(PSY 304) Chapter 2 - Synapses

(PSY 304) Chapter 2 - Synapses
Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dkpwnf
1. Charles Scott communication between one neuron and the next differs
Sherrington from communication along a single axon.
2. reflexes automatic muscular responses to stimuli.
3. leg flexion reflex a sensory neuron excites a second neuron, which excites
a motor neuron, which excites a muscle
4. reflex arc The circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response
5. Cajal a reflex must require communication between neurons,

and therefore, measurements of reflexes might reveal
some of the special properties of that communication
strapped a dog into a harness above the ground and

pinched one of the dog's feet. After a fraction of a second,
the dog flexed (raised) the pinched leg and extended the
other legs.
found the same reflexive movements after he made a cut

that disconnected the spinal cord from the brain
observed several properties of reflexes that suggest spe-

cial processes at the junctions between neurons:
(1) Reflexes are slower than conduction along an axon.
(2) Several weak stimuli presented at nearby places or

times produce a stronger reflex than one stimulus alone
does.
(3) When one set of muscles becomes excited, a different

set becomes relaxed
dog flexed that leg after a short delay. During that delay,
an impulse had to travel up an axon from the skin receptor
to the spinal cord, and then an impulse had to travel from
the spinal cord back down the leg to a muscle.
1 / 12
some process must be slowing conduction through the
reflex, and he inferred that the delay occurs where one
neuron communicates with another
6. temporal sum- repeated stimuli within a brief time have a cumulative

mation effect
summation over time.
ex: A light pinch of the dog's foot did not evoke a reflex, but
a few rapidly repeated pinches did. Sherrington surmised
that a single pinch did not reach the threshold of excitation
for the next neuron.
With a rapid succession of pinches, each adds its effect

to what remained from the previous ones, until the combi-
nation exceeds the threshold of the postsynaptic neuron,
producing an action potential.
If the delay between EPSPs was short enough, the second

EPSP added to what was left of the first one producing
temporal summation. At point 3, a quick sequence of
EPSPs combines to exceed the threshold and produce an
action potential.
7. presynaptic neu- neuron that delivers transmission

ron
8. postsynaptic neuron that receives information

neuron
9. John Eccles attached micro electrodes to stimulate axons of

pre-synaptic neurons while he recorded from the postsy-
naptic neuron.
For example, after he had briefly stimulated an axon,

Eccles recorded a slight depolarization of the membrane
of the postsynaptic cell
2 / 12
EPSPs from several axons SUMMATE THEIR EFFECTS
on a postsynaptic cell
10. partial depolar- unlike action potentials, which are always depolarizations,
ization graded potentials may be EITHER DEPOLARIZATIONS
(excitatory) or HYPERPOLARIZATIONS (inhibitory)
11. excitatory post- graded depolarization

synaptic poten-
tial (EPSP) results from a flow of sodium ions into the neuron.
if it does not cause the cell to reach its threshold, the

depolarization decays quickly.
12. depolarization excitatory
13. hyperpolariza- inhibitory

tion
14. spatial summa- summation over space

tion
Synaptic inputs from separate locations combine their
effects on a neuron.
herrington again began with a pinch too weak to elicit a

reflex. This time, instead of pinching one point twice, he
pinched two points at once. Although neither pinch alone
produced a reflex, together they did.
synchronized input of axons, spatial summation excites

the neuron enough to activate it.
pinching two points activated separate sensory neurons,

whose axons converged onto one neuron in the spinal
cord.
Excitation from either sensory axon excited that spinal

neuron, but not enough to reach the threshold. A combina-
tion of excitations exceeded the threshold and produced
an action potential
3 / 12
15. interneuron excites the motor neurons connected to the flexor muscles
of that leg and the extensor muscles of the other legs
sends messages to inhibit the extensor muscles in that leg

and the flexor muscles of the three other legs.
16. inhibitory post- temporary hyperpolarization

synaptic poten-
tial (IPSP) occurs when synaptic input selectively opens the gates for
potassium ions to leave the cell (carrying a positive charge
with them) or for chloride ions to enter the cell (carrying a
negative charge)
17. spontaneous fir- a periodic production of action potentials even without

ing rate synaptic input.
the EPSPs increase the frequency of action potentials

above the spontaneous rate, whereas IPSPs decrease it.
ex: if the neuron's spontaneous firing rate is 10 action

potentials per second, a stream of EPSPs might increase
the rate to 15 or more, whereas a preponderance of IPSPs
might decrease it to 5 or fewer.
18. Elliott applying the hormone adrenaline directly to the surface of

the heart, the stomach, or the pupils produces the same
effects as those of the sympathetic nervous system.
suggested that the sympathetic nerves stimulate muscles

by releasing adrenaline or a similar chemical.
19. Otto Loewi Heart rate of frogs
stimulated the vagus nerve, thereby decreasing a frog's

heart rate. He then collected fluid from around that heart,
transferred it to a second frog's heart, and found that the
second heart also decreased its rate of beat- ing
stimulated the accelerator nerve to the first frog's heart,

