Cryogens, Magnets and MRI

Recent MRI with improvement of Cryo technology

-Dr. Harsh Mahajan M.D. (Radio Diag)

Mahajan Imaging Centre, Delhi
 Definitions
•Cryogens - a substance for producing low
temps
•Gauss/Tesla - a unit of magnetic field
strength
•Magnetic Resonance - absorption or emission
of electromagnetic energy
 Definitions
•MR Imaging- creation of images by use of
the magnetic resonance phenomenon
•Quench- condition where the static magnetic
field is removed
•Radio Frequency – frequency used in MR
systems to excite nuclei to resonate
The Basic Idea
MRI stands for MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING. If you have ever seen an MRI machine, you know
that the basic design used in most is a giant cube/cylinder. The cube in a typical system might be 7 feet
tall by 7 feet wide by 10 feet long (2 m by 2 m by 3 m), although new models are rapidly shrinking. There
is a horizontal tube running through the magnet from front to back. This tube is known as the bore of
the magnet. The patient, lying on his or her back, slides into the bore on a special table. Whether or not
the patient goes in head first or feet first, as well as how far in the magnet they will go, is determined by
the type of exam to be performed. MRI scanners vary in size and shape, and newer models have some
degree of openness around the sides, but the basic design is the same. Once the body part to be
scanned is in the exact center or isocenter of the magnetic field, the scan can begin.
In conjunction with radio wave pulses of energy, the MRI scanner can pick out a very small point inside
the patient's body and ask it, essentially, "What type of tissue are you?" The point might be a cube that
is half a millimeter on each side. The MRI system goes through the patient's body point by point, building
up a 2-D or 3-D map of tissue types. It then integrates all of this information together to create 2-D
images or 3-D models.
MRI provides an unparalleled view inside the human body. The level of detail we can see is
extraordinary compared with any other imaging modality. MRI is the method of choice for the diagnosis
of many types of injuries and conditions because of the incredible ability to tailor the exam to the
particular medical question being asked. By changing exam parameters, the MRI system can cause
tissues in the body to take on different appearances. This is very helpful to the radiologist (who reads the
MRI) in determining if something seen is normal or not. We know that when we do "A," normal tissue will
look like "B" -- if it doesn't, there might be an abnormality. MRI systems can also image flowing blood in
virtually any part of the body. This allows us to perform studies that show the arterial system in the
body, but not the tissue around it. In many cases, the MRI system can do this without a contrast
injection, which is required in vascular radiology.
Basic Parts of MRI

¾Magnet
¾Chiller and Shield Cooler
¾Console and Computer
¾System Cabinet
¾RF System
¾Gradient System
¾Patient Table
¾RF Coils
¾Power Distribution Unit
¾Interface (Scan Room Unit or Penetration Panel)
¾Accessories
1.5 T MRI
Other than the basic MR Scanner system, there are few OEM products which we connect
To main system to make a complete product. These are :
1. UPS ( Un-interrupted
Power Supply ) which
provides continues
power to system.

2. Laser Camera which prints the hard

Dry Laser Wet Laser
copy of patient scan images in gray
Camera Camera
colors on plastic films. We have two
different type of Laser cameras : Dry
and Wet Laser cameras

3. Network Printer which 4. AFP ( Automatic Film Processor )

Prints the patient scan Which process and
images in colors on develop the scanned
Papers. films from Wet laser
cameras
MRI Timeline
1946 MR phenomenon - Bloch & Purcell
1952 Nobel Prize - Bloch & Purcell
1950
1960 NMR developed as analytical tool
1970
1972 Computerized Tomography
1973 Backprojection MRI - Lauterbur
1975 Fourier Imaging - Ernst
1977 Echo-planar imaging - Mansfield
1980 FT MRI demonstrated - Edelstein
Gradient Echo Imaging
1986 NMR Microscope
1987 MR Angiography - Dumoulin
1991 Nobel Prize - Ernst
1992 Functional MRI
1994 Hyperpolarized 129Xe Imaging
2003 Nobel Prize - Lauterbur & Mansfield
 CRYOGENS -- An Introduction

¾A cryogen is an extremely cold element or compound. Cryogen's

are liquefied gases which have boiling points below 222K or -238F
(source "Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety"). That
means at room temperature, and under normal conditions,
cryogen's will rapidly begin to boil and convert from a liquid to a gas.

