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    —_— ‘The Periodic Table @ Classifying elements into metals, non-metals and semi-metals There are over a hundred elements. Each element has its own properties. These elements can broadly be classified into metals and non-metals according to their physical properties. Differences in physical properties between metals and non-metals Metals and non-metals differ in appearance. Metals are usually shiny. Most of them are silvery white in colour, with only a few exceptions (such as copper and gold). See Figure 6.1. Learning tip Calciumis sivery white. Butt reacts with oxygen and tarnishes when exposed to ar Figure 6.1 Most metals are silvery white in colour. Solid non-metals usually have a dull appearance. Unlike metals, they show a variety of colours (e.g. sulphur is yellow; phosphorus is red or yellow; graphite, a form of carbon, is black). See Figure 6.2. Learning tip-- ‘White phosphorus. usually appears yellow ‘because of the presence ‘of impurities, Figure 6.2 Non-metals show a variety of colours. etal urea toish I (35 rove Sean ee Sz Microscopic World | Metals and non-metals also differ in many other ways. See Table 6.1 Ly . Table 6.1 Some typical differences in physical properties of metals and ron.srricis Property. Metals Non-metals | ‘Physical state at room solids, gases or'solids temperature and pressure (exceptmereury), (except bromine) ‘Appearance |'shiny usually dull in appearance Melting point and boiling usually high’ usually low: point (some non-metals like diamond’ and graphite have high melting points and boiling points) usually brittle (brokereasily Hardness and strength usually hard and strong» AS enemece isepelied) Pe Pe |mot malleable and not ductile Malleability and ductility | malleable and ductile’ Eee Density usuallyshigh [low ‘Thermal conductivity and -good.conductors of heat and poor conductors of heat and electrical conductivity electricity. non-conductors of electricity { | (except graphite) | } There are exceptions ' © \soditim is a metal but is so soft that it can be easily cut-with a knife Besides, it has a low melting point (below 100°C) and has a low density so it floats on water. ] * graphite (a form of carbon) is a non-metal but it is an electrica ‘conductor. It is also shiny and has a very high melting point (3730°C). properties mentioned above. For example Classifying an element according to its physical properties To decide whether a certain element is a metal or non-metal, we firs consider the physical state of the element at room temperature and pressure. + Non-metals include all of the gaseous’elements, one liquid element (bromine) and a few solid element ‘* Metals include most of the solidvelements and one liquid elemen! earning tip: * Bromine isthe only liquid non-metal + Mercury s the only liquid metal brie 8 36 ductility HEC The Periodic Table Based on the differences in their physical properties, people have devised a scheme for classifying elements into metals and non: (Figure 6.3), Such classification is found to be quite useful, es liquid | | solid What is its colour? Does it conduct electricity? 5 a) ~ a - al a pee st mccan nea) pinecone (Ri “nonemett k won bey) si) MY ee ve ve an wwetol “metal ‘metals IN yee cn Classifying elements as metals or non-metals The following table shows some physical properties of four elements W, X, Yand Z. ti Density under Does it conduct Benes nderoom condenses etude w liquid ete 31 no bg solid aie 8.9 yes Y solid black 49 no yy liquid silvery 13.5 yes (@) Classify these elements as metals or non-metals. Explain your answer. (0) Which of these elements may be mercury? (©) What element may W be? Solution (@) Wand Y are non-metals because they do not conduct electricity. Yas Xand Z are metals because they conduct electricity. issue bane aE () Z solid, not brown, Hence, Oheone Xis not graphite scheme 37 Microscopic World | With the discovery of semi-metals, this scheme was found to hay limitations and modifications are needed. Details about properties of sem. metals will be discussed below. Elements with properties of both metals and non. metals — the semi-metals A few elements, called’semi-metals (or metalloids), have some properties similar to those of metals and some properties similar to those of non- metals. Examples of semi-metals include boron, silicon (Figure 6.4) and acl . a natal Seon -yeinl wi Wow germanium. Figure 6.4 Two Semi-metals are semi-metals, in pure forms, do not conduetyelectricity. However, they conduct electricity quite well at elevated temperatures. Some semi-metals have important uses in industry. For example;silicom is a semi-conductor widely used in the electronics industry in making