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Resources – Hydrocarbon Geology

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Outline
 Rocks
 Oil Formation
 Oil Migration
 Traps and Reservoirs

Prof. Metin Çakanyıldırım used various resources to prepare this document for teaching/training.
To use this in your own course/training, please obtain permission from Prof. Çakanyıldırım.
If you find any inaccuracies, please contact metin@utdallas.edu for corrections.
Updated in Sumer 2019
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Rock Types

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 Volcanic (Igneous) Rocks: Crystalline solid rocks from cooled down magma.
 Metamorphic Rocks. E.g., marble develops under high pressure
 Sedimentary Rocks composed of sediments (grains, mud, salts) such as
– Clastic: Collection/compaction/cementation of broken up rock pieces.
– Chemical (Crystalline): Including minerals and chemical salts Gypsum
For this & others, see the
» Gypsum: Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate: CaSO4 .2H2 O. Soft rock for artifacts from ancient times. window case on the 1st floor
Founders North building
– Organic: Calcium from animal bones can combine with organic materials (proteins).
» Proteins ← Amino acids including carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) & nitrogen (N).

Volcanic Body fat is complicated

Rock Metamorphic Clastic

Chemical
Sedimentary
Organic
CH2 Carbon-Carbon
bond
Carbon-
Nitrogen C
bond C
N Acidic
Amino part COOH
part NH2

Limestone, seashells Simple amino acid

Sandstone, sand grains Rich in Calcite CaCO3 Glycine NH2CH2COOH
Shale, mud particles
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Sedimentary Rocks and Shield

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Sedimentary rock layers are on top of each other.

Often sandstone is above shale which is above limestone. E.g., layering of rocks in Tulsa
Densities of these are close 1.85-2.36 tons/yard3=2.4-3.1 tons/m3 Sandstone
However, layering sequence of rocks on top of each other Shale
depends on depositional sequence and materials, and can also be Limestone
Basement rock
altered by tectonic plate movements and earthquakes.

Basement rock is either volcanic or metamorphic rock.

Basement rock is on the surface in some places. Then it is called shield.
Shields are rich for minerals. But do not expect gas or oil in shields.
Chances of oil or gas is low in mountain areas.
Search for oil in stable geological platforms that contain sedimentary rocks.

Shields
Mountains
Stable platforms
including
sedimentary rocks
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Organic – Inorganic Carbon Cycle

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Sunlight
Organic Carbon

Carbondioxide Plants: Animals without a vertebral column:

Water Such as Oak Such as insects, clams, sea urchin, worms
Photosynthesis Eaten by

Several years Decomposition

Bacterial Decay
Rotting
Reservoir

> 1000 of years

Move up by
Earthquakes Migration
Inorganic Carbon Evolution to
Oil, Gas, Coal
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Contents of Crude and Refined Oil

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Alkane Example:
Chains:
Aliphatic Compounds

Methane
Molecule Type Weight

Cyclo-Alkane Example:
by %

Cyclopentane
Paraffins (Alkanes): 30
short or long chain, C-C bond
Naphtenes (Cycloalkanes), 49
circle, C-C bond

Aromatic Example:
Aromatics (incl. Benzene), 15

Ortho-xylene
circle, C=C bond Circles:
Aromatic Compounds
Asphaltics, 6
non-uniform, complicated

Post Refinery # of Carbons / Molecule Weight %

Gasoline 4-10 31
Refinery Kerosene 11-12 10
Gas Oil 13-20 15
Lubricating Oil 20-40 20
Residuum 40+ 24
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 Oil & Gas Formation

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Generation of Crude Oil, Gas & Coal

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1% of rocks conytain organic minerals.

 90% of organic material is kerogen.
– Kerogen is a polymeric compound containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, which are also the building blocks of organic materials.
When a living organism (algae, planktons, plants, animals) dies, the body
decomposes into smaller molecules which can combine under
pressure/temperature to create larger molecule of kerogen.
– Kerogen is not a specific chemical substance but a collection of
hydrocarbons.
» Green River formations have oil shale in the from of Kerogen (in proportions of
215 Carbon; 330 Hydrogen; 12 Oxygen; 5 Nitrogen; 1 Sulphur). Green River
– Kerogen can be cracked into smaller and lighter hydrocarbons under high
temperature (thermal cracking).
 10% of organic material is bitumen.
– Bitumen is chemically similar to kerogen but solvable ⇒ migrates easily.