4 / 12
increasing the heart rate When he collected fluid from that
heart and transferred it to the second frog's heart, its heart
rate increased.
NERVE SEND MESSAGES BY RELEASING CHEMI-

CALS
20. The Sequence of 1. The neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve as neuro-
Chemical Events transmitters. It synthesizes the smaller neurotransmitters
at a Synapse in the axon terminals and synthesizes neuropeptides in
the cell body.
2. Action potentials travel down the axon. At the presynap-

tic terminal, an action potential enables calcium to enter
the cell. Calcium releases neurotransmitters from the ter-
minals and into the synaptic cleft, the space between the
presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
3. The released molecules diffuse across the narrow cleft,

attach to receptors, and alter the activity of the postsynap-
tic neuron. Mechanisms vary for altering that activity.
4. The neurotransmitter molecules separate from their re-

ceptors.
5. The neurotransmitter molecules may be taken back into

the presynaptic neuron for recycling or they may diffuse
away.
6. Some postsynaptic cells send reverse messages to con-

trol the further release of neurotransmitters by presynaptic
cells.
21. neurotransmit- chemicals that affect another neuron.

ters
22. nitric oxide oddest transmitter
laughing gas
5 / 12
is poisonous in large quantities and difficult to make in

a laboratory. Yet, many neurons contain an enzyme that
enables them to make it efficiently.
dilates the nearby blood vessels, thereby INCREASING

BLOOD FLOW to that brain area.
23. catecholamines the relationship among epinephrine, norepinephrine, and

dopamine because they contain a catechol group and an
amine group,
24. exocytosis BURST OF RELEASE of neurotransmitter from the presy-

naptic neuron.
25. ionotropic ef- corresponding to the brief on/off effects

fects
26. ionotropic recep- When the neurotransmitter binds to it, it twists the receptor
tor just enough to open its central channel, which has a shape
that lets a particular type of ion pass through.
ex: Imagine a paper bag that is twisted shut at the top. If

you untwist it, the opening grows larger so that something
can go into or come out of the bag
27. transmitter-gat- In contrast to the sodium and potassium channels along

ed or an axon, are CONTROLLED BY NEUROTRANSMIT-
ligand-gated TERS
when the neurotransmitter attaches, it opens a channel.
28. glutamate is the most abundant excitatory ionotropic neurotransmit-

ter in the nervous system
29. GABA opens chloride gates, enabling chloride ions, with their
(gam- negative charge, to cross the membrane into the cell more
ma-aminobu- rapidly than usual.
tyric acid)
6 / 12
30. Glycine another common inhibitory transmitter, found mostly in the
spinal cord
31. Acetylcholine another transmitter at many ionotropic synapses, is exci-

tatory in most cases
is synthesized from choline, which is abundant in milk,

eggs, and peanuts.
32. tryptophan precursor to serotonin, crosses the blood-brain barrier by

a special transport system that it shares with other large
amino acids
serotonin levels rise after you eat foods richer in trypto-

phan, such as soy, and fall after something low in trypto-
phan, such as maize (American corn)
33. carbohydrates increase the release of the hormone insulin, which takes
several competing amino acids out of the bloodstream and
into body cells, thus decreasing the competition against
tryptophan
34. Monoamine oxi- breaks down these dopamine, serotonin or norepineph-

dase (MAO) rine into INACTIVE CHEMICALS, thereby preventing the
transmitters to accumulate to harmful levels.
35. MAO inhibitors blocks MAO
increase the brain's supply of serotonin, dopamine, and

norepinephrine
36. metabotropic start slowly but last longer than ionotropic effects.
synapses
emerge 30 ms or more after the release of the transmitter
(North, 1989). Typically, they last up to a few seconds,
sometimes longe
better suited for more enduring effects such as TASTE,