transistors and computer chips (Figure 6.5). Figure 6.5 Silicon is used in making (a) transistors and (b) computer chips. according to their physical properties. nataid Computer MH ost, 38 ‘semi-metal 2B elevated 127509 ame | Fo point Elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and semi-metals | 1. The following t The Periodic Table Creaeee) ‘able shows some physical properties of four elements P, Q, R and S. 2. Decide which is in each case, Physical state under Hardness and ate Feet (roomconaneenn | (colox strength sane’) P solid yellow britle does not conduct electricity a solid black brittle conducts electricity ucts electricity on R solid OP brittle Sto rears oad onl solid SNe | hard and strong ‘conducts electricity (@) Classify P, Q, Rand S as metals, semi-metals or non-metals. Explain your answer in each case. (b) Suggest what Q maybe. s the odd one in each of the following groups of elements. Give reasonts) for your choice (@) Iron, aluminium, mercury silver (6) Magnesium, sulphur, lead, tin () Iodine, oxygen, nitrogen, argon (@) Phosphorus, bromine, helium, carbon (in the form of graphite) of the Periodic Table Mendeleev and the Periodic Table In 1869, a Russian chemist called Dmitri Mendeleev (Figure 6.6) found a useful way of classifying elements. He arranged them in the form of a table known as the Periodic Table of Elements. Mendeleev’s periodic table has been much modified over the years, to become the modern Periodic Table. Figure 6.6 Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907). n 1869, he put ished The modern Periodic Table his Period w aueTaniscf Elements. 1a the modem, Berfodie Table tee one epee eae i), elements are arranged i"order“of'inereasing.atomic:number, For example, hydrogen (atomic number = 1) comes first. Helium (atomic number =2) comes second and soon. arranyed tw Thatsng onder af alleen, Ox Pedi Toble of ements ERA nee A IBIS Mss. a5 Elements are arranged in"periods andigroups of the Periodic Tabie GROUP Lae a ih WV Vi vio 1 [He] fates TOTES lo aalboe is | Ns . oa dal a] S| A fas a5 Sn ae 6 [ Pb | 7 a. ——___—__—_ [—— a ne Br Li etna ermal ot Main group elements = book.) ee oe Figure 6.7 A part of the modern Periodic Table. (A complete Periodic 1% shown on the Inside front cover of this, Periods A horizontal row of elements in the Periodic Table is called a period. Each period has a number: from Period 1 to Period 7. Period 1 contains only two elements — hydrogen and helium. Period 2 and Period 3 each contains eight elements. Other periods contain more than eight elements. Period 1 elements have one occupied electron shell in each of their atoms, Period 2 elements have two occupied electron shells in each of their atoms (Table 6.2 on p.42), and so on. The Periodic Table Groups A vertical column of elements in the Periodic Table is called a group. There are altogether eight main groups. Each group has a number (I, 1, I, 1V, V, VI, VIL or 0). Group I elements have one outermost shell electron in each of their atoms (Table 6.2 on p.42). Group II elements have two outermost shell electrons in each of their atoms, and so on. outkerwnst shel icey point Group number of an element The following are two exceptions: Hydrogen does not belong to any group. For Group 0 elements, helium has two electrons in the outermost shell, while all the others have eight electrons in the outermost shell, Some groups in the Periodic Table have names: \ “2m T samber Group name EI Baka ov Group VIET -Halogens. [Group@y __| Sant ses wy The elements in between Group [land Group Ilf are called the ‘transition elements (or transition metals). Many common metals such as‘iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) are transition elements (Figure 6.8). Figure 6.8 Some common transition elements Learning tip---- We willlearn more about { the general properties of } transition metals in Book $48, chapter 49, stl metal ROR sihatine ach meta A halogen leanstion metal BEA noble gas Ret Aranaiton element BRT Microscopic World | | Relating the position of an element in the Periodig Table to its electronic arrangement Figure 6.9 illustrates the relationship between electronic arrangemen, period number and group number. number of occupied electron shells = 3 = period number (3) — gig \ ‘numberof electrons in the outermost shell = 7 = group number (Vi) g. Think about it -. How does the atomic number of an element relate to the number of electrons of an atom of that element? Figure 6.9 The relationship between electronic arrangement, period number and group number The electronic arrangements of some elements in the Periodic Table are given in Table 6.2 Li 2,1 Be 2,2 2,8 Period 3 Na 2,8,1 Mg 2,8,2 Ar 2,8,8 Period 4 | K 2,8,8,1 Ca 