WEEK1 INTRO

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE

1. Correlational Research Design

 to observe the two variables as they exist naturally for a set of individuals
 No manipulation of variables
 Correlation: consistency/strength of the relationship between 2 variables
 Scatter-plot to illustrate the relationship
 positive/negative/no correlation
 Correlation=/=causation
 Confounding Variable--a third variable that provide an alternative explanation for the
observed relationship btw 2 variables; lead to mistaken causal relationship
 Reverse Causation--a direction of cause-and-effect contrary to a common presumption

2.Experimental Research Design

 Manipulate at least 1 variable and measure the other
 Independent vs Dependent Variables
 Manipulated(independent) variable to observe changes(dependent) to assess the
effects
 Experimental/treatment group vs Control group/condition
 All other variables are controlled to ensure they do not influence the two variables being
examined
 Random Assignment: each participant has equal chance to be assigned to any group,
making each group equal in all variables
WEEK 2 Everything Psychological is biological!

Nervous System: The body’s network for electrochemical communication

 Sensory input comes from the many sensory receptors that monitor changes occurring both
inside and outside the body
 Integration—Information detected and sent to central nervous system > nervous system
processes that input and decides what response to occur
 Motor output-- nervous system activates certain parts of body

 consists of
o Brain—thinking; feeling; remembering
o Spinal cord（脊髓）--conduct 2-way signals between brain and rest of body
o Injured spinal cord often causes permanent changes in the body’s strength, sensation,
and other functions due to connection to the brain
o Coordinate reflexes independently--Synapse can occur in the spinal cord, allowing
faster reflex actions without brain’s signal

Neurons: the fundamental units of the brain and nervous systems; the cells responsible for
receiving sensory input from the external world, for sending motor commands to our muscles,
and for transforming and relaying the electrical signals at every step in between.
 Cell body (or soma 神经元细胞) contains the nucleus that carries genetic information
and supplies the energy and the resources the neuron needs to function
 Dendrites (树突)
o Receive information (electrical messages) from thousands of other neurons as
main source of input
 Axon （轴突）
o conducts electrical impulses (action potentials) away from the nerve cell body
o transmit information to different neurons
 Myeline sheath（髓鞘）
o a substance around the axon
o insulation to allow the action potential to conduct rapidly toward the terminal
buttons
o Myeline sheath--crucial for neural transmission to support proper functioning
 Eg. multiple sclerosis (多发性硬化症)—with impaired myelin sheath,
patients experience problem related to movement, gait, vision, and other
type of sensation
 Communication within and between neurons
--Neurons transmit signals when stimulated by sensory input or triggered by neighbouring
neurons

Phases of Action Potential--When a stimulus reaches a resting neuron, the neuron transmits the
signal as an impulse (Action potential)
1. Resting State (not receiving or sending signals): The average membrane potential of a
neuron is around -70 millivolts (mV), inside of the cell is 70 mV less than the outside
a. Action potential will only occur when the membrane potential reaches the
threshold (around -55mV) [all-or-nothing response]
2. Depolarisation: an action potential in terms of depolarization will occur (membrane
potential spike to positive)
3. Repolarisation: Membrane potential returns to a negative value.
a. absolute refractory (2 ms)
--unable to generate subsequent action potentials
4. Hyperpolarisation: the membrane potential becomes even more negative after the
depolarization, before going back to resting state
a. relative refractory period during hyperpolarization
--new action potential could be started but only by a stronger stimulus than the
one that initiated the current action potential
*Action potential
（动作电位）
-A transient all-or-nothing electrical current conducted
down the axon when the membrane potential reaches
the threshold of excitation
- send one signal at one uniform strength and speed

[neurons code the intensity of information by the

FREQUENCY of the action potential]
*Synapse（突触） >Firing rate
-the meeting point between the > weak stimulus =less frequent action potential
presynaptic axon terminal button
(senser neuron) and postsynaptic
membrane (receiver neuron)
-synaptic gap--A small space (5
nm) in between

At the end, the signal will reach the axon terminal > the neuron passes the signal to another
neuron through synapse.

Synapse
 However, transmission through neurotransmitters more often
o Electrical > chemical
 Neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic axon terminal, travel across the
synaptic gap, and activate the receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron
 Reuptake: After transmission, the neurotransmitter molecule is taken back into the axon
terminal that released it

