GENRAL ANATOMY ASSIGNMENT

SUBMITTED BY:
NAME: Muhammad Amir
CLASS: 1ST Year MBBS
ROLL NO: #1

SUBMITTED TO:
Dr. Rabia Inam Gandapore

TOPICS:
Introduction to anatomy, skeleton , Muscles,
Lymphatic system, Skin and Fasciae

COLLEGE:
Bacha khan medical college, Mardan

1-INTRODUCTION
 ANATOMIL POSITIONS
Anatomical Fundamental Prone Supine Lithotomy
position position position position position

person standing The Person lying Person lying Person lying on

erect, looking comfortable on his face on his back his back
forward, upper position in chest and arms by the Legs upward
limbs are by which the abdomen is side Feets are
side, the palms palms are not said to be in Palms facing supported by
are directed facing the prone upward strapes
forward ,lower forward position Feets This is during
limbs are together delivery
together and
toes are facing
forward

PLANES

Median Sagittal Oblique Coronal Transvers Horizontal

plane plane plane plane e plane plane
Divides Divides Any plane Plane Lies Lies
the body the body other than which perpendicula perpendicular
into equal into transverse divides r to long axis to to coronal
right and unequal and the body Obtained by and median
left halves right and sagittal into slicing plane
left halves plane anterior Divides the
and body into
 posterior upper and
parts lower portion

MOVEMENTS

Gliding Angular Special Rotation

movement movement movement

The type of Angle b/w the These are the A bone revolves
movement in articulating bones movements which around its own
which angle b/w decreases or occur only at longitudinal axis
articulating bones increases certain joint
does not change

Angular movements This type of movement This type of movement

include occur at certain joints include
FLEXTION: decrease in an which include Medial rotation:
angle b/w articulating Pronation, supination at Anterior surface of bone
bones radioulnar of limb is turned towards
EXTENTION: increase in joint ,protraction and the midline
an angle b/w the retraction at LATERAL ROTATION:
articulating bones temporomandibular Anterior surface of bone
ADDUCTION: joint, inversion and of limb is turned away
movement towards the everion at subtalar joint from midline
midline
ABDUCTION:
Movement away from
midline of body
POSSIBLE MOVEMENTS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF BODY
IN UPPER IN LOWER IN NECK IN TRUNCK
LIMB LIMB

Flexion Flexion of thigh Flexion Extension

Extension Extension of thigh Extension Flexion
Abduction of shoulder Abduction Lateral flexion Lateral
flexion
Adduction of shoulder Adduction Rotation Lateral
rotaion
Circumduction Medial rotation Opening of
mouth
Medial rotation of shoulder Lateral rotation Closing of
mouth
Lateral rotation of shoulder Circumduction Protraction
Supination of palm Flexion of knee Retraction
Pronation of palm Extension of knee
Adduction of digits Dorsiflexion of
foot
Abduction of digits Planterflexion of
foot
Opposition of thumb Inversion of foot
Circumduction of thumb Eversion of foot
Flexion of thumb
Extension of thumb
Adduction of thumb
Abduction of thumb
Flexion of wrist
Extension of wrist
Flexion of
metacarpophalangeal and
interphalangeal joints
,Extension of
metacarpophalangeal and
 inerphalangeal joint

TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE MUSCLES

Origin Insertion Belly Tendon Aponeurosis Raphe ligament

The end The end of This is This non This is flattened A fibrous Inelastic
muscles muscle which fleshy and contractil tendon present in band made band which
which is moves during contractile e fibrous abdominal muscles up of connect
reletively contraction part of part of tendon and bone to
fixed muscles muscle aponeurosis bone
TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE BLOOD VESSELS

Arterie Veins Venae Capillarie Sinusoids Anastomose

s comitante s s
s
Blood Blood These are Small These are These pre
vessels vessels two veins on microscopic vascular capillary and
which which each side of a vessels spaces post capillary
carry carry medium sized which surrounded communication
blood blood artery connect by
away towar arterioles parenchym
from d and venules e of the
heart heart organ
Preset in
spleen,
bone
marrow and
liver etc
 2: SKELETON

BONES CARTILAGE

Axial Appendicular
BONES
skeleton skeleton
Composition characteristics Functions

Organic Inorganic

Collagen type I It contains It’s a hard connective Provide stability

Make bones mainly tissue Maintain body
resilient make calcium It’s a living tissue posture
it able to bear phosphate
tensile forces. Little It has greater Production of blood
amount of regenerative cells
calcium properties Store calcium
carbonate
mould itself according Play role in immunity
Traces of
other salts
Classification
to stress or of
strainbones
Provide surface
ROLE: make Its ha two parts
Regional classification Shape classification attachment to
it hard &
rigid 1;Compact bone muscles and tendon
It enables it It’s a outer rigid 1: Long bones
to bear portion of bone
compressive
2;Spongy bone 2: Short bones
forces and
impact
It’s a inner part of 3: Flat bones
forces of
bone.
jumping
Consist of Consist of 4: Irregular bones
bones which bones upper
5: Sesamoid bones