2,8,8,2 28,18, 7 Kr 2,8,18,8 | Period S Rb 2,8,18,8, 1 Sr 2,8,18,8,2 V 2,8,18,18, 7 Xe 2,8,18,18, 8 Period 6 Cs 2,8,18,18,8, 1 Ba 2,8,18,18,8, 2 At 2,8,18,32,18, 7 Rn 2,8,18,32,18, 8 ‘Table 6.2 Electronic arrangements of some elements in Group |, Il, Vil and O bY Bes Predicting the position of an element in the Periodic Table from its electronic arrangement Element X has an atomic number of 15. (a) Write the electronic arrangement of an atom of X. (b) Inwhich (i period and (ii) group of the Periodic Table should X be placed? (©) By referring to the Periodic Table, name X. (@ IsXa metal or anon-metal? Solution (@) 2,85 (&) @ Period 3 (i) Group V () Phosphorus (@) Non-metal ‘The Periodic Table N S ber of 35 and belongs to Group Vil of the Jement Y has an atomic num Element ¥ has a Sena Periodic Table. Its atom has an electronic arrangement (2) What are the values of p and respectively? (b) In which period of the Periodic Table should Y be placed? Explain your answer. () Whatis the name for this group of elements? (6) By referring to the Periodic Table, neme ¥. {Reading to learn Mendeleev's Periodic Table Dmitri Mendeleey, a Russian chemist, liked playing card games. In 1869, he created a set of cards for the 63 known elements. Each card contained the symbol of an element. He constructed the table by putting elements with similar chemical properties in the same column. But he left gaps (indicated by *) for the elements which had not yet been discovered. The table allowed himself to predict the physical and chemical properties of undiscovered elements, The existence of these elements was proved by other scientists later on. ered orl Valoeaain jo F ey | Mg Al Si P 8 GE Period 4 [ig Ca + Ti Vv Cr Mn___|FeCoNi em Za | A As So Br| Peery [sr YY ze no [Mo |e Ru Rh Pd Period 7 As] cd In| Sal Sb] Te J The Mendeleev's Periodic Table Question Su 1ggest why Mendeleev left gaps for undiscovered elements when he constructed his table. (43 Microscopic World | @® Patterns in the Periodic Table Refer to Figure 6.7 again. The metals and non-metals can be separated by, diyiding/line drawn in the Periodic Table. The dividing line looks like , stairease. Themetals are found on the left-hand side of the divi ‘The non-metals are found on the right-hand side. 8 line, Changing from metals to non-metals across a period . : Across a period, the elements change from metals through semi-metal(s), . er For example, across Period 3, | um, magnesium and aluminium are metals. They are shiny and are Se of electricity. | * silicon is a semi-metal which has properties of both metals and non- metals, | + phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon are non-metals. They do not . conduct electricity. See Figure 6.10. Figure 6.10 The Period 3 sodium magnesium aluminium —siicon Phosphorus sulphur chlorine argon “ ‘elements (from sodium to —,—_ T (ro) (used tof argon) metals semi-metal toh oes —__— non-metals Group trends Elements within the same group of the Periodic Table have ‘similar “chemical properties. This is because they have the same number of outermost shell electrons. There is a gradual change in the physical properties and chemic# properties down a group. The tendency with which a certain prope’) changes within a group is called the group trend. group wend 9) The Periodic Table The isotopes of an element have the same number of outermost shell electrons. Hence, they have similar chemical properties. & The isotopes of an elements have the same number of electrons, Hence, they have the same chemical properties. 1. Consider the two elements, 5X and ,,Y. (2) Draw the electron diagram of an atom of each element. (b) How many occupied electron shells does each of these atoms have? (2) Would you expect these elements to have similar chemical properties? Explain your answer. 2. Which of the following pairs of atomic numbers corresponds to elements with similar chemical properties? A414 C. 9,35 B. 8,18 D. 19,38 (HKDSE 2019 Paper 1A. Q1) @ Group I: The alkali metals by3 [aol OH R CoS reuthae “ A [Nn\ 7 Tae ee lithium sodium, potassium silvery solids i rubidium caesium francium Figure 6.11 Group | elements (the alkali metals) ees Microscopic World | Similarities of Group | elements 1. Allare. agit metals. ‘They can be cut with a knife (Figure 6.12). 2. All havedowsdensities. The densities of lithium, sodium and potassium are 0.53 g cm’, 0.97 g en and 0.86 g cm’ respectively. Their densities are even lower than that q water (1.0 g cm’), They float on water. Lithium is the least dense metg element. 3. All are neactivemetals. ‘They react with air readily and must be stored in paraffin oil. See Figur 6.13. 