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UNIT 1
Introduction: Network Types, LAN, MAN, WAN, Network Topologies Reference modelsThe
OSI Reference Model- the TCP/IP Reference Model - A Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP
Reference Models, OSI Vs TCP/IP, Lack of OSI models success, Internet History.
Physical Layer –Introduction to Guided Media- Twisted-pair cable, Coaxial cable and Fiber
optic cable and unguided media: Wireless-Radio waves, microwaves, infrared.

Introduction:
 A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that
are linked together.
 A network connection can be established using either cable or wireless
media.
 A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other
through a transmission medium such as wires, cables etc. These devices can
be computers, printers, scanners, Fax machines etc.
 The purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data stored
in other devices over the network. These devices are often referred as nodes.
 Computer Networks are mainly used where there is a need for resource
sharing and communication.
Components:
A data communications system has five components.

 Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated.

Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and
video.
 Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
 Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
 Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by
which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of

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transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic

cable, and radio waves
 Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
Uses Of Computer Network
o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as
programs, printers, and data among the users on the network without the
requirement of the physical location of the resource and user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client
model. A server is a central computer used to store the information and
maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the machines used to
access the information stored in the server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication
medium among the users. For example, a company contains more than one
computer has an email system which the employees use for daily
communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do
the business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their
business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the
internet.

Types of Networks
Division based on the communication medium
 Wired Network: As we all know, “wired” refers to any physical medium
made up of cables. Copper wire, twisted pair, or fiber optic cables are all
options. A wired network employs wires to link devices to the Internet or
another network, such as laptops or desktop PCs.
 Wireless Network: “Wireless” means without wire, media that is made up
of electromagnetic waves (EM Waves) or infrared waves. Antennas or sensors
will be present on all wireless devices. Cellular phones, wireless sensors, TV
remotes, satellite disc receivers, and laptops with WLAN cards are all
examples of wireless devices.
Division based on area covered
 Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is a network that covers an area of
around 10 kilometers. For example, a college network or an office network.
Depending upon the needs of the organization, a LAN can be a single office,
building, or Campus. We can have two PCs and one printer in-home office or it

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can extend throughout a company and include audio and video devices. Each
host in LAN has an identifier, an address that defines hists in LAN. A packet
sent by the host to another host carries both the source host’s and the
destination host’s address.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN refers to a network that
covers an entire city. For example: consider the cable television network.
 Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN refers to a network that connects
countries or continents. For example, the Internet allows users to access a
distributed system called www from anywhere around the globe.WAN
interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems. A
LAN is normally privately owned by an organization that uses it. We see two
distinct examples of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and Switched WANs
Point To Point: Connects two connecting devices through transmission
media.
Switched: A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends.
Based on types of communication
 Point To Point networks: Point-to-Point networking is a type of data
networking that establishes a direct link between two networking nodes.
A direct link between two devices, such as a computer and a printer, is known
as a point-to-point connection.
 Multipoint: is the one in which more than two specific devices share links.
In the multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spartailly or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is
a spatially shared connection.
 Broadcast networks: In broadcast networks, a signal method in which
numerous parties can hear a single sender. Radio stations are an excellent
illustration of the “Broadcast Network” in everyday life. The radio station is a
sender of data/signal in this scenario, and data is only intended to travel in one
direction. Away from the radio transmission tower, to be precise.
Computer Network Types:

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is

mainly of four types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

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o PAN(Personal Area Network)

o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

PAN (Personal Area Network)

 Network organized by the individual user for its personal use.
 It generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant.
PAN can be used for establishing communication among these personal
devices for connecting to a digital network and the
internet.

Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:


PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area
Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.

LAN (Local Area Network)

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A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices

which are connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office
building. It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers,
games, and other application.
 Group of interconnected computers within a small area. (room,
building,campus)
 Two or more pc's can from a LAN to share files, folders, printers,
applications and other devices.
 Coaxial or CAT 5 cables are normally used for connections.
 Due to short distances, errors and noise are minimum.
 Data transfer rate is 10 to 100 mbps.
 Example: A computer lab in a school.

Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:

 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more
secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the
initial cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does
not offer good privacy.
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 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN

admin is not able to secure centralized data repository.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network
across an entire city, college campus, or a small region.
 Design to extend over a large area.
 Connecting number of LAN's to form larger network, so that resources can
beshared.
 Networks can be up to 5 to 50 km.
 Owned by organization or individual.
 Data transfer rate is low compare to LAN.
 Example: Organization with different branches located in the city.

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:


It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic
cables.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.
Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to
another.