6: Pneumatic bones
 along the axis and lower limb
of body girdles &
extremities

LONG BONES

Characteristic s Examples Structure

Their length is greater Humerus , Femur, It has diaphysis

than their width phalanges Epiphysis
Epiphyseal cartilage
(during growing phase

Typical long bones Miniature short long Modified long

bones bones

properties Example propertie exampl

It has two Humerus, s e
secondary ulna, radius Has no clavicle
epiphysis and femur medullary
Types of longExample
Properties bones cavity
Has one Metacarpal
epiphysis Phalanges
 SHORT BONES

Characteristics Structure Examples

They are usually cube Made up of cancellous Lunate

shaped or scaphoid bone surrounded by thin Talus
shaped layer of compact bone Tarsals
Have periosteum Carpals
Joints are lined by
hyaline cartilage

FLAT BONES

Properties IRREGULAR BONES Example

Resemble shallow plate Sternum
form boundries of certain Ribs
cavities Scapula
Vaults of skull
Bones of base of skull, sphenoid ,pelvic
bone, 1st and 2nd cervical vertebrae

PNEUMATIC BONES
Structure
Composed of thin outer
Properties and inner compact bone
Examples Function
Certain irregular bones Maxilla, sphenoid, Help in resonance of
certain large air cavities ethmoid voice
lined by epithelium Air conditioning of
inspired air
Makes the bones light
weight

SESAMOID BONES

Properties Structure Function Example

A bony nodule Greater part is To resist pressure Patella
found embedded buried in tendon to minimize Pisiform
in tendon or joint and free part is friction
capsule covered by To alter the
Have no hyaline cartilage direction of pull of
periosteum and muscle
ossify after birth To maintain local
Related to circulation
articular and non
articular bony
surface

ACCESSORY BONES

It is a bone that is not normally present in body but can be found as a variant in
a significance number of people.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION

Compact bone Cancellous bone

Dense in structure extremely porous
Best developed in cortex of long bone
Compact bone an adaptation to
bending and twisting forces
cartilage
Definition
A connective tissue
composed of cells called
chondrocytes and
fibers(collagen or yellow
elastic) embedded in a
firm gel like matrix which
is rich in
mucopolysaccharides
Hyaline cartilage
Bluish white color
shiny
Same refractive index as
of matrix
flexible
Found in trachea bronchi
, cricoid costal cartilage,
epiphyseal plate
Thyroid
Open in texture
Made of meshwork trabeculae b/w
marrow is present
Meshwork of rodes and plates
Cancellous bone is an adaptation to
compressional forces
Features Types
Much more elastic than Three types of cartilages
bone
Its more flexible 1-Hyaline
Its avascular 2-Fibrous
And no lymphatics 3-Elastic
Nutrition is provided
through diffusion
Fibrous cartilage Elastic cartilage
Glistening white in color Yellowish color
Opaque Opaque
Numerous white fibers Numerous yellow fibers
Firm strongest Most flexible
Found in intervertebral Found in pinna, auditory
disk meatus, Eustachian tube
Disc of pubic symphysis, Epiglottis
disc of TMJ Vocal process of arytnoid
cartilage
 3-MUSCLES

Muscle is contractile
Definition tissue which brings
about movement

smooth muscles
Types Cardiac muscles
Skeletal muscles

Skeletal muscles Smooth muscles Cardiac muscles

Striated muscles Non striated Irregularly striated
Multinucleated Uninucleated Uninucleated
They soon get fatigued They don’t get fatigued They never get fatigued
Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
Blood supply is abundant Blood supply is scanty Blood supply is abundant
Long and cylindrical Spindle shaped Branched and cylindrical
shaped
Found in body wall Found in blood vessels, Found in walls of heart
tongue ,and beginning of in internal organs
esophagus

Parts of muscles
Origin Insertion Belly Tendon/aponeurosis

Structure of muscles
Muscle contain Fasciculi Fibers myofibril myofilament

Surrounded Surrounded
by by
endomysium sarcolemma
Surrounded by Surrounded
Epimysium by
perimysium