4, All react withwater to inal given off. ‘This explains why we call Group I elements ‘alkali metals’. For exampl . sodium reacts with water to ve sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. Th sodium hydroxide soli Lue (Figure 6.14), sodium + «ci “-» sodium hydroxide + hydrogen Refer to Table 6.3 for reactions of Group I elements with water. oa: 5. Allreactwith non-metals to form ionic compounds. Learning tip The concept of ionic compounds will be introduced in Chapter 7. For example, sodium reacts with chlorine to give sodium chloride which i an ionic compound. =" soditumpchlorine —-ssodium chloride Figure 6.12 Cutting a piece of ‘Figure 6.13 Sodiumisstoredin Fi re 6.14 The alkaline solution sodium. Alkali metals are so soft paraffin oll in the laboratory sodium hydroxide solution) formed that they can be easily cut with a the reaction between sodium and knife. can turn litmus solution blue. GB) tonkccompound BLAND paraffin ol 8k Grouping metals with ‘similar chemical properties Experiment video Grouping metals with similar chemical properties Learning tip- } Once the reaction between sodium and ater produces sufficient eat and hydrogen, the sodium metal will start to burn, Table 6.3 Reactions of Group | elements with water Figure 6.15 Reactivity of Group! elements reoctvty tt The Periodic Table Difference in reactivity of Grouy | clements Although all alkali metals are reactive, they differ is For example, the reaction of alkali metals with water becomes more vigorous when moving down the group (Table 6.3). Element Reaction with water Lithium __|pfloats, giving off hydrogen steadily melts to form a silvery ball which moves quickly on the water Sodium | surface, giving off hydrogen rapidly. The metal burns with a golden yellow flame, melts to forma silvery ball which moves very quickly on the Potassium | water surface, giving off hydrogen very rapidly. The metal burns with a lilac flame. dium | Te2cts even igorously than potassium does Rubidium | T2¢ts even more vigorously than p (Caution: Explosive reaction!) : reacts even more vigorously than rubidium does Caesium 4 5 (Caution: Explosive reaction!) G roup I elements become more reactive down the group (Figure 6.15). st reactive) reactivity increases down the group Key point vigorously PIN 49 Microscopic World | @ Group II: The alkaline earth metals Group II elements are also called the @ildalinieyearthymetals. Th... elements include beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium ang radium. All Group II elements have two outermost shell electrons in thei atoms (Figure 6.16). Group II beryllium magnesium calcium. silvery solids : strontium barium radium Figure 6.16 Group Il elements (the alkaline earth metals) Similarities of Group |i elements 1, All havelowdensities.. However, Group II elements are denser than Group I elements of the sam period. For example, the densities of lithium and beryllium are 0.53 g cm’ and 1.85 g cm™ respectively. 2. All areless,reactivethan alkali metals. All Group II elements are less reactive than Group I elements of the sam period. 3. All, except.beryllium, react with water less.vigorously thas Group I elements. Beryllium does not react with water. Refer to Table 6.4 for reactions 0 other Group II elements with water, The Periodic Table 4. Allreact readily with dilute hydrochloric acid to form ‘hydrogen. For example, magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form Magnesium chloride and hydrogen (Figure 6.17). magnesium + hydrochloric acid —- magnesium chloride + hydrogen S. All (with some exceptions e.g. beryllium)meactwithinion=metals-s “to'form ionic compounds: For example, magnesium reacts with chlorine to form magnesium chloride, which is an ionic compound. Figure 6.17 Hydrogen is aaociton nares ‘magnesium + chlorine > magnesium chloride reacts with dilute - E hydrochloric acid, Difference in reactivity of Group II elements Learning tip } Beryllium reacts with jon-metals to form covalent compounds. Like Group I elements, the reaction of Group II elements with water becomes more vigorous when moving down the group (Table 6.4), Element Reaction with water Beryllium | deesmotreact withwwaterior'steam | Magnesium | 54S @lmostmo-reaction with woldiwate? butweactsivith | Disenesium | steam to produce hydrogen Table 6.4 Reactions of some | Group Ielements with water | Like Gr # elements, Group II elements become more reactive down the group Figure 6.18). (least reactive) reactivity increases down the ° group Figure 6.18 Reactivity of Group a elements. (mee re) Key point Microscopic World | ‘9 Learning tip Astatine isa rare and hight radioactive Say sas SK \ Skagit 3 Learning tip- Jodine soli is black in colour while iodine vapour is purple in colour. Grouping non-metals with similar chemical properties