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 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is
spread across a large geographical area. WAN network system could be a
connection of a LAN which connects with other LAN’s using telephone lines and
radio waves.
 Are country and worldwide network.
 Contains multiple LAN's and MAN's.
 Distinguished in terms of geographical range.
 Uses satellites and microwave relays.
 Data transfer rate depends upon the ISP provider and varies over the
location.
 Best example is the internet.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:


WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business
offices situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming
consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into
client devices.
Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

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 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians

and network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use
of different technologies.

Network Topology :

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement,
connecting various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.
In computer networks, a topology is used to explain how a network is
physically connected and the logical flow of information in the network. A
topology mainly describes how devices are connected and interact with each
other using communication links.

In computer networks, there are mainly two types of topologies, they are:

1. Physical Topology: A physical topology describes the way in which the

computers or nodes are connected with each other in a computer network.
It is the arrangement of various elements(link, nodes, etc.), including the
device location and code installation of a computer network.
2. Logical Topology: A logical topology describes the way, data flow from
one computer to another. It is bound to a network protocol and defines how
data is moved throughout the network and which path it takes

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Network topology defines the layout, virtual shape, or structure of the

network, not only physically but also logically. A network can have one
physical topology and multiple logical topologies at the same time.

In a computer network, there are mainly six types of physical topology, they
are:

1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5. Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is
called Linear Bus topology
Bus topology is the simplest kind of topology in which a common bus or
channel is used for communication in the network. The bus is connected to
various taps and droplines. Taps are the connectors, while droplines are the
cables connecting the bus with the computer. In other words, there is only a
single transmission line for all nodes.

Features of Bus Topology

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1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours
for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the
ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99
nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used
in the network.

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2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by

having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring
Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in
opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as
a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted,
has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more

nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

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3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1.
Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2.
Hub can be upgraded easily.
3.
Easy to troubleshoot.
4.
Easy to setup and modify.
5.
Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which
computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts
as a central point of communication.
o Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like
routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance.
Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those
node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing
logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data.
But it leads to unwanted load over the network.

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Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are

connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only
connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to
each other.
Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is
also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the
hierarchy.

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Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies.
For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another
star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology
(ring topology and star topology).

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Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.

ISO-OSI Reference Model:

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software application
in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.

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o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.
o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer
is closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact
with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above
another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The
data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and
software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is
closest to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for
placing the information on the physical medium.

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers are given below:
o Physical Layer
o Data-Link Layer

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o Network Layer
o Transport Layer
o Session Layer
o Presentation Layer
o Application Layer

1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless
connection between network nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical
cable or wireless technology connecting the devices, and is responsible for
transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while
taking care of bit rate control.

2. Data Link Layer

The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between
two physically-connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames
and sends them from source to destination. This layer is composed of two
parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols,
performs error checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control
(MAC) which uses MAC addresses to connect devices and define permissions
to transmit and receive data.

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3. Network Layer
The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up
segments into network packets, and reassembling the packets on the
receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering the best path across
a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically
Internet Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.

4. Transport Layer
The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and
breaks it into “segments” on the transmitting end. It is responsible for
reassembling the segments on the receiving end, turning it back into data that
can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control,
sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving
device, and error control, checking if data was received incorrectly and if not,
requesting it again.

5. Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions,
between devices. It is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain
open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing them when
communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints during a data
transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from
the last checkpoint.

6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It
defines how two devices should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is
received correctly on the other end. The presentation layer takes any data
transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over the
session layer.

7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web
browsers and email clients. It provides protocols that allow software to send
and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A few examples
of application layer protocols are the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name System (DNS).
(Or )
1. Physical Layer:
o The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
o It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
o The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
o It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it
into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the

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frame back together.

The functions of the physical layer are:
1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of
the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the number of bits sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh
topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data
flows between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
2. Data Link Layer (DLL):
The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one
node to another, over the physical layer.
When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to
the Host using its MAC address.
It transmits the data in the form of FRAMES.
The functions of the data link layer are:
1. Physical Adressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each
frame.
2. Flow control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data
may get corrupted thus , flow control coordinates that amount of data that
can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control
in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :
Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of
the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network layer.
The functions of the Network layer are :
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable
from source to destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork
uniquely, network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender &

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receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network layer. Such an

address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :
Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is
responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message. The transport
layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and
re-transmits the data if an error is found.
The functions of the transport layer are :
1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer , breaks the message into smaller units . Each of the segment
produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the destination
station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct
process, transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, transport layer makes
sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
The services provided by the transport layer:
1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include
– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgement,
back to the source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge
receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :
This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, authentication and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows
the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization : This layer adds some checkpoints while transmissiting
the data in a sequence.If error occurs in the middle of the transmission of
data,then the transmission will take place again from checkpoint.This is
known as synchronization & recovery.