Coal Carbon rich

No Hydrogen
Organic Decomposition Kerogen
Material Greenish Maturation
Yellow

Carbon along
Oil & Gas With Hydrogen
 Van Krevelen Diagram Pre Catagenesis
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Maturation of Kerogen

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Diagenesis is the initial chemical process. It can happen closer to surface at low temperatures & pressures.
Diagenesis ↓ the oxygen content of the complex molecule (lateral leftward move in the graph) and yields kerogen.

Kerogen I:
Mainly algal remains, anoxic conditions
Atomic Hydrogen/Carbon

H to C ratio 1.65. O to C ratio 0.06.

1.5 Ratios similar to Lipids (fat, oil).
Animals without a vertebral column:
Diagenesis Such as insects, clams, sea urchin
70% Protein; 20% Carbohydrate;
Kerogen II: 10% Lipid; 0% Lignin.
Mainly marine planktonic
1.0 Intermediate between I and III Oak Leaves:
Diagenesis
37% Lignin, 52% Carbohydrate;
6% Protein; 5% Lipid
Kerogen III:
Other plants/animals, (sub-)oxic conditions
0.5 Mainly from lignin in plants
Diagenesis
H to C ratio < 0.84. O to C ratio 0.13.
Lacking chains; Rich in circles
Low H/C ratio is similar to coal
Atomic Oxygen/Carbon
0.1 0.2
Van Krevelen Diagram Post Catagenesis
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Maturation of Kerogen

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Kerogen I
H/C

Catageneis is maturation of kerogen → oil & gas. It

1.5 Diagenesis happens at deeper levels (high temperature &
pressure). It ↓ hydrogen content (vertical / diagonal
Kerogen II move in the graph. It yields first oil & then gas.
Oil Metagensis is further maturation of hydrocarbons
Diagenesis into smaller gas molecules. It releases methane. The
remaining residual material can further evolve to coal.
1.0
Oil

Kerogen III
Oil Diagenesis Wet gas contains less gas more liquids than dry gas.
0.5 Gas is methane, liquids are more complex.
Dry gas does not include liquids.

Graphite Gas does not become coal O/C

0.1 0.2 0.3

Temperature rises by ≈1 oC per 50 metres of depth. Surface has 23 oC. metres feet
 Oil forming temperature: 65-150 oC = 149-302 oF ≈ 150-300 oF. 2100 ≈ 7,000
 Oil forming depth: 50 ∗ (65 − 23 = 42) = 2100 metres Oil Formation
 Gas forming temperature: > 150 oC = 302 oF ≈ 300 oF . 6350 150 oC 300 oF ≈20,800
 Gas forming depth: 50 ∗ (150 − 23 = 127) = 6350 metres Gas Formation
 For gas formation, >5500 metres depth suggested by Hyne.
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 Hydrocarbon properties
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API Gravity

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Density g/cm3
API
Lighter crude 0.790

Water densest at 4 C
100

the sea than a pool

[
Easier to swim in
Light crude 0.825 Ammonia

1 cm
Olive oil 0.850
1 cm
Water 1.000 1 cm3 =1 milliliter
Salty water 1.025 Light
Oil
Specific Gravity (SG) of a substance is the ratio
of that substance’s density to water density.
 Specific gravity of lighter crude oil = 0.790/1=0.79 unitless
141.5 Heavy
API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity = −131.5 Oil
SG
» API gravity of water: 141.5/1-131.5 =10 10

[
» API gravity of olive oil: 141.5/0.85-131.5=34.97 0.6 1.0 1.3
[ ]
» API gravity of lighter crude oil:
141.5
− 131.5 = 47.6 ≈ 48 ⇒ crude API 48. Density
0.790
141.5
» API gravity of light crude oil: − 131.5 = 40 ⇒ crude API 40.
0.825
– Heavy oil has API 22 or less, so its density is Transformation: Density → API to
141.5/(22 + 131.5) = 0.922 g/cm3 or more. enlarge a tight interval of [0.6-1.0]
– Extra-heavy oil has API less than 12 or 15, so its density is
141.5/(12 + 131.5) = 0.986 g/cm3 or more. Extra-heavy oil has density ≈ water density.
 Characteristics of Crude Oils at
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Various Locations

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API Gravity Sulfur % Viscosity SSU at 100 oF