¾We routinely handle two cryogenic liquids, helium and nitrogen.

Liquefied nitrogen has a boiling point, at atmospheric pressure, of
77K (- 320F). Liquefied helium has a boiling point of, at
atmospheric pressure, of 4.3K (-452F). At one atmosphere
pressure the liquid temperature is the same as the boiling point.

¾If not handled properly, cryogenic fluids can be hazardous to

personnel.
 CRYOGENS -- Safety and Handling

¾Cryogen's have physical properties which are not typical of the materials that are
found at room temperature and standard atmospheric pressure.

¾The cryogenic fluids used in Magnets, namely nitrogen and helium, have very low
critical temperatures, 126.3 K for nitrogen and 5.2 K for helium.

¾To eliminate high pressure releases of cryogenic vapors, containment systems with
special pressure- relief devices are used. They typically consist of pressure relief valves
and/ or breakable "Burst Disks" to allow over pressures to release safely.

¾The typical container used to store and handle cryogenic fluids is the dewar. The
dewar is designed with a vacuum jacket for insulation and pressure relief valves to
protect against over- pressurization.

¾Keep the dewar upright. Do not bump or drop the dewar from an elevation. This could
ruin the insulating properties of the dewar. Dewars that fall onto their side could rupture
if the inner vessel cracks and cryogenic material flows into the vacuum space between
the inner and outer vessels. The cryogen will contact the warm metal and boil rapidly,
greatly increasing the pressure in the dewar. Do not roll or slide or tilt a Dewar.

¾Use cryogen rated personal protective equipment when filling, venting, and
transferring dewars and cryogenic fluids.
 CRYOGENS -- Hazards and Protection

Hazards Caused by Air Condensation

There is always a chance that the air surrounding a cryogen containment system
can condense especially when transferring liquid nitrogen through uninsulated
metal pipes or relieving pressure in liquid helium dewars. Air condensation can
cause hazards to workers and equipment. These include the following:
•It can create a liquid condensate that falls on materials, particularly organic
materials, susceptible to cold embrittlement.
ƒIt can increase the oxygen concentration around a containment system,
which can increase the flammability of materials near the system. For
example, nitrogen, which has a lower boiling point than oxygen, will
evaporate first, leaving an oxygen enriched condensate on the surface.
•Clothing saturated with oxygen from air condensed by cryogenic fluids
readily ignites and will burn vigorously. Personnel in this situation should
immediately leave the area and avoid all ignition sources.

Based on air condensation effects, equipment containing cryogenic fluids must be

kept clear of combustible materials in order to minimize the fire hazard potential.
 CRYOGENS -- Hazards and Protection

Asphyxiation Hazard

Cryogen's will rapidly boil and convert from a liquid to a gas at room temperature. As the gas
warms to the temperature of the surrounding air, it expands. In confined or poorly ventilated
areas, the expanding gas will displace oxygen and can cause rapid asphyxiation or death.
Therefore, you should use caution when using liquid nitrogen and helium indoors. These
gases are colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
Workers cannot be inside a work space that contains less than 19.5% oxygen without
supplied air respiratory protection. Below this level, workers start to experience early
warning signs of oxygen deficiency.

Specifically between 15- 19% oxygen workers may feel:

•A loss of coordination and energy.
•An increase in pulse rate and breathing.
•A sense of euphoria and clumsiness.

At oxygen levels between 12- 14% the worker's:

•Breathing becomes much deeper and faster.
•Judgment becomes impaired.
•Physical coordination is deteriorated.
•Lips turn blue.

Usually at levels below 12% the worker will become unconscious and eventually die.
 CRYOGENS -- Hazards and Protection

