
have informed changes to the new edition. There is a clear shift toward Reggio Emilia–
inspired ideas, even when it is not explicitly stated in documents–many terms are used
that indicated the direction.

General Features of Take a Look

Every chapter begins with Focus Questions that enable readers to review their cur-
rent understanding and skill level, followed by Learning Outcomes that summarize the
knowledge readers will gain from the chapter. When important terms are used for the first
time, they are highlighted. They are listed at the end of the chapter so that they can be
checked, and the definitions are to be found in the Glossary.
Clear explanations of the methods of observation and information gathering are
essential to understanding, choosing, and using each. Definition boxes and Key Features
boxes help readers find basic information quickly and efficiently. Through the Lens of
Special Rights boxes give information on how to observe children with special needs.
Observation Samples that demonstrate good practice for the core observational and
recording methods are included in most chapters. As every observation is unique to the
child, the situation, the observer, and the chosen methodology, an “ideal” is difficult to
supply, but all the samples have identifiable strengths. Learners are asked pertinent ques-
tions to help them appreciate the strengths and challenges of each sample. In some cases,
where samples are lengthy, the first part is offered in the text and the remainder is avail-
able in the Instructor’s Manual.

xx Preface
 Weblinks to useful Internet sites are offered at the end of each chapter. They will
reinforce and extend students’ understanding of that chapter.

INSTRUCTOR’S SUPPLEMENTS
These instructor supplements are available for download from a password-protected sec-
tion of Pearson Canada’s online catalogue (www.pearsoncanada.ca/highered). Navigate to
your book’s catalogue page to view a list of those supplements that are available. Speak to
your local Pearson sales representative for details and access.

Instructor’s Manual (ISBN 978-0-134-88564-3) A significant resource in itself, the

Instructor’s Manual contains history and teaching notes; information on student assess-
ment, including authentic assessment assignments and grading rubrics; and many other
valuable resources. There is material for PowerPoint use, answers to chapter-opening
Focus Questions, and examples of observations to assist learners to understand the poten-
tial of some of the methods. Instructors will also find additional observation and recording
methods, such as rating scales, rubrics, and pictorial representations as well as blank forms
that may be copied that assist observers to carry out standard methods. Complete chapters
about measuring outcomes, screening and assessment, and media techniques, which were
included in earlier editions of Take a Look, are also included in this Instructor’s Manual
package.

Test Bank (978-013-488565-0) Based on the Take A Look, seventh edition text, the
Test Bank contains chapter-specific multiple-choice, true/false, matching, and essay-type
questions and answers to assist instructors in building their tests and final exams.

Learning Solutions Managers Pearson’s Learning Solutions Managers work with faculty
and campus course designers to ensure that Pearson technology products, assessment
tools, and online course materials are tailored to meet your specific needs. This highly
qualified team is dedicated to helping schools take full advantage of a wide range of edu-
cational resources by assisting in the integration of a variety of instructional materials and
media formats. Your local Pearson Canada sales representative can provide you with more
details on this service program.

Preface xxi
 Acknowledgments
“We should all be thankful for those people who rekindle the inner spirit”
Albert Schweitzer