Neurotransmitters（神经递质）--belong to Nervous System

 brain chemicals that communicate and relay information between neurons
 travel with action potential
 2 groups:
o Excitatory—Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potentials (EPSPs): graded potentials that
push neurons closer to threshold, making an action potential more likely
>depolarise
o Inhibitory--Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potentials (IPSPs):graded potentials that
push neurons further from threshold, making an action potential harder to achieve
>hyperpolarize
 Over 100 kinds of neurotransmitters serving different purposes:
o Serotonin（血清素）
 Mainly inhibitory--suppress other neurons from having reaction
 Regulate mood, appetite, circadian rhythm, sleep
 Depression has been linked to low levels of serotonin
>exercise and exposure to sunlight can increase brain serotonin function
Eg. lack of sunlight>vitamin D deficiency>low level of
serotonin>Seasonal Affective Disorder
 create antidepressants
Eg. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
 commonly prescribed antidepressant for depression
 block the reabsorption (reuptake) of serotonin in the brain, making
more serotonin available
o Dopamine—feel awesome!（多巴胺）
  regulates how you perceive and experience pleasure
>released during pleasurable moments or situations
>engage in enjoyable activities repeatedly
Eg. alcohol, sugar, nicotine stimulates dopamine>reward system
 Dopamine responses drops means a stronger or new stimulus is needed
>Sugar is claimed to be addictive as drugs?
 brain gets adaptive to frequent stimulation and develop
tolerance…
 But different intensity and mechanism:
 Cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake>increases dopamine
concentration in the synapses>accumulation produces an
amplified signal to the receiving neurons>causes the euphoria
commonly experienced immediately after taking the drug

o Norepinephrine—sibling of adrenaline（去甲肾上腺素）
 Trigger fight or flight response
 Increase heart rate and primes muscles (increase/restrict blood flow in
parts of the body)
 it can be both a neurotransmitter and hormone, produced by the adrenal
glands（肾上腺）
o GABA—Gamma Aminobutyric Acid（伽马氨基丁酸）
 Major inhibitory neurotransmitter
slow down signals between neurons, making neurons less electrically
excitable; less likely produce neurotransmitters
 low levels of GABA can cause anxiety, irritability, and restlessness
eg. alcohol artificially mimics the role of GABA: have the effect of
reducing anxiety and lowering social inhibition (impulse control)

Endocrine system（内分泌系统）
 slow communication system; a set of glands secret hormones into the bloodstream Hormone
-chemical messengers
 Hypothalamus（下丘脑）controls pituitary gland（脑垂体）secrets multiple travel through
bloodstream
hormones, some may affect other glands -affect other tissues
 Hormones affect almost all aspects of psychology
o Oxytocin（催产素）--love hormone
 produced in hypothalamus
 activates feelings of trust and attraction
o Leptin（瘦素）
 Decrease appetite by signaling to the brain the feeling of fullness
o Testosterone（睾酮）
 Related to aggression
 A sex hormone that regulates fertility, muscle mass, and fat distribution

The Localisation of Brain Function

 divided into specialized regions, may or may not interact with each other to produce a
given action
  different parts of the brain control specific aspects of behaviour
eg. Phineas Gage—Loss of a portion of his left frontal lobe led to personality change >
more impulsive, had trouble carrying out plans, and engaged in vulgarities

BRAIN
 “old brain”
o regulates basic survival functions, ranging from breathing, moving, resting,
feeding, emotions, to memory
o Brain stem（脑干）
 All functions to stay alive (breathing air, digesting food, circulating blood)
 Found in most animals’ brains; even fetus > most basic and important part
for survival

o Cerebellum（小脑）
 Non-verbal learning and memory; perception of time and modulating
emotions
 Regulate motor movement
 alcohol can disrupt cerebellum, thus drunk people have difficulty
maintaining balance

o Limbic system（边缘系统）
 At top of the brain stem, involved in regulating emotion
 amygdala（杏仁核）
 memory consolidation and emotion; fear responses and memory of
fear
 damage could encourage risky behaviour
 hippocampus（海马体）
 memory reconsolidation (forming a lasting and stable long-term
memory)
 Cerebral Hemispheres
o 85% of brain weight; oversee ability to think, speak and perceive
o Cerebral Cortex（大脑皮层）
 the outer surface that has about 20 billion neurons; highest levels of
mental functioning
 Occipital lobes（枕叶）
o smallest; understand info related to sight
 Temporal lobes（颞叶）
o sound is processed; auditory language and speech
comprehension systems

Somatosensory+Motor Cortex
--homunculus due to
disproportional representation in
the cortical homunculus to the size
of a body area
--certain areas (hands, lips, face)
occupy disproportionately large
areas of the cortex, due to the
importance of fine motor skills and
the sensitivity of these areas.
o Language loop = Wernicke’s Area (comprehension of
language) + Broca’s Area (production of speech)
**Interestingly, language loop is found in the left hemisphere in
about 90% of right-handed persons and 70% of left-handed >
language function performed asymmetrically
o Aphasia（失语症） – an impairment of language,
affecting the production or comprehension of speech and
the ability to read or write
 Parietal lobes（顶叶）
o Somatosensory cortex（体感皮层）--processing body’s
senses
 Frontal lobes（额叶）
o the last to develop in young adulthood
*especially the prefrontal cortex typically fully matured at
around 25
o association between maturity and age
o speaking, planning, judging, abstract thinking, personality
aspect
o Motor cortex（运动皮层）--motor movement

o Corpus Callosum（胼胝体）
 connects and allow communication between left and right hemispheres of
the brains
 Split brain--severed corpus callosum