Water 10 0 30
East Texas 38.4 0.33 40 (flows like milk)
Smackover, Ark 20.5 2.30 270
Loudon, Ill 38.8 0.26 45
Poza Rica, Mexico 30.7 1.67 68
Kirkuk, Iraq 36.6 1.93 42
Kern River, Cal 10.7 2.30 6700+ (does not flow)
 Sulfur is corrosive so it can damage the production equipment. Sulfur is removed from oil at refineries.
– Sweet (Sour) crudes have < (>) than 1% sulfur by weight. Sweet costs a few dollars more per barrel than sour.
 Benchmark Crude Oils:
– West Texas Intermediate (WTI) has 38-40 API and 0.3% Sulfur.
– West Texas Sour has 33 API and 1.6% Sulfur.
– Brent (from North Sea) has 38 API and 0.3% Sulfur
– Dubai has 31 API and 2% Sulfur.
 Viscosity is resistance to flow. It is important for handling / transporting oil.
– Higher viscosity (in SSU or cp) implies resistance to flow.
» It can be measured by Saybolt Second Universal (SSU): the time required in seconds for a given amount of
liquid to flow through a standard tube. Water has 30 SSU and Milk has 40 SSU at 68 oF. See standards ASTM 445,
D2170, and D2171 from (American Society for Testing and M aterials) astm.org.
» The most popular unit of viscosity in oil industry is centi poise (cp). Water ~1 cp and honey 2,000 cp.
 Pour Point: Solid ↔ Liquid
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Melting (Solidification) Temperature

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 Crude oil includes Paraffins, saturated hydrocarbons (i.e., carbons have a single covalent bond):

Paraffin wax H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
C25H52 : H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
Candle-like H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

 Paraffin is used as a heat absorber in house drywalls.

 Paraffin is in crude oil. More paraffin in oil and more carbon in paraffin ↑ melting temperature.

 If the reservoir is hot with temperatures > 66 oC (≈ 150 oF), triacontane is in

Liquid for oC liquid form. As it is pulled, into the pipes & towards the surface it cools down.
Triacontane solidifies before it reaches the surface and clogs the pipes.
Triacontane ≥ 66
 If the oil contains more paraffins & more carbons, its melting temperature is high.
C30H62
Such oil clogs the pipes & is difficult to deal with.
Paraffin ≥ 45
C25H52  The pour point of oil is the lowest temperature for solidification. Under ideal
Decane ≥ −35 conditions, melting and solidification temperatures are the same as they are
C10H22 about the phase changes between solid and liquid.
Hexane ≥ −95  Arabian light has a pour point of -30 oF so it is liquid at the surface temperatures.
C6H14  Ekofisk oil from Norway has a pour point of 15 oF. Winter temperature in Norway
easily goes below 15 oF and the oil can solidify.
In other words, Norwegian winter is so cold that it can freeze your oil!
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 Porosity, Permeability, Migration, Traps

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Porosity vs Permeability

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Natural
 Porosity is the void space in the rock Cement
– Porosity=Volume of void space/Volume of rock; generally 10-30%. SiO2 ,
CaCO3
 Permeability is the connectedness of pores.
Grain

Pore
Clastic Sedimentary Rock
 A porous rock may be impermeable (not permeable). Not a source rock but
can serve as a pipe
 A porous rock may be permeable.
Liquid on this side cannot reach Liquid on this side can reach
the other side the other side

Porous but impermeable Porous and permeable

Think of permeability as the presence of roads (for liquids) in the rock.
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Permeability and Flow Rate

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 Flow rate of a liquid/gas through a rock depends on

– Intrinsic permeability (of transmitting rock) 𝜅𝜅, ↑ the rate Oil/Gas
– Viscosity of the liquid/gas 𝜇𝜇, ↓ the rate flows
to surface
– Thickness 𝐿𝐿 of transmitting rock, ↓ the rate
– Surface area 𝐴𝐴 of transmitting rock perpendicular to flow, ↑ the rate Lower
pressure
– Controllable: Pressure difference Δ𝑃𝑃, ↑ the rate Oil/
– Flow rate 𝐼𝐼, in terms of a simpler form of Darcy’s law: Permeability 𝜅𝜅 of Gas
Thick- flows
ness L transmitting rock to
Intrinsic properties of Geometry pipe
rock and liquid/gas of rock Area A
Higher pressure
𝐾𝐾 𝐴𝐴
Flow rate = 𝐼𝐼 = Δ𝑃𝑃 Controllable in reservoir
𝜇𝜇 𝐿𝐿 pressure difference
Viscosity 𝜇𝜇