Preventing Asphyxiation Hazards

When using cryogen's indoors, make sure the room is well ventilated and you have the cryogen
stored in proper containment systems. If cryogen's are used in enclosed or poorly ventilated work
areas, confined space entry procedures may be needed. If this is the case, the following work
practices should be followed:
•Never enter a confined space without a buddy.
•Determine the oxygen level inside the enclosed space before entry to make sure oxygen
levels are within the safe oxygen limits of 19.5- 23.5%. Air supplied respiratory protection
must be worn in any space with less than 19.5% oxygen. Self contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA) are located next to the Control Room for use by trained personnel.
•Areas suspected of being oxygen deficient due to the release of large quantities of
cryogenic vapors shall be evacuated immediately.
•If necessary, ventilate the work space with clean (breathable) air to establish oxygen
concentrations within the safe limits.
•Evaluate any other hazards inside the confined space such as flammable gasses, toxic
gases, electrical equipment, heat, cold, etc.
•Fill out and follow all control measures defined in the Confined Space Entry Permit, if they
apply to your situation. All personnel entering the confined space should be properly trained
according to the OSHA Confined Space Standard.
When working with cryogen's inside an enclosed area, you should continuously monitor the air
for oxygen concentrations. This will provide early warning to workers if oxygen levels fall below
safe levels.
 CRYOGENS -- Hazards and Protection
Skin and Eye Hazards
Never make direct contact with cryogenic liquids, uninsulated cryogenic pipes, or uninsulated
cryogenic equipment because contact can cause freeze burns and tissue damage. In addition,
a jet of cryogen vapors can freeze the skin or eyes faster than liquid contact, even faster than
metal contact.
The eyes contain fluids and are especially sensitive to cryogen exposure. These fluids will
freeze upon contact with a cryogen causing permanent eye damage. Exposure which does not
damage the skin may cause permanent eye damage.
Personal Protection
The precautions listed below should be followed to protect the eyes and skin from the hazards
associated with cryogen's.
•Insulate all containment system pipes.
•Use care when filling portable dewars.
•Always wear protective gloves over jewelry because if exposed to cryogenic fluids, the
ring can freeze to the finger.
•Protect your eyes by wearing safety goggles or a face shield whenever working with
cryogen fluids.
•Wear a cryogen apron when working with cryogen liquids.
•Always wear a face shield when working around pressurized cryogenic systems,
connecting or disconnecting cryogenic equipment lines, or when venting containment
systems.
•Wear insulated gloves whenever working around uninsulated pipes or handling dewars.
Try to cover all exposed skin by wearing long sleeve shirts, cuffless pants, safety boots, and
gloves. Gloves should be loose- fitting so that they can be quickly removed if cryogenic fluids
are spilled on them.
 CRYOGENS -- Hazards and Protection
First Aid Procedures for Contact
Any time cryogen's come in contact with your skin, you should obtain medical assistance as soon as
possible.
Immediately after exposure, the frozen skin appears waxy and yellow and usually is not painful to the
worker. As the skin thaws, it painfully swells and blisters. When this occurs, immediate emergency
treatment is required. While waiting for medical assistance, follow these first aid procedures:
•Remove the victim from the cryogen hazard.
•Remove any clothing that may interfere with the circulation of blood to the frozen tissues. The
clothing must be removed in a slow, careful manner to prevent salvageable skin from being
pulled off.
•Do not rub the affect areas of skin. Rubbing may further damage the tissue.
•Immerse the effected area in a warm water bath (approx. 105ƒF). Do not apply dry heat, such
as electric heaters, because it may superimpose a thermal burn, further damaging injured
tissue.
•If the worker has experienced a massive exposure such that overall body temperature is
reduced, the worker should be wrapped in blankets until paramedics arrive. In cases of extreme
exposure, the worker should be totally immersed in warm water. Treatment for shock may be
necessary.
•The rewarming, or thawing, of affected area( s) should be done gradually. It may take up to 60
minutes to thaw the affected area( s) and bring back the natural colors of the skin.
•If the frozen tissue thaws before medical help arrives, cover the area with dry sterile dressings
and large bulky protective clothing. Do not apply ointments.
•Do not allow the exposed worker to drink alcohol or smoke. Alcohol and nicotine decrease
blood flow to the frozen tissues. You may give the effected worker warm drinks and food.
•Try to make the worker feel as comfortable as possible.
Any accident must be reported immediately to supervisor and/or manager. Obtain medical attention if
appropriate.
Superconducting Magnet Safety

