Module 3 Meteorology

Daily Warming and cooling air near the surface

Daytime warming
● As the sun rises in the morning, sunlight warms the ground, and the ground warms the
air in contact with it by conduction.
● However, air is such a poor heat conductor that this process only takes place within a
few centimeters of the ground.
● On a sunny, calm day, the air near the surface can be substantially warmer than the air a
meter or so above the surface, where thermometers are typically located.
● In calm weather, these thermals are small and do not effectively mix the air near the
surface.
● On windy days, however, turbulent eddies can mix hot, surface air with the cooler air
above.
● This form of mechanical stirring, sometimes called forced convection, helps the thermals
to transfer heat away from the surface more efficiently.
● Around noon, the sun’s rays are most intense. Incoming solar radiation decreases in
intensity ather noon, but for a time it still exceeds outgoing heat energy from the surface.
● If clouds persist throughout the day, the overall daytime temperatures are usually lower,
because clouds reflect a great deal of incoming sunlight.

Factors that are affecting the warming of air

Soil type
When the soil is a poor heat conductor (as loosely packed sand is), heat energy does not
readily transfer into the ground. this allows the surface layer to reach a higher
temperature,permitting more energy to warm the air above.

Soil moisture content

On the other hand, if the soil is moist or covered with vegetation, much of the available energy
evaporates water, leaving less to heat the air.

Vegetation cover
As you might expect, the highest summer temperatures usually occur over desert regions,
where clear skies coupled with low humidities and meager vegetation permit the surface and the
air above to warm up rapidly.

Nighttime Cooling
● As sun lowers, its energy is spread over a larger area, which reduces the heat available
to warm the ground.
● Sometime in the late afternoon or early evening, the earth's surface and air above begin
to lose more energy than they receive, they start to cool.
 ● Radiational Cooling -ground and air above cool by radiating infrared energy.The ground,
being a much better radiator than air, is able to cool more quickly. Shortly After sunset
the earth's surface is slightly cooler than the air directly above it
● By late night or early morning the coldest air is next to the ground with slightly warmer air
above.

● On a clear, calm night, the air near the surface can be much colder than the air above.
The increase in air temperature with increasing height above the surface is called a
radiation temperature inversion.

Radiation Inversion
Strong radiation inversion occurs when the air near the ground is much colder than the air
higher up.

Ideal conditions:
● Windless Night is essential for a strong radiation inversion because a stiff breeze tends
to mix the colder air at the surface with the warmer air above.
● •Long Night also contributes to a strong inversion.
● •Radiation inversions are more likely with a clear sky and dry air

Freeze
● If the cold occurs over a widespread area for a long enough time to damage certain
crops, the extreme cold is called a freeze.
● • A coating of ice protects these almond trees from damaging low temperatures, as an
early spring freeze drops air temperatures well below freezing.
● • A freeze occurs over a widespread area when the surface air temperature remains
below freezing for a long enough time to damage certain agricultural crops

On cold, clear nights, the settling of cold air into valleys makes them colder than surrounding
hillsides. The region along the side of the hill where the air temperature is above freezing is
known as a thermal belt.

Protecting crops from the cold night air

Impacts of radiational cooling can be diminished by orchard heaters creating convection
currents to warm from below and by wind machines mixing warmer air from above.

An idealized distribution of air temperature above the ground during a 24-hour day. The
temperature curves present the variations in average air temperature above grassy surface for a
mid-latitude city during the summer under clear, calm conditions.

Brief Review
● At night, Earth's surface cools, mainly by giving up more infrared radiation than it
receives a process called radiational cooling
 ● • The coldest nights of winter normally occur when the air is calm, fairly dry (a low
water-vapor content), and cloud-free.
● • The highest temperatures during the day and the lowest temperatures at night are
normally observed at Earth's surface.
● • Radiation inversions usually exist at night when the air near the ground is colder than
the air above.
● • The coldest air and lowest nighttime temperatures are normally found in low�lying
areas. Surrounding hillsides are usually much warmer than the valley bottoms.
● • Farmers use a variety of techniques to protect crops or fruit from damaging low
temperatures, including heating the air, mixing the air, irrigating, and spraying water onto
trees in below-freezing weather.

Temperature Variations

● TEMPERATURE - is something that tells us about the coldness or warmness of any

object which is generally measured in Celsius and Fahrenheit.
● VARIATION - a change or difference in condition, amount, or level.
● TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS - the difference between the maximum and minimum
temperatures or between the highest and lowest mean temperatures during a specified
time interval, for example, daily, monthly, or seasonal.