 The flow happens from high pressure region to low pressure region. [Δ𝑃𝑃 = 0] ⇒ [Flow = 0]
 Higher pressure difference Δ𝑃𝑃 yields higher flow rate
 However, from experiments, flow rate I does not increase linearly with the pressure difference Δ𝑃𝑃 when
– the speed of flow is high, which disturbs the orderly (laminar) flow of particles and causes turbulent flow,
– the inertial forces (the resistance of particles to flow) are high (indicated by high Reynolds number).
 Nonlinear relations between I and Δ𝑃𝑃 are suggested to salvage Darcy’s law
– Quadratic, cubic relations or even higher order (power) relations by Forchheimer (in the early 20th century).
– Non-linearities lead to complicated differential equations that cannot be analytically solved in a closed-form.
 In practice, flow equations are solved numerically by using computational fluid dynamics software.
– Comsol Subsurface Flow Module: www.comsol.com/subsurface-flow-module & www.comsol.com/video/simulating-pipe-flow-co msol-multiphysics.
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Permeability Increases Flow Rate

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 In oil industry, permeability is measured in terms of flow rate of a liquid. The units of flow rate is
darcy or millidarcy. 100-200 millidarcy indicates good permeability. Some permeable rocks can have
1,000 millidarcy. Tight rocks can have 0,000001 millidarcy.

 Permeability: Streets and highways in the matter

– Low permeability to Higher permeability by
» Fracturing: Introducing high pressure water & sand mixture to open passages,
» Acidizing: Introducing hydrochloric acid to open passages:

3 vertical passages 5 vertical passages 5 vertical and 5 vertical and 3 horizontal

3 horizontal passages some diagonal passages
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Oil Flows among Rocks

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Reservoir Rock

 Oil / gas typically moves from deeper (source)

rocks toward the surface (reservoir rock).
– Expulsion of water from kerogen makes it lighter
– Bitumen migrates more easily than kerogen.
– Bitumen solvable, smaller/lighter kerogen

 Migration happens among rocks and within

permeable rocks.

 If oil contacts ground water, it will go through

water and pass through it:
 Oil has lower density.

 Depending on its viscosity, oil will migrate until it

is stopped by a trap.

Source Rock, where oil matured

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Traps: Onshore and Offshore

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Oil migrates until it cannot, i.e., it is trapped by impermeable rock.

Trap rock (impermeable) Both trap and source rocks are bent
into an arch (anticline or concave
Water shape) and oil accumulates at the
Source rocks (permeable) crest of the arch.

A fault line can form

a fault trap.

Salt flows under enough heat and pressure towards the surface.
It may not reach the surface and forms an underground salt dome.
Salt is impermeable and traps the oil.

Formation of Oil & Gas in a reservoir: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PDOD_FEnNk

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Summary – Hydrocarbon geology

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Immediate application of
what you learnt so far:
SOM Searching for oil in the east
side of the building!!! Metin took
this photo in Spring 2012
 Rocks
 Oil Formation
 Oil Migration
 Traps and Reservoirs

Based on
- Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and Production. By N. J. Hyne.
- Elements of Petroleum Geology. Chapter 5 of Generation and Migration of Petroleum. By R. C. Selley.
- Petroleum and Reserves. Chapter 11 of Basic Petroleum Geology by P. Link.
- Hydrocarbon Reserves. Chapter 3 of Oil, Gas Exploration and Production by Institut Francais du Petrole.
- A. Çakmak. 2009. Analysis of Nonlinear Darcy-Forchheimer Flows in Porous Media. PhD Thesis. Dept. of Mathematics,
Texas Tech University
- Private communication in 2015 with Arun Kharghoria, PhD in Petroleum Engineering.
You may now watch Petroleum Origins www.youtube.com/watch?v=OWysYg_0I-M,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=f6XWLN6GnGk and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9VbU0gdRHTc.
 Sedimentation Process:
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Weathering and Transportation

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Continental Movements
Earthquakes

Igneous Rock: Granite

Looks glossy because of minerals
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 Case Studies: East Texas Fields and Offshore Fields

Based on
- Atlas of Salt Domes in the East Texas Basin. 1984. M.P.A. Jackson and S.J. Seni. Published by Bureau of
Economic Geology.
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Case Study: East Texas Oil Fields

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East Texas oil field is 72 km long and 8 km wide,

a rectangle about 35-40 kms east of Tyler,
or a rectangle about 190 kms away from Dallas
Interstate 20 on Interstate Highway 20.

100 million years ago, shallow seas covered East Texas

1. Woodbine sandstone was deposited as a horizontal
layer. Woodbine is the location; Sandstone is
formation type; Similarly, Austin Chalk.
2. Other sediments covered the woodbine sandstone.
3. Sabine uplift exposed the woodbine sandstone.
4. Erosion removed the exposed woodbine sandstone.
5. Seas deposited Austin Chalk (a limestone) and other
sediments.
6. Oil migrated northeast from Eagle Ford source rock.
7. Migration stopped by, cap rock, Austin Chalk.