• Keep people with pacemakers and large metallic implants out of the nmr room.
• Keep magnetic tools, mops, compressed gas tanks, carts, etc. away from the
magnet. Be careful handling anything magnetic near the magnet.
• Protect your credit cards: keep wallets and purses at least ten feet away from
the magnet.
• Protect wristwatches, especially analog watches: you may want to remove your
watch before approaching the magnet.
• If a magnet quench occurs (accompanied by a loud whooshing sound and
massive amounts of vapor clouds), evacuate the room. A suffocating
atmosphere, displacing oxygen is present.
• Be careful of what’s in your pockets and what you are carrying. Sharp magnetic
objects (scissors) can be rapidly torn from a pocket and possibly impale you.
Magnetic disks with data can be erased.
Use of Non-Magnetic Tools is preferred.
Superconductivity - Background
Superconductivity was first discovered in 1911 by the Dutch physicist,Heike
Kammerlingh Onnes. Onnes dedicated his scientific career to exploring extremely cold
refrigeration. On July 10, 1908, he successfully liquified helium by cooling it to 452
degrees below zero Fahrenheit (4 Kelvin or 4 K). Onnes produced only a few milliliters of
liquid helium that day, but this was to be the new beginnings of his explorations in
temperature regions previously unreachable. Liquid helium enabled him to cool other
materials closer to absolute zero (0 Kelvin), the coldest temperature imaginable.
Absolute zero is the temperature at which the energy of material becomes as small as
possible.
In 1911, Onnes began to investigate the electrical properties of metals in extremely cold
temperatures. It had been known for many years that the resistance of metals fell when cooled
below room temperature, but it was not known what limiting value the resistance would approach,
if the temperature were reduced to very close to 0 K. Some scientists, such as William Kelvin,
believed that electrons flowing through a conductor would come to a complete halt as the
temperature approached absolute zero. Other scientists, including Onnes, felt that a cold wire's
resistance would dissipate. This suggested that there would be a steady decrease in electrical
resistance, allowing for better conduction of electricity. At some very low temperature point,
scientists felt that there would be a leveling off as the resistance reached some ill-defined
minimum value allowing the current to flow with little or no resistance.Onnes passed a current
through a very pure mercury wire and measured its resistance as he steadily lowered the
temperature. Much to his surprise there was no leveling off of resistance, let alone the stopping of
electrons as suggested by Kelvin. At 4.2 K the resistance suddenly vanished. Current was flowing
through the mercury wire and nothing was stopping it, the resistance was zero.
Superconductivity is a phenomenon observed in several metals and ceramic
materials. When these materials are cooled to temperatures ranging from near
absolute zero (-459 degrees Fahrenheit, 0 degrees Kelvin, -273 degrees Celsius) to
liquid nitrogen temperatures (-321 F, 77 K, -196 C), they have no electrical resistance.
The temperature at which electrical resistance is zero is called the critical
temperature (Tc) and varies with the individual material. For practical purposes,
critical temperatures are achieved by cooling materials with either liquid helium or
liquid nitrogen. The following table shows the critical temperatures of various
superconductors:

Material Type Tc(K)

Zinc metal 0.88
Aluminum metal 1.19
Tin metal 3.72
Mercury metal 4.15
YBa2Cu3O7 ceramic 90
TlBaCaCuO ceramic 125
Technological applications of superconductivity

There have been many technological innovations based on

superconductivity. Superconductors are used to make the most powerful
electromagnets known to man, including those used in MRI machines
and the beam-steering magnets used in particle accelerators. Another
application is for magnetic separation where weakly magnetic particles
are extracted from a background of less or non-magnetic particles (used
in a large scale in pigment industries). Superconductors have also been
used to make digital circuits (e.g. based on the Rapid Single Flux
Quantum technology) and microwave filters for mobile phone base
stations.
Superconductors are used to build Josephson junctions which are the building
blocks of SQUIDs (superconducting quantum interference devices), the most
sensitive magnetometers known. Series of Josephson devices are used to define
the SI volt. Depending on the particular mode of operation, a Josephson junction
can be used as photon detector or as mixer. The large resistance change at the
transition from the normal- to the superconducting state is used to build
thermometers in cryogenic micro-calorimeter photon detectors.
Magnets in MRI

A permanent magnet is just that -- permanent.

Its magnetic field is always there and always on
full strength, so it costs nothing to maintain the
field. The major drawback is that these magnets
are extremely heavy: They weigh many, many
tons at the 0.4-tesla level. A stronger field would
require a magnet so heavy it would be difficult to
construct. Permanent magnets are getting
smaller, but are still limited to low field strengths.
Magnets in MRI

Resistive Magnets are basic electromagnets by

design. They have a coil of a conducting material
(copper) around a core. Heavy current, when passed
thru this coil will produce a magnetic field in its core.
They are also heavy and are available in low fields
only. They produce a lot of heat and a water chiller is
needed to cool these.
Magnets in MRI

Superconducting magnets are by far the most commonly used.