I’ve worked with Pearson since Take a Look was first published in 1994, and I appreci-
ate their support and their commitment to meeting the needs of learners with the right
materials. College and university teachers across the country have supported each edition,
both in its development stages and by using it in the classroom. Several advocacy and
research organizations provided resources and access to key people. Their contribu-
tions have strengthened the content. Of particular help were faculty and staff at Nova
Scotia College of Early Childhood Education, St. Clair College, George Brown College,
McGill University, Ryerson University, Confederation College, York University, Windsor
College, Langara College, Mothercraft College of Early Childhood Education, and
Seneca College; thank you for your help.
Toronto’s Hospital for Sick Children provided our family with an education we didn’t
want. Our grandson, Nicky, had two surgeries for brain tumours there, and we were over-
whelmed by every element of their work; from clown to janitor, and nurse to pediatric
neurosurgeon. Nicky’s photos are in these pages, and he is currently back at school. Child
Life specialists at the hospital use play techniques and many of the observational strategies
used here. Their work informed mine.
Educa and Storypark both supplied useful information about online observational
records, portfolios, and documentation, including samples. Snoezelen, a controlled multi-
sensory environment, is used with children with various special needs. Natural Pod con-
tributed material about designing children’s environments, and Community Playthings
was a useful resource for considering environments and aesthetically pleasing wood
furniture and resources on play.
Beyond Canada, I was helped by, among others, the Association for Childhood
Education International, the National Association for the Education of Young Children,
the Center for Research in Early Childhood, the Association for Professional Development
in the Early Years, the National Education Union, the Institute of Education UCL,
the New Zealand Ministry of Education, the University of Oulu, Resources for Infant
Educarers, the International Play Association, UNICEF, the American Journal of Play, the
Association Montessori Internationale, Reconceptualizing Early Childhood Education,
Fair Test, the Illinois Early Learning Project, Alliance for Childhood, and Nursery World,
the early years journal in the UK for which I was the education editor over 30 years ago.
Researchers and authors who supported me in my quest include Ioanna Palaiologou,
author of a major text on observation skills used in the UK; Eeva Hujala, who has worked
on electronic portfolios in Finland and, also in that country, Pasi Sahlberg, who has
provided great bridges explaining Finnish education to North Americans; Svane Frode, a
Norwegian architect and designer of play spaces; Mine Conkbayir whose work, recently
published in the UK, on early childhood and neuroscience is shifting understanding in
how we see and work with young children; Guy Roberts-Holmes, a primary/early years
teacher and university professor focused on “datafication” and, particularly, the inap-
propriate use of baseline assessments with four year olds; and Suzanne Axelsson who
is researching at “Interaction Imagination” and documentation of children’s play and
experience.
Susan Stacey from Nova Scotia offered samples and explanations of pedagogical doc-
umentation. She is well-known for her work in emergent curriculum and documentation,

xxii Acknowledgments
and I’m most grateful for her insights. Hy-Lou Grant, a psychotherapist based in Toronto
gave her expertise on gender issues. Freshteh Bibishahrbanoui, the director of a child-care
centre and teacher at George Brown College, was able to offer extensive details of her
program, how it is play based, and how she uses online systems for recording observational
material.
Orah Chaye at Caspian Consulting in Vancouver taught me about the experiences
of Syrian refugees, how their program staff overcame language barriers when observing
the children, and much more. Jane Cawley who was the executive director and teacher
at Nova Scotia College of Early Childhood Educators until her recent retirement has
provided myriad sources, ideas, feedback, and samples with each new edition of Take a
Look. I am so appreciative.
Others who provided guidance and resources are Letha Marchetti, who shared obser-
vational material about various maturational issues regarding physical development and
on her work in vestibular disorders; Alistair Bryce-Clegg, a head teacher and consultant;
Julian Grenier, a well-respected nursery school and children’s centre head teacher and
author; Tom Hobson, known as Teacher Tom, offered insights in progressive play-based
curricula; and Sydney Gurewitz Clemens, a teacher educator who is influenced by Ashton
Warner and Malaguzzi in wanting to see children “with new eyes.”
Practitioners who provided insights and samples make a very long list, and I am most
grateful to all of them. They include Roseann Murphy who was the director of Little River
School based on RIE. She works hard to address matters concerning respect and human
rights, consent, dignity, storage of information, privacy, and permission, and her advice on
children who have suffered adverse childhood experiences was invaluable.
Sarah Jean-Jones in Nova Scotia gave permission for us to use one of her learning
stories, as did Karen Leif from New Zealand. Tom Shea, the “imaginator” at Fafu (UK);
Pat Rambaugh, a play advocate (USA); Tom Drummond, life-long educator (USA) and
Karen Green, an Australian advocate for children’s rights, programs for indigenous chil-
dren, outdoor education, and risky play all shared their insights and experiences.
Several child-care centres and schools contributed to this new edition. A large num-
ber of photos and samples are from the YMCA of Greater Toronto. My thanks to Lorrie
Huggins for enabling that, and to all the children, parents, educators, and management
involved. These centres implement the “Playing to Learn” curriculum that includes docu-
mentation as an integral part of its cycles.
Little Knights Early Childhood Program allowed us to use their photos, and I want to
thank the parents, the educators, and Heidi Wolf the director. D-Dees Day Nursery was
found by chance while viewing photos online. Every aspect of what is offered there is a
rich play-based experience. Thanks so much to Debbie Gunn, and congratulations on her
centre’s many awards. Mahowenchike Family Development Centre in Thunder Bay offers
a program emphasizing identity and self esteem, for both indigenous and non-indigenous
children. This setting is interesting for its physical environment and First Nations pro-
gram influences in play and other experiences.
The Montessori Jewish Day School in Toronto, Ontario, provided a wonderful back-
drop to observe children in a unique environment that blended the implementation of
Montessori principles and classic materials along with Judaic learning. I am most grate-
ful to Regina and Andrea Lulka for the opportunity to research aspects of the programs,
access material about the children, and use photos in this edition of Take a Look.
Donna Himmelman, an experienced kindergarten teacher at the South Shore
Waldorf School in Nova Scotia offered a tremendous amount of information about play
within the Steiner approach, as well as photos and observational information.
The Discovery Child Care Centre and Forest School in Barrie, Ontario, follow an
emergent curriculum philosophy with the broad aim of connecting children with nature.