Experiment video Grouping non-metals, with similar chemical properties Learning tip- ‘The concept of covalent ‘compounds will be introduced in Chapter 8. covalent compound 3a(L 2% @ Group VI The halogens Group VII elements areqagnemetals and they are also called the halogeng ‘These elements include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine, ay Group VII elements have seven outermost shell electrons in their atoms (Figure 6.19). Group VII fluorine (pale yellow gas) chlorine (yellowish green gas) bromine (reddish brown liquid) iodine (black solid) astatine (black solid) Figure 6.19 Group Vil elements (the fh! The melting points and bo" » points of the halogens increase dow! the group. The physical statc o: the halogens at room temperature an pressure changes from gas to liquid, and then to solid down the group Similarities of Group Vil elements 1. All have colours. Refer to Figure 6.19. The elements become darker in colour down th group. 2. Allreact with metals to form ionic compounds. For example, bromine reacts with sodium to form sodium bromide, whi is an ionic compound. sodium + bromine — sodium bromide 3. All react with non-metals to form covalent compounds. For example, chlorine reacts with hydrogen to form hydrogen chloti which is a covalent compound. hydrogen + chlorine + hydrogen chloride —— The Periodic Table Difference in reactivity © Unlike the alkali metals or the alkaline earth metals, the halogens become less reactive down the group (Figure 6.20). (most reactive) reactivity decreases down the group (least reactive) Figure 6.20 Reactivity of Group Vil elements, For example, the reaction with hydrogen becomes less vigorous when moving down the group (Table 6.5). Reaction with hydrogen s explosively even in the dark Chlorine | ts explosively in sunigh, bu the reaction i slow in the Bromine | reacts only in sunlight or when heated re has almost no reaction even in direct sunlight or upon eaine strong heating Table 6.5 Reactions of Group Vil elements with hydrogen Microscopic World | Group 0: The noble gases avert Tar Group 0 is another group of non-metal elements and they are alsy called the noble gases. These elements include helium, neon, argon krypton, xenon and radon (Figure 6.21). Group 0 helium | He neon | Ne Group 0 elements, 2 gasea) 1. All are colourless gases at room temperature and pressure. ‘The noble gases have very low boiling points are much lower thar ro: boiling points of helium and neon are ~26' jints and boiling points. Thei perature. For example, th C and ~246°C respectively. 2. Allare very unreactive. ‘They have little or no reaction with other elements (Figures 6.22 and 6.23) Figure 6.22 Helium is used to fil weather Figure 6.23 Argon is used to fil ek balloons and airships. Helium does not burn light bulbs as it does not react with ‘and its safer to use than hydrogen. ‘metal filament in the light bulb. The Periodic Table Stability of noble gases related to their electronic arrangements All noble gases are very unreactive, Scientists relate the stability of noble {88es to their electronic arrangements: Helium (He) 2 Neon (Ne) 2,8 Argon (Ar) 2,8,8 Krypton (Kr) 28,18, 8 Xenon (Xe) 2,8,18,18, 8 Radon (Rn) 2,8,18,32,18, 8 All noble gases (except helium) have 8 outermost shell electrons in their atoms. A helium atom has 2 electrons in the only one occupied shell. An atom has great stability when it has * an octet of electrons (i.e. 8 electrons in the outermost shell) or a duplet of electrons (ie. 2 electrons in the only one occupied shell). ‘Atoms of elements other than noble gases are usually not stable. They will become stable when they attain an octet or a duplet electronic arrangement by reacting with other substances, Learning ti £ betalls about how atoms ¥ canattan the noble gas electronic arrangements by chemical combinations willbe discussed in Chapters 7 ands. Ue} J Similarities and differences in Properties of Grou A part of the Periodic Table is shown below, ip |, Il, Vil and 0 elements Group ma WV Vv ww o t ad 2 1 J ij ai a ae aia aaa ‘ Ga 5 Ion aupiet RER octet ule ARMIERY toon Ete octet AR Microscopic World | (@) Suggest why lithium and sodium are assigned to (the same group. (ii) different periods. (b) State TWO similarities in the physical properties of lithium and sodium. (©) Lithium reacts with water to give an alkaline solution and a colourless gas. () Write the word equation for the reaction between lithium and water. (i) What is the product that makes the solution become alkaline? (@) Both magnesium and calcium are Group II elements. (Write the word equation for the reaction between calcium and chlorine. (ii) Predict, with one reason, whether magnesium or calcium is more reactive