A superconducting magnet is somewhat similar to a resistive
magnet -- coils or windings of wire through which a current of
electricity is passed create the magnetic field. The important
difference is that the wire is continually bathed in liquid helium at
452.4 degrees below zero. Yes, when you are inside the MRI
machine, you are surrounded by a substance that is that cold! But
don't worry, it is very well insulated by a vacuum in a manner
identical to that used in a vacuum flask. This almost unimaginable
cold causes the resistance in the wire to drop to zero, reducing
the electrical requirement for the system dramatically and making
it much more economical to operate. Superconductive systems
are still very expensive, but they can easily generate 0.5-tesla to
3.0-tesla fields, allowing for much higher-quality imaging
 Magnets in MRI

In a hybrid magnet system, resistive and superconducting

magnet technologies are combined – taking advantage of the
strengths of each. The superconducting magnet takes the place of
the outer portion of the resistive coil, where it is exposed to fields
below its limit. The resistive portion operates as an insert to the
superconducting magnet and produces that portion of the field
beyond the limit of the superconducting magnet (which can be a
large fraction of the total field produced). Reducing the
requirement for field from the resistive magnet reduces the
requirement for power and cooling. A hybrid magnet system is
generally the most economical way to achieve the highest steady
magnetic fields. They are not currently used in commercial MRI
systems.
 Magnets in MRI
The magnet used to create the constant external magnetic field is the largest
piece of any MRI system. To be useful, the magnet must be able to produce
a stable magnetic field that penetrates throughout a certain volume, or slice,
of the body. There are three different kinds of magnets available. A resistive
magnet is made up of thin aluminum bands wrapped in a loop. When
electricity is conducted around the loop a magnetic field is created
perpendicular to the loop. As electricity is conducted around the loop, the
resistance of the loop generates heat, which must be dissipated by a cooling
system.
Superconducting magnets do not have the same problems and limitations of
the resistive type of magnet. Superconducting magnets are ring magnets,
made out of a niobium-titanium alloy in a copper matrix, which are
supercooled with liquid helium. At these low temperatures, there is almost no
resistance, so very low levels of electricity are needed. This magnet is less
expensive to run than the resistive type, and larger field strengths can be
generated. The other type of magnet used is a permanent magnet. It is
constructed out of a ferromagnetic material, is quite large, and does not
require electricity to run. It also provides more flexibility in the design of the
MRI system. However, the stability of the magnetic field the permanent
magnet generates is questionable, and its size and weight may be
prohibitive.
 Magnets in MRI

First generation Superconducting magnets were very bulky and very

heavy. They did not have any proper cooling mechanism for liquid
helium, instead they used liquid Nitrogen jacket and chilled water
jacket for that purpose. Boil-off rate of Helium was very high,
increasing the running cost. Current generation of Supercon
magnets are lighter, have smaller footprints. They also come with
larger bore diameter. Helium boil-off rate has also come down
drastically to almost zero. These virtues, combined with today’s ever-
evolving computer technology, have resulted in very powerful MRI
systems, which boast of performing the tasks, unthinkable few years
back!!!
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical device that uses a