Sandstone The area was explored in the 1900s, no oil found and
Shale production companies moved to newly discovered fields
Limestone in West Texas.
Limestone
Columbus M. Joiner acquired leases on the land, which
then was used as cotton farms. He discovered oil but had
financial challenges.
Limestone
Joiner passes the rights to Haroldson L. Hunt (originally
Sandstone from Illionis) in Adolphus Hotel, Dallas; see huntoil.com.
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Mount Sylvan Salt Dome in East Texas

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Southeast Prairie Creek
Texas Highway 64
v
Wills Point, Tyler, Henderson,
Kaufman Co. Van Zandt Co. Smith Co. Rusk Co.

Depth to Salt dome is about 170 metres

Depth of Cap Rock 18-34 metres

Faults indicate
vertical plate
movement.

Many well samples to

extrapolate boundaries
off anticlines/synclines
Mount Sylvan Dome has a circular peak to 1 km north of the Highway 64
bridge over Prairie Creek in west-central Smith county. To be specific
32o 23’09” North and 95o 26’55” West. Anticline (Syncline) is a
The peak and base are on north-south axis and between State Highway 64 concave (convex) shaped fold.
and County Road 724. The base is about 1 km north of peak.
Depth of Salt dome is about 6,000 m.
Source: D.H. Wood and A.B. Giles. 1982. Hydrocarbon Accumulation Patterns
in the East Texas Salt Dome Province. Published by Bureau of Economic Geology.
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Mount Sylvan Wells in East Texas

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Southeast

Cap Rock

Limestone
Sandstone Salt

Source: M.P.A. Jackson and S.J. Seni. 1984. Atlas of Salt Domes in the East Texas Basin. Published by Bureau of Economic Geology.
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Atlas of Salt Domes in East Texas

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Shreveport

Sylvan
Mount
Dallas

Source: M.P.A. Jackson and S.J. Seni. 1984. Atlas of Salt Domes in
the East Texas Basin. Published by Bureau of Economic Geology.
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Rocks of Alberta

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Mt. Athabasca
Mt. Bryce Cascade Mountain
Columbia Glacier

Cascade Mountain
Shreveport
Root of Athabasca river

Metin Metin
Mt. Bryce
Side and top view
of the rock piece

Side view of the

rock piece
 Is this volcanic or
sedimentary rock?
 Is this sandstone,
shale or limestone?
Hard, firm, dense, dark
Limestone used in old buildings

This side has lighter shade

Possibly interior before cracking Non-smooth sides: Violent cracking possibly by icing
 Offshore
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Continental Shelf and Submarine Canyon

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Coastline Continental
 Continental Shelf: Flat shallow underwater platform that surrounds Slope
continents.
 Geological structures (sedimentary rocks, faults, traps) and formation of
Slope 0.01 Shelf
the oil under the water is the same as they are or on land. depth
Steeper
 Geological structures extend from beach to the continental shelf. Slope of 140
metres
 Continental shelf is shallow and extends tens of kilometers into the sea. ~0.03
Continental Shelf

 Submarine Canyon: Canyon starting in continental shelf & extending towards the sea bottom. They often occur at
river deltas.
 Submarine canyons are made up by erosion of the sediments in the canyon. Sediments are deposited along the deep
sea fan. Submarine canyons can contain reservoirs.
Generic Submarine Canyon Hudson River Submarine Canyon Mississippi River Submarine Canyon

Jan 2015, Eni starts production at Lucius oilfield in water
depth of about 2160 metres. Eni plans 5 more wells in the
field, jointly owned with Freeport-McMoRan O & G.
Lucius
Oilfield
Jan 2015, Noble energy’s exploration well in Madison prospect in Block 479
turns out to have non-commercial amounts of hydrocarbons. The well has a
depth of 5138 metres, is owned 60% by Noble Energy and 40% by Stone Energy.
 Examples of Offshore Fields
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Gulf, North Sea, Eastern Mediterranean

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Gulf of Mexico Shelf edge

contains most of the wells.

Largest Offshore Field

North
Sea
Fields
Norway
Frigg
Gas Field
Scotland

Subsea Completions

Developing Fields
 Concessions
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in Angola

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Block 6
Petrobras 40%
Sonangol 20%
Inter oil 10%
Falcon oil 10%
Initial oil 10%

 Sonangol, state oil firm, grants rights in Angola.

 Each block is about 5000 km2.
 Block 6 is licensed for $305,000.
 Taxes: Petroleum Production Tax, Petroleum
Income Tax, Transaction Tax, Surface Fee.
 As an example of nepotism, Angolan President
Jose E. dos Santos appointed, June 3 2016, his
daughter as head of Sonangol.