Types of fibers in muscles

Type I fibers Type II fibers Intermediate fibers

Slow contraction Fast contraction Fast contraction
Don’t get fatigued Get fatigued easily Resistant to fatigue
Rich in mitochondria and Poor in mitochondria and
oxidative enzymes oxidative enzymes

NOTE:
Force x number and size of muscle fibers
Range of movements x length of fibers
 Classification according to arrangement of
fasciculi

Parallel Fasciculi Oblique Fasciculi Spiral fasciculi

Qaudrilateral Triangular Spiral

Strap like Unipennate Cruciate
Strap like with Bipennate
intersections
Fusiform Multipennate
Circumpennate

Naming the muscles

Muscles are named on the following features

Deltoid
Shape Quadratus
Rhomboid
Teres
Gracilis
Lumbrical
Rectus
Major
Minor
Longus
Brevis
Latissimus
longissimus
Position Anterior
Posterior
Lateralis
size
Medialis
Superior
Inferior
Supra
Infra
Dorsi
Brachii
Number Biceps
Femoris
of Triceps
Oris
heads Quadriceps
oculi
digastric

Depth Superficial
Profundus
Externus
internus

Half muscle
Structure
Half tendon
Serrated
Action

Extensor
Flexor
Abductor
Adductor
Levator
Depressor
Supinator
Pronator
Constrictor
Dilator
Abduction

4-LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Definition Functions Components

It’s a network of vessels Transport clean fluids Lymph capillaries &

through which lymph back to blood lymph vessels
drains from tissues into Drains extra fluids from Central lymphoid tissues
the blood tissues Peripheral lymphoid
Removes debris from organ
cells Circulating lymphocytes
It destroys the Epithelio-lymphoid
 microorganism and system
foreign particles in lymph Mononuclear phagocyte
nodes system

Lymph capillaries

Absent in:

Brain
Spinal cord
Hairs
Nails
Cornea
Cartilage

Properties Superficial Deep

Rights halves of thorax,head
Blind ended lymphatics lymphatics
Greater and neck and upper right limb Which Which
caliber than accompany accompany
blood veins arteries
capillaries Right lymphatic duct
Contain drains
colorless
lymph
Have low
pressure
Lower limbs, abdomen, left halves
Thoracic duct drains of thorax, head and neck and
upper left limb
 Central lymphoid organs

Bone marrow Thymus

Properties function Properties function

Contain Helps in Bilobed Control
pluripotent differentiation structure lymphopoiesis
stem cells of committed Situated in Control
B anterior and development
lymphocytes superior of peripheral
mediastinum Lymphoid
of thorax tissues
Developed Releases
during birth lymphopoietin
disintegrate and
during adult competence
life inducing
factor

Peripheral lymphoid organs

Lymph nodes Spleen

Lymph nodes are small nodules of Its largest lymphoid organ involved in
lymphoid tissue found in course of production of blood cells
smaller lymphoid

Structure of lymph nodes Structure of spleen

 Function
1:Phagocytosis
Cortex Medulla Largest organ White Red
surrounded by capsule
Spleenpulp
is involved in pulp
Trabeculae extend phagocytosis of
It comprises Consist
Its outer part of Its central part of inward from capsule leukocytosis, platelets and
of lymphatic of
old RBCs
lymph node lymph node
tissues and blood
surrounded by containing loosely 2:Storage of blood
filled
capsule beneath packed Macrophages
which is lymphocytes, and Spleen stores about 350venous
subcapsular sinus macrophages ml of blood sinuses
The mature B- 3: Immunity: spleen is also
lymphocytes are involved in immunity
present in
medulla. 4:Erythropoiesis
Zone I Zone II Zone III 5:storage of platelets

Contain Densely It has

loosely packed small germinal
packed small lymphocytes center which
lymophocytes, Macrophages contain large
Macrophages, lymphocytes
And plasma and
cells macrophages
 Lymphocytes

B-lymphocytes
Formed in bone marrow
Processing occur in bone marrow
Life span- less than one month
Involved in cell mediated immunity
Types;
Plasma cells
Memory B-clles
T-lymphocytes
Formed in bone marrow
Processing occur in thymus
Life span-months to years
Involved in cell mediated immunity
Types:
Cytotoxic T cells
Helper T cells
Suppressor T cells
Memory T cells

Epithelio-lymphoid system

MALT
Found in digestive system and
bronchus
Payers patches of ilium, lymphoid
tissues of appendix belong to MALT
BALT
Found in respiratory system
Its components are lingual tonsils,
palatine tonsils, tubal tonsils and
nasopharangeal tonsils
 Mononuclear phagocytic system

Its different from lymphatic system.