magnetic field and the natural resonance of atoms in the body to obtain
images of human tissues. The basic device was first developed in 1945,
and the technology has steadily improved since. With the introduction of
high-powered computers, MRI has become an important diagnostic
device. It is noninvasive and is capable of taking pictures of both soft and
hard tissues, unlike other medical imaging tools. MRI is primarily used to
examine the internal organs for abnormalities such as tumors or chemical
imbalances.
History
The development of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) began with discoveries in nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) in the early 1900s. At this time, scientists had just started to figure out the structure
of the atom and the nature of visible light and ultraviolet radiation emitted by certain substances. The
magnetic properties of an atom's nucleus, which is the basis for NMR, were demonstrated by
Wolfgang Pauli in 1924.
The first basic NMR device was developed by I. I. Rabi in 1938. This device was able to provide data
related to the magnetic properties of certain substances. However, it suffered from two major
limitations. Firstly, the device could analyze only gaseous materials, and secondly, it could only
provide indirect measurements of these materials. These limitations were overcome in 1945, when
two groups of scientists led by Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell independently developed improved
NMR devices. These new devices proved useful to many researchers, allowing them to collect data
on many different types of systems. After further technological improvements, scientists were able to
use this technology to investigate biological tissues in the mid 1960s.
The use of NMR in medicine soon followed. The earliest experiments showed that NMR could
distinguish between normal and cancerous tissue. Later experiments showed that many different
body tissues could be distinguished by NMR scans. In 1973, an imaging method using NMR data
and computer calculations of tomography was developed. It provided the first magnetic resonance
image (MRI). This method was consequently used to examine a mouse and, while the testing time
required was more than an hour, an image of the internal organs of the mouse resulted. Human
imaging followed a few years later. Various technological improvements have been made since to
reduce the scanning time required and improve the resolution of the images. Most notable
improvements have been made in the three-dimensional application of MRI.
Background
The basic stages of an MRI reading are simple. First the patient is placed in a strong constant magnetic
field and is surrounded by several coils. Radiofrequency (RF) radiation is then applied to the system,
causing certain atoms within the patient to resonate. When the RF radiation is turned off, the atoms
continue to resonate. Eventually, the resonating atoms return to their natural state and, in doing so,
emit a radiofrequency radiation that is an NMR signal. The signal is then processed through a computer
and converted into a visual image of patient.
The NMR signals that are emitted from the body's cells are primarily produced by the cells' protons.
Early MR images were constructed based solely on the concentration of protons within a given tissue.
These images, however, did not provide good resolution. MRI became much more useful for
constructing an internal image of the body when a phenomena known as relaxation time, the time it
takes for the protons to emit their signal, was taken into consideration. In all body tissues, there are two
types of relaxation times, T1 and T2, that can be detected. Different types of tissues will exhibit different
T1 and T2 values. For example, the gray matter in the brain has a different T1 and T2 value than blood.
Using these three variables (proton density, T1, and T2 value), a highly resolved image can be
constructed.
MRI is most used for creating images of the human brain. It is particularly useful for this area because it
can distinguish between soft tissue and lesions. In addition to structural information, MRI allows brain
functional imaging. Functional imaging is possible because when an area of the brain is active, blood
flow to that region increases. When the scans are taken with sufficient speed, in fact, blood can be
seen moving through organs. Another application for MRI is muscular skeletal imaging. Injuries to
ligaments and cartilage in the joints of the knees, wrists, and shoulder can be readily seen with MRI.
This eliminates the need for traditional invasive surgeries. A developing use for MRI is tracking
chemicals through the body. In these scans NMR signals from molecules such as carbon 13 and
phosphorus 31 are received and interpreted.
Raw Materials
The primary functioning parts of an MRI system include an external magnet, gradient coils, RF equipment, and a computer. Other
components include an RF shield, a power supply, NMR probe, display unit, and a refrigeration unit.
The magnet used to create the constant external magnetic field is the largest piece of any MRI system. To be useful, the magnet
must be able to produce a stable magnetic field that penetrates throughout a certain volume, or slice, of the body. There are three
different kinds of magnets available. A resistive magnet is made up of thin aluminum bands wrapped in a loop. When electricity is
conducted around the loop a magnetic field is created perpendicular to the loop. In an MRI system, four resistive magnets are placed
perpendicular to each other to produce a consistent magnetic field. As electricity is conducted around the loop, the resistance of the
loop generates heat, which must be dissipated by a cooling system.
Superconducting magnets do not have the same problems and limitations of the resistive type of magnet. Superconducting magnets
are ring magnets, made out of a niobium-titanium alloy in a copper matrix, which are supercooled with liquid helium and liquid