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Ex: If we want to send 2000 pages of data.We add checkpoint for every 100
pages.If the error occurs in 523 page, then we resend from 501-523 pages.
3. Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :
Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
Translation :
 The processes in two systems exchange the data in the form of character
strings, numbers & so on.
 Different computers use different encoding methods.
 This layer converts data from sender-dependent format into a common
format & changes the common format into a receiver-dependent format for
the receiving end.
For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
1. Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as
well as decrypting data.
2. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on
the network.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications
produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network. This layer also
serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

 The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
 The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP

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model by a single layer called the application layer.

TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It

was developed by the DoD (Department of Defence) in the 1960s. It is named
after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely, TCP and IP. TCP
stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.
The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −
 Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the
physical transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any
protocol here but supports all the standard protocols.
 Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data
over the network. The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and
it is supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
 Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of
data. The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
 Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of
host programs with the transport layer services. This layer includes all high-
level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.

The Network Interface Layer

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The Host-to-network layer or Network Interface Layer or network access

o
layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP reference model.
o It combines the link layer and the physical layer of the ISO/OSI model. At
this layer, data is transferred between adjacent network nodes in a WAN or
between nodes on the same LAN.
o It helps you to defines details of how data should be sent using the network.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram
into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into
physical addresses.
o It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices
which directly interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical,
coaxial, fiber, or twisted-pair cables.
Internet Layer
o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.
o The network layer, also called the internet layer, deals with packets and
connects independent networks to transport the packets across network
boundaries. The network layer protocols are the IP and the Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP), which is used for error reporting.
o Internetworking protocol(IP):
1. It is an unreliable connectionless protocol used by TCP/IP Model.
2. This protocol is used for data transmission.
3. This protocol doesn’t do error checking or tracking of data, thus we
cannot be sure that the data is actually reached its destination. This is why it
is also known as best effort delivery service which means this protocol tries
it best to send the data to its destination but doesn’t take an guarantee.
The four protocol this Internetworking protocol(IP) uses:

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

ARP finds the physical address by using the IP address. In a network, each
device is known as physical address usually imprinted on Network interface
card (NIC).ARP protocol is used to find the physical address of a device whose
internet address (IP address) is known.

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Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

RARP protocol helps to find the internet address of a device whose physical
address is known.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
IP in network layer sends data in form of small packets known as datagrams.
ICMP protocol sends the datagrams problems back to sender. It is used for
query and error reporting messages.
Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)
This protocol is used for simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of
recipients.
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of
data which is being sent over the network.
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
1. UDP is a process to process protocol used for data transmission.
2. It takes the data from upper layer of TCP/IP Model and adds following
information to the data:
a) Port Address – Source port address of 16 bits and destination port address of 16
bits added to the data so that it reaches to correct destination and displays the
correct source of data.
b) checksum error control – 16 bits of checksum data is added to the data
received from upper layer, this is used for error control.
c) length of data – Length defines the total bytes of data in datagram.
3. Although this protocol finds the error in the transmission of data, it doesn’t
specify the error which makes it hard to identify the actual error in transmission.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
1. Unlike UDP which is a connectionless protocol, the TCP is a connection
oriented protocol.
2. A connection must be made between sender and receiver before the
transmission of data.
3. TCP protocol divides the data in small units called segments. Each segment
contains the sequence number which makes it possible to rearrange the
segments in correct order at the receiver side to make the complete data.
4. It also adds acknowledgement number to the segments to verify that the data
is actually reached its destination or not.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
1. This protocol combines the best features of TCP and UDP protocols.

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Application Layer
1.This is the top most layer of TCP/IP model.
2. It is used for interaction between user and application.
3. There are several protocols used by the application layer for user interaction
such as: HTTP, SNMP, SMTP, DNS, TELNET, FTP etc.
HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol, it allows the user to
interact with world wide web through the browser application. HTTP can be used
to transfer various types of data such as plain text, audio, video etc.
FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This protocol is used for
transmitting files from one system to another system.
TELNET: TELNET is a client-server protocol. It is a reliable connection oriented
protocol. This protocol is used on internet or on LAN to provide a bidirectional
(both ways) text based communication through a virtual terminal connection.
DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. Each computer on a network has
different IP address, a computer is known by its IP address. DNS provides a
mapping to a name to the IP Address so a name can be used to identify a system on
network rather than IP address itself.
SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It managers the
devices connected to the internet using TCP/IP protocol.
SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. It is used for email
services, using this protocol a email containing data can be sent to another email
address.
The advantages of using the TCP/IP model include the following:
 helps establish a connection between different types of computers;
 works independently of the OS;
 supports many routing protocols;
 uses client-server architecture that is highly scalable;
 can be operated independently;
 supports several routing protocols
The disadvantages of TCP/IP include the following:
 is complicated to set up and manage;
 transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets;
 is not easy to replace protocols in TCP/IP;
 It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and protocols.
 Differences between OSI and TCP/IP models