A. DAILY TEMPERATURE RANGE

● • Is the difference between the daily maximum and daily minimum temperatures.
● • Daily range in temperatures is much larger on clear days than on cloudy days.
Factors affecting daily temperature range

1. Distance from the Ground

● • Temperature increases as you gain altitude in the stratosphere and the
thermosphere. Temperature decreases as you gain altitude in the troposphere
and mesosphere.
● • Temperature normally decreases as elevation or height increases, making
locations at higher elevations colder.
2. Cloud cover

Temperatures are Temperatures are Temperatures are Temperatures are

higher on days lower on nights lower on cloudy higher on cloudy
where clouds are where clouds are days. nights.
absent.
absent.
Clouds reflect a Clouds absorb
The absence of large portion of more of the heat
The absence of clouds allows the sun's energy that is radiated
clouds allows more of the heat (solar radiation) from the Earth's
large amounts of radiated from the back to space. surface and
the sun's energy Earth's surface to prevent it from
to reach the escape into escaping into
space. space.
earth.
This causes This allows
This heats up the temperature to nighttime
Earth's surface fall at night. temperature to
which in turn remain high.
heats the air near
the Earth's
surface.

3. Humidity - amount of moisture in the air.

● •When water vapor remains in the air as humidity, it makes the temperature feel
warmer. As the humidity lowers, the air feels cooler
4. Distance from a large body of water
● This refers to how far away from a large body of water and area is located.
● Land and water react differently to solar heating which in turn exerts a strong
influence on the atmosphere.
● Seas and oceans take a longer time to heat up, but once heated up will retain
heat longer.
● Land, on the other hand, heats up very quickly and loses heat quickly.
5. Urbanization - the process of making an area more urban.
● • Urbanization often results in increased stream temperatures (e.g., increased
daily maximum temperature, increased number of temperature exceedances),
especially in summer. This is due in part to the formation of urban heat islands, or
 localized areas of heat storage (and warmer air temperatures) near urban
centers.
● • Automobiles, air conditioning, and other machines make city warmer than
surroundings.

B. REGIONAL TEMPERATURE RANGE

What is an ISOTHERM?
● • A line drawn at the same temperature on a map or graph connecting points. That
means, at every point along a given isotherm, the values of temperature are the same.
● • Isotherms are commonly used in meteorology to view temperature distribution on the
surface of the Earth or on a chart showing steady or constant pressure.

What is an Annual Range of Temperature?

● difference between the average temperature of the warmest and coldest months.
● -maximum - minimum monthly mean temperatures for the year.
● -Maritime climates have less annual temperature range than continental climates.

What is Mean (Average) Annual Temperature?

● the word average means normal in a simple term.
● -The mean annual temperature can be defined as the approximate average/mean of the
maximum and minimum temperatures of the hottest and the coldest months of the year.
So inadvertently the mean annual temperature is the mean of four temperatures.
For example: In India, the mean annual temperature can be obtained by taking the average of
the minimum and the maximum temperatures of the months of January and June.

CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE
- any factor that causes temperature to vary from place to place or from time to time.
● Latitude - In the lower latitudes, Earth gains more heat by radiation from the Sun than it
loses to space by radiation from Earth. In the higher latitudes, Earth gives off more heat
than it receives from the Sun. This unequal heating and cooling would result in
ever-increasing temperatures in the tropics and ever-decreasing temperatures in the
polar regions.
● Land and water distribution - The irregular distribution of land and water surfaces is a
major control of climate. Air temperatures are warmer in summer and colder in winter
over the continents than they are over the oceans at the same latitude. This is because
landmasses heat and cool more rapidly than bodies of water do.
● Ocean currents - Ocean currents bring warm water and rain from the equator to the
poles and cold water from the poles toward the equator. These ocean currents help to
counteract the high levels of solar radiation that the Earth’s equator receive
● Elevation - As elevation increases (further from sea level), temperature will decrease.
As elevation lowers (closer to sea level), temperature will increase
 Application of Air temperature data

Temperature data are particularly useful for calculating the energy use of the unit processes
space heating, space cooling, and ventilation.

Information from temperature measurements can also be used to calculate the efficiency of
heat exchangers.

Estimation of Energy needs using degree days

HEATING DEGREE
● The heating degree day assumes that people will begin to use their furnaces when the
mean temperature drops below 65˚F.
● • Heating Degree Day (HDD) is a weather-based technical index designed to describe
the need for the heating energy requirements of building.

COOLING DEGREE DAYS

● As the mean daily temperature climbs above 65˚F, people begin to cool their indoor
environment. Consequently, an index is called the cooling degree day is used during
warm weather to estimate the energy needed to cool indoor air to a comfortable level.
● • Cooling Degree Day (CDD) is a weather-based technical index designed to describe
the need for the cooling (air�conditioning) requirements of buildings.
Cooling Degree Day (CDD)

Example #1
A day with a mean temperature of 70˚F would correspond to (70˚F – 65 ˚F).

Example #2
If the high temperature for the day was 92˚F and the low was 68˚F, the mean temperature for
the day would be 92+68= 160/2= 80˚F. The Cooling Degree Days would then be 80-65= 15˚F
CDD.