SMELL and PAIN where the exact timing isn't important
anyway
7 / 12
are also important for many aspects of arousal, attention,

pleasure, and emotion
ex: Imagine a large room. You are outside the room holding
a stick that goes through a hole in the wall and attaches
to the hinge of a cage. If you shake the stick, you open
that cage and release an angry dog. The dog runs around
waking up all the rabbits in the room, which then scurry
around causing all kinds of further action.
37. Ionotropic For VISION and HEARING, the brain needs rapid,
synapses up-to-date information
38. first messenger neurotransmitter that carries information to the postsynap-

tic cell
39. neuromodulators they have properties that set them apart from other trans-
mitters
it synthesizes neuropeptides in the cell body and then

slowly transports them to other parts of the cell.
40. second messen- communicates to areas within the cell.

ger
A chemical released inside a cell after stimulation at a
metabotropic synapse
41. neuropeptides are released mainly by dendrites, and also by the cell body
and by the sides of the axon
its release requires REPEATED STIMULATION or DEPO-

LARIZATION
diffuse widely, slowly affecting many neurons in their re-

gion of the brain.
are important for hunger, thirst, and other long-term

changes in behavior and experience.
8 / 12
They produce effects that last for MINUTES
42. hallucinogenic drugs that distort perception, such as lysergic acid diethy-
drugs lamide (LSD)—chemically resemble serotonin
It attaches to serotonin receptors.
provide stimulation at inappropriate times or for

longer-than-usual durations.
the increased spontaneous communication within the

brain dominates over the input coming from the sense
organ
EXCITATORY
43. Nicotine compound present in tobacco, stimulates a family of

acetylcholine receptors, conveniently known as nicotinic
receptors.
INCREASES DOPAMINE RELEASE
its stimulation is REWARDING
excitatory
44. Opiate drugs are derived from, or chemically similar to those derived
from, the opium poppy
include morphine, heroin, and methadone.
Stimulates endorphin receptors
inhibitory
45. Amphetamine BLOCKS reuptake of dopamine and several other trans-

mitters
inhibitory
9 / 12
46. Cocaine BLOCKS reuptake of dopamine and several other trans-

mitters
inhibitory
47. Methylphenidate another stimulant drug, is often prescribed for people with
(Ritalin) attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
affects the same way as cocaine
Blocks reuptake of dopamine and others, but gradually
inhibitory
48. MDMA ("Ecsta- Releases dopamine

sy") Releases serotonin
excitatory
49. acetyl- acetylcholine breaks it into two fragments: acetate and

cholinesterase choline. The choline diffuses back to the presynaptic neu-
ron, which takes it up and reconnects it with acetate al-
ready in the cell to form acetylcholine again.
inhibitory
50. reuptake The presynaptic neuron takes up much or most of the

released neurotransmitter molecules intact and reuses
them.
occurs through special membrane proteins
51. Transporters special membrane proteins
52. COMT Any transmitter molecules that the transporters do not take
(cate- will instead break down by this enzyme
chol-o-methyl-
transferase) breakdown products wash away and eventually show up
in the blood and urine.
10 / 12
53. autoreceptors presynaptic terminals have receptors sensitive to the

same transmitter they release
receptors that respond to the released transmitter by IN-

HIBITING further synthesis and release. That is, they pro-
vide negative feedback
54. Cannabinoids the active chemicals in marijuana, bind to anandamide or

2-AG receptors on presynaptic neurons, indicating, "The
cell got your message. Stop sending it."
ACTS ON PRESYNAPTIC NEURON
decrease both excitatory and inhibitory messages from

neurons that release glutamate, GABA, and other trans-
mitters.
brief or more long-lasting suppression of release
55. hormone chemical secreted by cells in one part of the body and
conveyed by the blood to influence other cells.
function more like a radio station: They convey a message

to any receiver tuned to the right station.
are particularly useful for coordinating long-lasting

changes in multiple parts of the body.
ex: birds that are preparing for migration secrete hor-

mones that change their eating and digestion to store extra
energy for a long journey.
56. gap junc- comes into direct contact with the membrane of another
tion (electrical
synapse) ex: Fairly large pores of the membrane of one neuron line
up precisely with similar pores in the membrane of the
other cell. These pores remain open constantly. Therefore,
whenever one of the neurons is depolarized, sodium ions
from that cell can pass immediately into the other neuron
11 / 12
and depolarize it, too.
As a result, the two neurons act as if they were a single