nitrogen. At these low temperatures, there is almost no resistance, so very low levels of electricity are needed. This magnet is less
expensive to run than the resistive type, and larger field strengths can be generated. The other type of magnet used is a permanent
magnet. It is constructed out of a ferromagnetic material, is quite large, and does not require electricity to run. It also provides more
flexibility in the design of the MRI system. However, the stability of the magnetic field the permanent magnet generates is
questionable, and its size and weight may be prohibitive. While each of these different kind of magnets can produce magnetic fields
with varying strength, an optimum field strength has not been discovered.
To provide a method for decoding the NMR signal that is received from a sample, magnetic field gradients are used. Typically, three
sets of gradient coils are used to provide data in each of the three dimensions. Like the primary magnets, these coils are made of a
conducting loop that creates a magnetic field. In the MRI system, they are wrapped around the cylinder that surrounds the patient.
The RF system has various roles in an MRI machine. First, it is responsible for transmitting the RF radiation that induces the atoms
to emit a signal. Next, it receives the emitted signal and amplifies it so it can be manipulated by the computer. RF coils are the
primary pieces of hardware in the RF system. They are constructed to create an oscillating magnetic field. This field induces atoms
in a defined area to absorb RF radiation and then emit a signal. In addition to sending the RF signal, the coils can also receive the
signal from the patient. Depending on the type of MRI system, either a saddle RF coil or a solenoid RF coil is used. The coil is
usually positioned alongside the subject and is designed to fit the patient. To reduce RF interferences, an aluminum sheet is used.
The final link in the MRI system is a computer, which controls the signals sent and processes and stores the signals received. Before
the received signal can be analyzed by the computer, it is translated through an analog-digital convertor. When the computer
receives signals, it performs various reconstruction algorithms, creating a matrix of numbers that are suitable for storage and
building a visual display using a Fourier transformer.
 Evolution
MRI technology has been evolving since beginning. Major changes have been there in
various technologies and soft wares. Superconducting magnets have been no
exception.
First Generation magnets (early 1980s) were simple vessels of Helium, placed in
another vessel, filled with liquid Nitrogen. This was further surrounded by a continuous
supply of Chilled water. They did not have any Cryo-cooler mechanism of cooling
Helium, hence boil-off was high. Running cost of such magnets was high.
Later improvements in technology (1985-1990) helped to avoid using Liquid Nitrogen.
Instead Cryo-coolers were used for cooling. These still used chilled water to take away
heat from the shield cooler.
Apart from the changes in cooling system, these magnets remained same
characteristically. They were bulky and heavy (12 tons to 15 tons or more!) and suffered
from low homogeneity of magnetic field. Smaller bores were there to overcome this.
They used thick layers of steel on external surface to contain external magnetic field.
Next decade saw further improvements in the technology front. Active Shield Magnets
made their entry. These magnets used another coil (bucking coil) to contain external
magnetic field. Thus steel layers were not used and the magnets became much lighter
(5-7 tons) Cryo-cooler ColdHead technology also improved, which reduce Helium Boil-
off. Another important change was to use Super-con Shim coils, which improved
Magnetic field Homogeneity. Significant improvements in Image quality resulted. Also
new applications were made possible with more homogenous field.
 Evolution
MRI technology continued to improve. This time it was cryo-cooler technology which
saw a sea change. New systems were designed and the result was to get to almost zero
boil-off system. K4 (4 Kelvin) temperatures were attained in small chamber and gaseous
Helium was recondensed to Liquid.
Water Chillers were still used for the second stage of Cryo-cooler cycle. Next step was
to eliminate the water chillers and all the mess and problems that they created.
Efficient air-cooled units were designed, which replaced water chillers, still maintaining
that zero boil-off.
All these improvements were directed towards improving Ergonomics, Economics,
Efficiency and Performance.
In last 20 odd years Magnets have become smaller and Lighter. They consume much
less Helium. The inside bore of the Magnets has become bigger and the magnetic field
has become much more homogenous.
All these combined with major advances in Software and Hardware have improved
Image Quality significantly and Newer applications have been made possible. Today’s
MR system can do, what was even beyond imagination, a decade back!!!!
-To protect the helium vessel from any heat, there are two thermal
intercept shields placed around it.
-Both of these thermal shields are tied back to the cold head sleeve.
Their main purpose is to keep heat from getting to the helium vessel.
The next slide will show the cold head sleeve connection to the
thermal intercepts
-It allows the cold heat to be connected to the two thermal intercept
shields via copper brads.
-Once everything is in their correct place, and the outer magnet
vessel is welded shut, a vacuum is pulled. Another words, the inner
works of the magnet is very similar to a thermos bottle. The vacuum
area will reduce the heat from transferring to the thermal shields.
-If there is a sudden loss of vacuum, it is very difficult to get it back,
and it will never be the same as when it was manufactured.
 Cryogenic Refrigeration Systems