Acknowledgments xxiii
 Karen Eilerson founded the programs and shared her knowledge and experience, includ-
ing how she developed ways to capture children’s important experiences in different types
of observations, journals, floor books, and portfolios.
Insightful practice in a very traditional English school (dating back to 1549!) was an
unexpected discovery. The UK early years curriculum is extremely demanding for young
children, yet Alicia Blanco-Bayo managed to find ways of making it meaningful and
developmentally appropriate. Her observations and record keeping are extensive, and she
contributed examples of profiles she prepared. I am grateful for her extensive observa-
tional samples as well as her overall support of this project.
Monika Obermeier supplied photos and information illustrating a shelter and pro-
grams for teen parents. The kinds of play observable in these programs have important
characteristics that are relevant to understanding how to observe children at play, plan
accordingly.
Two contributors to my work, Amanda Pelletier (in New York State) and Meagan
McGovern (in Washington State) are reflective home schoolers, and they provided very
broad learning opportunities for their children through play and discovery rather than
formal schooling, which they find may be destructive and harmful to motivation. Ms.
Pelletier, an artist, used extensive journaling to record her children’s work and progress,
and a small representation of their experiences along with photos and observational notes
is included in this edition. I am lucky to be able to share them in this volume.
Numerous parents and children helped support the development of this text and gave
permission for photos and observations of their children to be used to highlight points.
One parent shared observations, photos, and information about her son, along with a
heartfelt message to educators to see her son, who has diagnosed special needs (or special
rights) in a positive way. The following families include those with children who have
given permission to use photos, children’s art work, observations, and/or documentation:
Suganaqueb, Cohen-Gustum, Oaten, Harrison-Tse, Williamson/Burdette, Lewkowski,
McKay, Martin/Ratledge, Shead, Franco, Palmer/Brown, Lakin, Playle/Ducharme, Platt,
Slater, Barry, Joseph, Morris, and McGran.
This edition includes several photos of children from First Nations communities. I
was privileged to be able to form relationships with several extended families but sad-
dened to see up-close the conditions and challenges that so often shaped their lives. In
a land as large, beautiful, and wealthy as Canada, they and their children deserve better.
I am most grateful to the early childhood instructors who reviewed last edition of
Take a Look, supplying useful ideas for improvement, especially the shift to a cultural
perspective and a focus on international best practices: Kathleen Archer, Nova Scotia
Community College; Shirley Bainbridge, Mohawk College; Janet Berezowecki, Assiniboine
College; Georgette Bigelow, Seneca College; Andrea Dawson, Langara College; and
Sheryl Smith-Gilman, McGill University.
I also wish to express my thanks to the editorial and production team at
Pearson Canada: Kim Veevers (Acquisitions); Madhu Ranadive and Katherine Goodes
(Development); Michelle Bish (Marketing); Christina Veeren (Production), and the
various people who contributed by copyediting and proofreading the manuscript and
researching permissions and photos to help complete the Seventh edition.
My own children and grandchildren have contributed to Take a Look. I am grateful
to each of them, with a special nod to my daughter Cassandra for venturing out to shoot
some of the pictures I needed.
My husband Andrew has a background in publishing and copyright, and he has
become practiced at working on my bibliographies, juggling the permissions file, answering
editorial queries, and generally running interference for me. Saying thank you isn’t enough.