neuron.
are important when the nervous system needs to accom-

plish SYNCHRONY between neurons
57. protein hor- composed of chains of amino acids. (Proteins are longer
mones and pep- chains and peptides are shorter.) Protein and peptide
tide hormones hormones attach to membrane receptors, where they ac-
tivate a second messenger within the cell—exactly like a
metabotropic synapse.
58. pituitary gland attached to the hypothalamus
59. posterior pitu- composed of neural tissue, can be considered an exten-

itary sion of the hypothalamus
releases oxytocin and vasopressin into the blood.
60. releasing hor- which flow through the blood to the anterior pituitary. There
mones they stimulate or inhibit the release of other hormones.
61. anterior pituitary composed of glandular tissue, synthesizes six hormones
- Promote/inhibit release of hormones from pituitary

- Stimulates thyroid gland
- Stimulates ovulation
- Promotes ovum maturation (female), sperm production
(male)
- Increases steroid hormone production by adrenal gland
- Increases milk production
- Increases body growth
62. serotonin trans- is responsible for REUPTAKE

porter
12 / 12

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Study online at https://quizlet.com/_dkpwnf

2. reflexes automatic muscular responses to stimuli.

4. reflex arc The circuit from sensory neuron to muscle response

5. Cajal a reflex must require communication between neurons,

strapped a dog into a harness above the ground and

found the same reflexive movements after he made a cut

observed several properties of reflexes that suggest spe-

(1) Reflexes are slower than conduction along an axon.

(2) Several weak stimuli presented at nearby places or

(3) When one set of muscles becomes excited, a different

6. temporal sum- repeated stimuli within a brief time have a cumulative

summation over time.

With a rapid succession of pinches, each adds its effect

If the delay between EPSPs was short enough, the second

7. presynaptic neu- neuron that delivers transmission

8. postsynaptic neuron that receives information

9. John Eccles attached micro electrodes to stimulate axons of

For example, after he had briefly stimulated an axon,

11. excitatory post- graded depolarization

if it does not cause the cell to reach its threshold, the

12. depolarization excitatory

13. hyperpolariza- inhibitory

14. spatial summa- summation over space

herrington again began with a pinch too weak to elicit a

synchronized input of axons, spatial summation excites

pinching two points activated separate sensory neurons,

Excitation from either sensory axon excited that spinal

sends messages to inhibit the extensor muscles in that leg

16. inhibitory post- temporary hyperpolarization

17. spontaneous fir- a periodic production of action potentials even without

the EPSPs increase the frequency of action potentials

ex: if the neuron's spontaneous firing rate is 10 action

18. Elliott applying the hormone adrenaline directly to the surface of

suggested that the sympathetic nerves stimulate muscles

19. Otto Loewi Heart rate of frogs

stimulated the vagus nerve, thereby decreasing a frog's

stimulated the accelerator nerve to the first frog's heart,

NERVE SEND MESSAGES BY RELEASING CHEMI-

2. Action potentials travel down the axon. At the presynap-

3. The released molecules diffuse across the narrow cleft,

4. The neurotransmitter molecules separate from their re-

5. The neurotransmitter molecules may be taken back into

6. Some postsynaptic cells send reverse messages to con-

21. neurotransmit- chemicals that affect another neuron.

22. nitric oxide oddest transmitter

is poisonous in large quantities and difficult to make in

dilates the nearby blood vessels, thereby INCREASING

23. catecholamines the relationship among epinephrine, norepinephrine, and

24. exocytosis BURST OF RELEASE of neurotransmitter from the presy-

25. ionotropic ef- corresponding to the brief on/off effects

ex: Imagine a paper bag that is twisted shut at the top. If

27. transmitter-gat- In contrast to the sodium and potassium channels along

when the neurotransmitter attaches, it opens a channel.

28. glutamate is the most abundant excitatory ionotropic neurotransmit-

31. Acetylcholine another transmitter at many ionotropic synapses, is exci-

is synthesized from choline, which is abundant in milk,

32. tryptophan precursor to serotonin, crosses the blood-brain barrier by

serotonin levels rise after you eat foods richer in trypto-

34. Monoamine oxi- breaks down these dopamine, serotonin or norepineph-

35. MAO inhibitors blocks MAO

increase the brain's supply of serotonin, dopamine, and

better suited for more enduring effects such as TASTE,

are also important for many aspects of arousal, attention,