•Refrigeration Systems Theory

– Gifford-McMahon refrigeration cycle
•Shield Cooler Systems
– Balzers
– Leybold
– Sumitomo

-There are two different compressor units. Air cooled unit, and
second is water cooled units.
-The refrigeration system consists of a high speed oil lubricated compressor and a low speed dry lubricated
reciprocating expander, and two interconnecting gas lines.
-The expander uses a small motor to move the displacer and to operate the valves in the expander head.
-The presence of valves in both the compressor and the expander isolates them from one another and allows them to
operate at different speeds.
-This arrangement allows the interconnecting lines to be of almost any desired length, since their volumes are
effectively isolated from the thermodynamically active volumes in the system.
-The cycle may be described by tracing the flow of gas from the compressor (C) through the interconnecting lines and
the regenerator (R) to the expansion space (E).
-Phase A (1 to 2): with the exhaust valve (V2) closed, and the displacer moving away from the cold end, the inlet valve
(V1) is opened allowing the gas pressure to rise from P(min) toward P(max). While the displacer moves away from the
cold end, high pressure helium gas is moved from the warm end volume, through the regenerator matrix (R) to
expansion space (E), being cooled from 300K to 77K as the regenerator matrix absorbs heat from the gas.
-Phase B (2 to 3): the inlet valve (V1) is closed as the displacer nears the top of its stroke (warm end), and the exhaust
valve (V2) is opened as the displacer starts back towards the cold end. The pressure falls from P(max) to P(min).
-Phase C (3 to 4): as the displacer continues towards the cold end, the gas in the expansion space (E) and in the
regenerator matrix (R) continues to expand as the pressure falls towards P(min). It is this expansion process which
produces useful refrigeration and maintains the temperature gradient over the length of the first stage displacer. The
expanding gas flows back through the regenerator matrix (R) and returns to the compressor, thus completing the cycle.
-Phase 4 (3 to 4): the exhaust valve (V2) is closed as the displacer nears the bottom of its stroke (cold end).
-The cycle then repeats. Note that the entire volume of helium contained in the cylinder is not changed with each
stroke.
Cold Head
Cold Head
Cold Head
Cold Head
Change in Image Quality with time ….

Bees saal pahle And ……….. NOW

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF
MRI
BAND HETEROTOPIA
SUBEPENDYMAL HETEROTOPIA
FOCAL CORTICAL
DYSPLASIA
SCHIZENCEPHALY
LISSENCEPHALY
STURGE WEBER SYNDROME
ADRENOLEUKODYSTOPHY
ARACHNOID CYST
 CHIARI II
MALFORMATION
CALLOSAL HYPOPLASIA
WITH LIPOMA
TUBEROUS SCLEROSIS
SEIZURE PROTOCOL
(NORMAL)
SEIZURE PROTOCOL
(NORMAL)
 RIGHT
MESIAL
TEMPORAL
SCLEROSIS

MRS (right side) MRS (left side)

 RIGHT
MESIAL
TEMPORAL
SCLEROSIS
BILATERAL MESIAL
TEMPORAL SCLEROSIS
NEUROCYSTICERCOSIS
NEUROCYSTICERCOSIS
TUBERCULOMA
TUBERCULAR
ENCEPHALITIS
 HERPES
ENCEPHALITIS

POST HERPES SIMPLEX

ENCEPHALOMALACIA
CAVERNOUS
ANGIOMA
CAVERNOUS
ANGIOMA
VENOUS ANGIOMA
AV MALFORMATION
AV MALFORMATION
INFARCT
MENINGIOMA
SUBFRONTAL
EPIDERMOID
GLIOMA
 PNET

DNET
 ASTROCYTOMA

LYMPHOMA
METASTASIS
Giant pituitary adenoma
 Neurofibromatosis II

Acoustic schwannoma Hamartoma Left cavernous sinus mass

Neurofibromatosis II
Parapharyngeal space
GBM
Meningioma
Spine
Sjogren’s Syndrome
CA TONGUE
Carcinoma Nasopharynx
 Ectopic thyroid
Base of tongue Destroying hyoid bone-
Malignancy in ectopic thyroid
Thyroid carcinoma
Orbital Hemangioma

Post Contrast
 Orbital Lymphoma
Post Contrast T1 weighted images Axial T2- weighted images
Orbital pseudotumor
Optic glioma
Optic neuritis
Orbital Cysticercus
Graves Opthalmopathy
Aneurysmal Bone Cyst- Temporal Bone
MRA of Calf
MRA of Pulmonary Arteries
Cardiac MRI
MRCP
 Ca
Pancreas
Periampullary Carcinoma
Chronic Pancreatitis
Endometriosis
Prostate
Bladder carcinoma
Breast- Invasive carcinoma

precontrast postcontrast
Carcinoma with bloody nipple discharge

precontrast postcontrast
Implant rupture
Thank you