xxiv Acknowledgments
 Part One

Principles
Chapter 1
Observation: An Introduction
Chapter 2
Lenses and Filters
Chapter 3
Observing Through the Lens
of Early Childhood Development
Chapter 4
Observing Children Through
the Lens of Play

We need principles to guide us in

With many thanks to Andrew Martin and his young companion.

doing anything important. Observing

babies and young children is impor-
tant because we learn so much from
doing it, and that learning helps us
know how to do a better job working
with children. While looking is what
we do much of the time, learning to
observe takes skill and is founded
on good practice and values that
are part of the professionalism of
educators. Ethical issues and chil-
dren’s rights are particularly signifi-
cant. These are core parts of Canadian
Occupational Standards and Provincial
ethical standards that frame practice.
(See, for example, www.eco.ca/reports/
Capturing the connection between an adult and baby is not national-occupational-standards/.)
always easy, but we need to follow professional principles, As we learn to look with greater
including requesting permission and ensuring that the intention, we appreciate that there
picture is kept confidential and stored securely. However,
photography is a useful tool for observers. continues ▶

1
▶ continues

isn’t only one way of seeing anything

or anyone—particularly young chil-
dren. Becoming aware of our own
cultural lenses, and those of others,
has a significant impact on how we
observe and how we interpret what we
see. There are many other lenses, too,
and they provide fascinating multi-
dimensional possibilities for seeing
children in different lights.
Observing children through the
lens of early childhood development,
helps us keep focus on important
aspects of behaviour and learning.
Knowledge of theories and explana-
tions of young children’s behaviour is
a starting point, but educators need
an understanding of what to look for
as the observe children. Play is prob-
ably the most important activity of
children’s lives, and it has a strong
relationship with their development.
Having a detailed guide to observ-
ing children’s play helps make sense
of something that is complex and
multi-layered.

2 P a r t #1 P aPrrti nTci it pl el e s
 Chapter 1

Observation: An Introduction

Meeting for the first time, these two children take a look at each other. After a few
minutes they were observed holding hands and walking toward a craft table.
Courtesy of Enecita Franco and Simon Martin.

Focus Questions Learning Outcomes

1 Why do you think that observing children is By reading this chapter and applying the ideas to prac-
important? tice, learners will
2 Of the informal observations you have already ■■ identify a variety of reasons to observe young
made, what have you already learned about observ- children
ing children?
■■ recognize and apply the principles of observation
3 What rules should there be about making observa-
■■ discuss issues relating to making observations
tions of other people’s children?