It is made up of highly phagocytic
cells which are widely distributed in
body

Cells of Macrophages of
macrophage connective tissue
system Monocytes of blood

Kuffers cells of liver

Meningocytes of
meninges
Microglial cells of
nervous system
Foreign body gaint
cells

5-INTEGUMENTRY
SYSTEM

SKIN FASCIAE

SKIN

DEFINITION PROPERTIES
It’s a general covering of external It is regarded is largest organ
surfaces of body ,including external Skin is 1.5-2sqm
 auditory meatus and outer surfaces of Avg 1.7
lymphatic membrane.

Pigmentation of skin
Five pigments determine skin color
1-melanin 2-melanoid 3-caroten 4-Haemoglobin
5- oxyhaemoglobin

Structure of skin

Two layers
Epidermis Dermis
Superficial layer Deep layer
Avascular Vascular
Ectodermal in origin Mesodermal in origin
made up of 5 layers Made up of 2 layers
---- Sweat glands, sebaceous gland and
nerves are present in dermis

Papillary layer –superficial

Stratum corneum Reticular layer
Stratum lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum spinosum
Stratum basale

Also called as Dopa positive

germinative zone melanocytes
contain Langerhans cells
Merkels cells
 Appendages of skin

Nails Hairs Sweat glands Sebaceous gland

Nail

Def: nails are hard keratin plates on dorsal surfaces of the tips of fingers and
toes.

Parts Root: proximal part of nail.

of Body: exposed part of nail.
nails Free border: distal part of nail

Structure 1-root is buried into nail groove

2-towards proximal is white cresent structure called lunula.
Overlapped by eponychium
3-at distal end free border is attached to hyponychium
4-lateral border are overlapped by folds of skin.
5-the skin beneath root and body is nail bed
6-underneath the body is corneum its vascularized due which nail
gives reddish appearance.
 Hairs

Definition functions
Keratinous filaments derived from 1-protects body
invagination of germinative layer of 2-regulate temperature
epidermis into dermis 3-hairs in nose ,ears, around eyes
protects these areas from dust and
other small particles

Parts/structure of hairs

Root Bulb Shaft

The part of hair which is The hair root expands at It is visible part of hair
surrounded by hair its proximal end to form that sticks out of skin
follicle bulb
 Hair follicles
Wall of hair follicle is surrounded by
Inner sheath Outer sheath Connective
tissue sheath
Inner layer It is continuous Connective
surrounds the with epidermal tissue sheath
beginning of cells and it is derived
shaft its cells show all layers from
degenerate of epidermis epidermis
above
sebaceous
gland

Sweat glands
Eccrine Layers of shaft
Apocrine
Active throughout Active at Medulla:
puberty
definition the life
Types innermost layer
These are the Opens to external containing
Around hair shaft eleidin
appendages of through sweat granules and air
skin which are pores spaces
related to Maintain Cortex: middle
Provide periculiar
secretion temperature odour layer made up of
Have Have cells containing
postganglionic melanin
postganglionic
sympathatic Cuticle: outer layer
sympathetic
neuron which are of flatare
neuron which keratinized
cholinergic adrenergiccells.
Its secretions are Its secretions are
watery with salts vicid with lipid
and proteins
Found in axilla, Found in axilla,
groin, in palms eyelids, nipples
and soles
 Sebaceous gland

Location Structure Nervous functions

control
They are widely Small and Their secretion is They are holocrine
distributed all sacculated in under hormonal in nature
over the skin appearance. control specially It lubricates skin
except palms and It opens to hair endrogens and protects it
soles follicle except that from moisture.
More abundant in of lips, plans It has antibacterial
scalp, face and penis, eyelid action
very numerous which opens on
around surface of skin
nose ,mouth and
anus

Fasciae

A band of connective tissue, primarily collagen beneath the skin stabilizes,

encloses and separates muscles and other internal organs.

Types

Superficial fasciae Deep fasciae

General coating beneath skin made up Its tough inelastic fibrous sheet
of loose areolar tissue with varying beneath superficial fasciae.
amount of fat It doesn’t contain fat
It is more distinct in lower part of Its well defined in limbs, in neck it
anterior abdominal wall, perineum forms color
and the limbs
Very dense in scalp palms and soles.
It contains subcutaneous
muscles ,mammary glands, lymph
nodes , nerves and vessels.
\

Function Function
It serve is It keeps
medium for the underlying
passage of structure in
vessels and position
nerves to the It provides extra
skin surface for
It conserves muscular
heat because of attachment.
fat is bad It helps in venous
conductor of and lymphatic
heat return.