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
Difference between OSI and TCP/IP model
 Here, are some important differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model:
S.No OSI / ISO
1 It is developed by ISO (International
Standard Organization)
2 OSI model provides a clear distinction
between interfaces, services, and protocols.
3 OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.
4 OSI uses the network layer to define routing
standards and protocols.
5 OSI follows a vertical approach.
6 OSI layers have seven layers.
7 In the OSI model, the transport layer is only
connection-oriented.
8 In the OSI model, the data link layer and
physical are separate layers.
9 Session and presentation layers are a part of
the OSI model.
10 It is defined after the advent of the Internet.
11 The minimum size of the OSI header is 5
bytes.
TCP / IP
It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced
Research Project Agency Network).
TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear distinguishing
points between services, interfaces, and
protocols.
TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
TCP/IP has four layers.
A layer of the TCP/IP model is both connection-
oriented and connectionless.
In TCP, physical and data link are both
combined as a single host-to-network layer.
There is no session and presentation layer in the
TCP model.
It is defined before the advent of the internet.
The minimum header size is 20 bytes.

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Lack of OSI models success

The advantages of the OSI model are

 It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to develop any network
model.
 It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect other layers,
provided that the interfaces between the layers do not change drastically.
 It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols. Hence, it is flexible
in nature. Protocols in each layer can be replaced very conveniently
depending upon the nature of the network.
 It supports both connection-oriented services and connectionless services.
The disadvantages of the OSI model are
 It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the availability of
appropriate technology. This restricts its practical implementation.
 The launching timing of this model was inappropriate. When OSI appeared,
the TCP/IP protocols were already implemented. So, the companies were
initially reluctant to use it.
 The OSI model is very complex. The initial implementation was
cumbersome, slow and costly.
 Though there are many layers, some of the layers like the session layer and
presentation layer have very little functionality when practically deployed.
 There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like addressing,
flow control and error control are offered by multiple layers.
 The standards of OSI model are theoretical and do not offer adequate
solutions for practical network implementation.
 After being launched, the OSI model did not meet the practical needs as well
as the TCP/IP model. So it was labeled as inferior quality.
Internet History
 The Internet is a short form for an interconnected network. It has become a vital part ofour
lives, helping us connect with people worldwide.

 The Internet is made of a large number of independently operated networks. It is fully

distributed with no central control. Each independently-operated system is motivated to
ensure that there is end- to-end connectivity of every part of the network.

 A collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. Private

individuals as well as various organizations such as government agencies, schools, research
facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries use the Internet.

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History of the Internet

 The Internet was developed by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf in the 1970s. They began
the design of what we today know as the ‘internet.’

 It was the result of another research experiment which was called ARPANET, which
stands for Advanced Research ProjectsAgency Network. T

 his was initially supposed to be a communications system for the Defence Team of
the United States of America - a network that would also survive a nuclear attack.

 It eventually became a successful nationwide experimental packet network. But

when was the first Internet started? It is believed that on 6 August 1991,when the
World Wide Web opened to the public.

The Internet Today

The Internet has come a long way since the 1960s. The Internet today is not a simple
hierarchical structure. It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by
connecting devices and switching stations.

It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the Internet because it is continually

changing-new networks are being added, existing networks are adding addresses, and
networks of defunct companies are being removed. Today most end users who want
Internet connection usethe services of Internet service providers (lSPs). There are
international service providers, national service providers, regional service providers,
and local service providers. The Internet today is run by private companies, not the
government.