Chapter 1 Observation: An Introduction 3


subjective distorted, partial,
biased, lacking in analysis, or
unreliable
method way of doing things;
some methods are formal
procedures and may even be
ritualized
research a process of
qualitative and/or quantita-
tive inquiry involving stating
hypotheses (reasoned assump-
tions), testing assumptions
using factual observations,
processing data, and drawing
conclusions
4 Part 1
People Watching
A mother gazes at her newborn infant. The baby looks at her. At first the baby’s sight is
unfocused, yet she is attracted by the configuration of her mother’s face. The infant is,
perhaps, “programmed” to have this interest. It encourages social interaction and leads
to emotional bonding. Drawn to faces and signs of movement, the infant learns through
watching as well as through her other senses. All babies are born to be people watchers.
Mother and baby look at each other!
“Don’t stare,” says a mother to her young child, in the expectation that she can
shape the child’s instinctive behaviour. Some parents may think that staring is intrusive,
although a child is learning from what she sees. Required behaviour is learned more by
example than by verbal reinforcement; watching others is integral to the process of social
learning.
Have you ever watched the hellos and goodbyes being said at an airport? If you were
not too caught up in your own emotions, you might have wondered about the demonstra-
tions of feeling, the honesty of expressions, or the social or cultural aspects of particular
behaviours. What are the stories behind all those faces? If you have ever done this kind
of thing, then you, too, are an observer.
“I did not expect her to do that,” “She must be frustrated to react that way,”
and “He is a very quiet person” are all informal but subjective interpretations of
observations. We all observe, deduce, and respond in all of our communications with
other people. Most adults go through this process without really considering what is
happening.
The same process occurs when we are more conscious of making observations. The
significant difference is that when we use observation as a method for collecting informa-
tion as professionals, we must do it with intentional focus and do it carefully, systemati-
cally, accurately, and as with as much detail as possible.
Why Observe
We observe children because we are interested in them, and close attention to their
behaviour leads us to understand them. Observation usually allows us to protect, nurture,
and help us know how we can support their learning. Adults involved with young chil-
dren in varying capacities will observe children for a variety of reasons.
Research Morris (1979) and Quilliam (1994) show that we are innately drawn to
children’s faces in a way that makes us want to protect and care for them, as well as to
read “their signs.” The interest in faces that the babies have, as we mentioned earlier,
is an interest that appears to remain important as we grow to be adults. People are not
all the same—some pay greater attention to people and their environment and are bet-
ter placed to gain observation skills. Sallie Wylie’s broad overview statement regarding
observation captures an excellent response to the question as to why we should observe,
and it applies to situations beyond child care and education: “Observing young children
and recording their behavior is considered essential practice in every quality child care
centre in Canada” (1999, p. 1).
Quite probably, readers of this textbook will have different roles and responsibilities
in working with children. In each part of the role and responsibility there will be aspects
of observation. Some of the roles you might have may concern family relationships, such
as being a parent or uncle to one or more children. There may also be people with whom
you have non-family ties but whose children play a significant part in your life. There
may be friends whose children you spend time with and maybe babysit or coach; you
Principles
might have varying responsibilities. As an early childhood education student or maybe
as you prepare for teaching or if you are enrolled in a child and youth work program or,
alternatively, one focused on working with children who have disabilities or special needs,
you will be challenged to find out why there is a need to observe children in whatever
situation you find yourself. You will encounter children and observe them as an essential
part of learning about your roles in different work contexts, defining your responsibilities
in each of those settings, discovering much about the children, and revealing who you
are in the lives of children. Coming to understand exactly why observation is important,
and how to observe, is a professional responsibility that drives most of the other parts of
your work.
A common sense answer to the “why observe?” question suggests the response, “so
that the observer learns about the child.” Most students also suggest that they enjoy
observing children, and that’s a really good reason; we should enjoy observing them.
While college and university students are engaged in their own learning, and observa-
tional learning about children is always important, we must always hold in mind that we
observe children, ultimately, for the child’s benefit. Our need is secondary.
There are so many reasons why we observe children that it is difficult to draw up a
list of a manageable size. We will start with two points of view and then expand those
ideas, presenting them in list form so that is easier to access a large number of ideas. Most
readers of this text have a defined professional interest in observing, so the following com-
ment by Sue Wortham and Belinda J. Hardin may be meaningful to you: “Observation is
the most direct method of becoming familiar with the learning and development of the
young child” (2016, p. 129). They affirm that the commonsensical answer is a good one.
The details within the single sentence quoted above offer an answer to the question of
why we observe with three points.
1. Observers learn from observing children—that is somehow part of their professional
role.
2. Observers become familiar with information about a child’s learning.
3. Observers become familiar with information about a child’s development.
Those three things are huge in almost any profession involving children. Observa-
tion guides so much of what we do; the “giants in the nursery,” (a phrase coined by David
Elkind 2015), including Pestalozzi, Montessori, Steiner, Vygotsky, and Piaget, each showed
how important observing children was to developing their perspective, philosophy, or
theories. They each found ways of approaching the three points mentioned above. The
ways in which they described the adult’s observational role, how they perceived children’s
learning, and how they explained children’s development had some similarities, but there
were also deep differences. What is important here is that they each used observing chil-
dren, a process that they appeared to enjoy, to help them understand children’s learning
and development. They developed theories to explain what they saw after reflecting on
their carefully written notes. We are also meaning makers who try to make sense of what
we observe.
In contrast to Wortham and Hardin’s perspective on observation, another approach
has an added dimension, as it has us observe children so that we get to understand both
the children and ourselves. Friedrich Froebel (another of Elkind’s giants of the nursery),
was the “inventor” of the kindergarten—the concept of the child’s garden. He suggested
this dual purpose of observation, although it was probably not his intention for all obser-
vations of children to be thought of having this potential, but this is difficult to discern
from his rambling writing. Froebel’s idea of the dual aspects of observation allows for rich
insights that help us know who we are in the lives of children.

Chapter 1 Observation: An Introduction 5

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