Example #3
High Temperature= 90˚F
Low Temperature= 70˚F

Step 1: 90˚F + 70˚F = 160

Step 2: 160/2= 80˚F
Step 3: 80˚F - 65˚F= 15 ˚F CDD

Planting and harvesting using growing degree days

● Growing Degree Days (GDD) are used to estimate the growth and development of
plants and insects during the growing season.
● • Farmers use an index called growing degree days as a guide to planting and for
determining the approximate dates when crop will be ready for harvesting.

Example #1
Base number= 50
High Temperature= 80˚F
Low Temperature= 60˚F

80+60= 140/2= 70
70-50 (Base)= 20 GDD
 Air temperature and human comfort

AIR TEMPERATURE - Is a measure of how hot or cold the air is.

HUMAN COMFORT - Also called “human thermal comfort” is defined as a condition of mind,
which expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment.

Relationship of Air Temperature and Human Comfort

● Air temperature is a critical factor that affects human comfort in indoor environments. It
plays a significant role in determining human comfort levels. The air temperature range
that is generally considered comfortable for most people in indoor environments is
between 20 to 25 degrees Celsius(68 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit)

FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN COMFORT

● HUMIDITY: high humidity can make people feel hotter, while low humidity can cause dry
skin and respiratory issues.
● AIR MOVEMENT: adequate air movement can help regulate body temperature, while
stagnant air can lead to discomfort.
● PERSONAL FACTORS: clothing, activity level, age, and other personal factors can
affect an individual’s comfort level

● SENSIBLE HEAT is the heat that we can feel or measure using a thermometer.
● The body loses heat through CONVECTION, RADIATION and EVAPORATION.
- CONVECTION is the transfer of heat from our body to the surrounding air.
- RADIATION is when heat is emitted in the form of infrared waves.
- EVAPORATION is the process of sweat evaporating from our skin, taking heat with it
● WIND CHILL INDEX measures how cold the air feels on our skin when wind is
blowing. Wind increases the rate of heat loss from our bodies, making us feel colder
than the actual air temperature.
● Wind chill can cause FROSTBITE, which is when the skin and underlying tissues
freeze.
● Wet skin can contribute to hypothermia. Water conducts heat away from the body 25
times faster tan air, making the body lose heat more quickly. HYPOTHERMIA
occurs when the body temperature drops below normal due to prolonged exposure to
cold temperatures

Measuring air temperature

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
● It is based on the principle of thermal expansion of substances. Nowadays, usually blue
or red colored ethanol (alcohol) with a melting point of -115 °C and a boiling point of 78
°C is used instead of mercury. As the temperature rises, the liquid inside the
thermometer (either mercury or alcohol) will expand up the narrow tube. This is because
the particles of liquid move around faster at a higher temperature and so take up more
 space. The narrower the tube is, the further the liquid will move up the tube for each
degree Celsius rise in temperature. The bottom reservoir of liquid is called the ‘bulb’.

Electrical Resistance Thermometer

● The resistance thermometer or resistance temperature detector (RTD) uses the
resistance of electrical conductor for measuring the temperature. The resistance of the
conductor varies with the time. This property of the conductor is used for measuring the
temperature. The main function of the RTD is to give a positive change in resistance with
temperature. The metal has a high-temperature coefficient that means their temperature
increases with the increase in temperature. The carbon and germanium have
low-temperature coefficient which shows that their resistance is inversely proportional to
temperature.

Bimetallic thermometer
● A bimetallic thermometer consists of two different pieces of metal (usually brass and
iron) welded together to form a single strip. As the temperature changes, the brass
expands more than the iron, causing the strip to bend. The small amount of bending is
amplified through a system of levers to a pointer on a calibrated scale. The bimetallic
thermometer is usually the temperature-sensing part of the thermograph, an instrument
that measures and records temperature. The bimetallic thermometer uses the bimetallic
strip which converts the temperature into the mechanical displacement. The working of
the bimetallic strip depends on the thermal expansion property of the metal. The thermal
expansion is the tendency of metal in which the volume of metal changes with the
variation in temperature.

Radiometer
● Radiometers do not measure temperature directly; rather, they measure emitted
radiation (usually infrared). By measuring both the intensity of radiant energy and the
wavelength of maximum emission of a particular gas (either water vapor or carbon
dioxide), radiometers in orbiting satellites are now able to obtain temperature
measurements at selected levels in the atmosphere.

Instrument shelter
● A boxlike structure designed to protect certain meteorological instruments from exposure
to direct sunshine, precipitation, and condensation, while at the same time providing
adequateventilation. Instrument shelters are usually painted white, have louvered sides,
usually a double roof, and are mounted on a stand a meter or so above the ground with
the door side facing poleward. Instrument shelters are meant to house thermometric
instruments, such as psychrometers, maximum and minimum thermometers,
hygrothermographs, etc.