(OR)
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ARPANET

The ARPANET created by DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) of the
United States Department of Defense during the Cold War, was the first operational
computer network in the world, and the predecessor of the global Internet.
The network is composed of small computers known as Interface Message Processors
(IMPs), what are now called routers. The IMPs at each site performed store-and- forward
packet switching functions and were connected to each other using modems connected to
leased lines (initially running at 50kbps). Host computers connected to the IMPs via
serial interfaces to connect to ARPANET.
The Network Control Program or NCP provided a standard method to establish reliable, flow-
controlled, bidirectional communications links between different processes on different hosts.
The NCP interface allowed application software to connect across the ARPANET
implementing higher-level communication protocols.
The initial ARPANET consisted of four IMPs. Honeywell's DDP-516 computer was chosen to
build the first-generation IMP. The first message ever sent over the ARPANET occurred at
10:30 PM on October 29, 1969. By 1981, the number of hosts had grown to 213. In 1983, the
U.S. military portion of the ARPANET was broken off as a separate network, the MILNET.
CSNET (the "Computer Science Network") was a computer network developed in
the early 1980s that linked Computer Science departments at academic institutions.

NSFNET

In 1985, the NSF (National Science Foundation, U.S.) began funding the creation of five new
supercomputer centers. The NSFNET connected these five centers and allowed access to their
supercomputers over the network. The original 56- kbps links were upgraded to
Mbps by July 1988 and again to 45 Mbps in 1991. The NSFNET was a major part of
early 1990s Internet backbone.
The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) started a commercial network in UK.
The RAND Corporation (Research ANd Development) was set up in 1946 by the
United States Army Air Forces.
NPL & RAND networks introduced the concept of packet-switching, in which the message is
split into small chunks known as packets at the source, these packets are transmitted over the
network and combined back into the at the original message at the destination.
The CYCLADES was a French research network created in the early 1970s. In CYCLADES
the focus is on connecting small networks spread all over the France into a single network.
This is how the concept of internetwork (internet) was introduced. This network also provided
remote login and file transfer services.
In the late 1980s ARPANET was interlinked with NSFNET, the term Internet was used as the
name of the network, being a large and global network. By Feb 28th, 1992 the ARPANET
hardware was completely removed and the Internet had grown to a worldwide network with
3000 networks (200000 computers) connected to it. In 1992 the millionth node was connected
to the Internet.

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Physical Layer:
Transmission media
o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information
from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the
electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information
in the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
Classification Of Transmission Media:

Transmission media can be defined as physical path between transmitter and

receiver in a data transmission system. And it may be classified into two types:
1. Guided
Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals
along a specific path. The data signals are bound by the "cabling" system. Guided
Media is also known as Bound Media.
2. Unguided
Unguided Transmission Media consists of a means for the data signals to travel
but nothing to guide them along a specific path. The data signals are not bound to
a cabling media and as such are often called Unbound Media.

Guided transmission media:

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is
also known as Bounded media.
Types Of Guided media:

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Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each
other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The
frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
A twisted pair consists of two conductors(normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together. One of these wires is used to carry signals to
the receiver, and the other is used only as ground reference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication.

Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

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Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:
o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
Shielded Twisted Pair
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that
allows the higher transmission rate.
Characteristics of Shielded Twisted Pair:
o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

o
Disadvantages
o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.
o It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV
wire is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to
each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer
conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper
mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

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Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single
signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting
multiple signals simultaneously.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
o The data can be transmitted at high speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are
used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known
as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area
of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.

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Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main

o
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the
core interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light
waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket.
The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock
and extra fibre protection.
Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:
o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more bandwidth as
compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries more data as compared
to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This
allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a longer distance
as compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the copper
cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct
in the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so
it can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.
UnGuided Transmission
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without
using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless
transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic
energy can flow easily.
Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the
directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not
aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any
receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

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Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile
cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
Micro Waves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
micro waves. Micro waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits
microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair
of aligned antennas.

The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:

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 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted

antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart
need to be very tall.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic
can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside the buildings.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider
sub-bands can be assigned and a high date rate is possible.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

Microwaves are of two types:

o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the

focused beam of a radiosignal from one ground-based microwave
transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the
range from 1GHz to1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to
be aligned, i.e., thewaves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly
focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to
another antenna which iskm away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are thedirect sight of each other.
Satellite Microwave Communication
o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known
height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more

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flexibility than cable andfibre optic systems.

 We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication
Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication
over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two
cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell
phone resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics of Infrared:
o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun
rays will interfere with the infrared waves.

Lightwave Transmission

The LANs in two buildings may be connected with a simple

transmission of light waves. A LASER is used to convert electrical
signals from one LAN to light signal and a photo diode is used at the other
end to convert this light signal back into electrical signal and forwards it
to the second LAN. This communication is faster and cheap when
compared with traditional communication mechanisms. For duplex
communication, two sets of devices are used. The range of this type of
network depends upon the strength of the LASER.

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