towards chlorine, (©) Which metal shown in the Periodic Table on the previous page reacts most vigorously with water? Suggest why. (® Which element, fluorine or chlorine, is more reactive? Suggest why. (g) Suggest why Group 0 elements normally have little or no reaction with other elements. Solution (a) (i) They have the same number of outermost shell electrons. (i) They have different numbers of occupied electron shells (b) Both of them are soft and have a low density. (©) @ lithium + water — lithium hydroxide + hydrogen (i) Lithium hydroxide (@) @ calcium + chlorine > calcium chloride (i) Calcium. This is because the reactivity of Group II elements increases down the group. (©) Potassium. Group I elements are more reactive than Group Il elements of the same period, and the reactivity of Group I elements increases down the group. () Fluorine. The reactivity of Group VII elements decreases down the group. (g) Group 0 elements have a stable duplet or octet electronic arrangement, Both potassium and calcium are in the same period of the Periodic Table. Which of the following statements is correct? ‘A. Potassium tarnishes in air more readiily than calcium. B. A potassium atom has more electrons than a calcium atom. C. Potassium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid less vigorously than calcium. . Potassium conducts electricity but calcium does not. Oo 8 The Periodic Table 2 Helium, neon and argon are noble gases. They are in Group 0 in the Periodic Table. (2) Whats the similarity in the electronic arrangement of noble gases? (6) Why is argon used in filling electric light bulbs? (6) Suggest TWO reasons for using helium in filling airships, @® Predicting the properties of an unfamiliar ., element in a group of the Periodic Table We can predict the properties of an unfamiliar element from its position in 2 group of the Periodic Table. Consider the following exampl Ss rns (3 Predicting the properties of an unfamiliar element in Group | The table below gives some information about the six elements in Group I of the Periodic Table. Element | Atomic number | Melting point /*C | Reaction with water Lithium 3 181 Reacts moderately Sodium i 98 | Reacts rapidly Potassium 19 a |___ Reacts vigorously Rubidium en ee ee explosively | oo a iad acest ‘more explosively than rubidium Frncum | 87 | 2 (@) Would you expect the melting point of francium to be higher or lower than 28°C? Explain your answer. ©) Sodium isa silvery solid, which can be cut easily witha knife, Predict the appearance of francium, Do you think francium can be cut easily with a knife? (©) Caesium reacts with water e: ~xplosively. Predict the observation when francium is added to water. Explain your answer. Solution. (2) The melting point of francium should in the table, the melting point of the el (©) Like sodium, francium is a silvery soli (©) Francium reacts with water even m: elements increases down the group. be lower than 28°C because as shown by the information lements decreases down the group. id. It can be cut easily with a knife. ‘ore explosively. This is because the reactivity of Group I Bad Predicting the properties of an unfamiliar element in Group VII The table below gives some information about the first five elements in Group VII of the Periodic Table, Atomic ‘Melting point | Boiling point | nar Element | number | APPearance 1G ize ae Fluorine 9 Pale yellow gas 220 188 Reacts vigorously 2 Yellowish Reacts very rapidly with | Chlorine 7 a, 101 eos: heated iron wool | i Reddish Reacts moderately when |. Promines| 38 brown liquid we a the mixture is heated | 5: Reacts slowly when the | Iodine 53 Black solid 14 184 Pine sone hese Astatine 85 2 2 2 | 2 (@) Predict the appearance of astatine at room temperature and pressure. Explain your answer. (b) Describe the variation in reactivity of halogens with atomic number. (©) Iodine reacts with iron wool only when the mixture is strongly heated. Predict the reaction of astatine with iron wool when their mixture is strongly heated. Solution (@) Astatine is a black solid. This is because the colour of the = of the halogens increases (to a temperature gr. (b) The reactivity of halogens decreases with increa ‘as darkens and the melting point fer than 13-C) down the group. s atomic number. (©) Astatine reacts more slowly or even has no reactics| itis iron wool when their mixture is strongly heated. Refer to Group Il of the Periodic Table. (2) How many outermost shell electrons do atoms of Group Il elements have? (©) The chemical properties of Group Il elements are generally similar Explain briefly (0) Does the reactivity of Group Il elements increase or decrease down the group? (d) Magnesium has almost no reaction with cold water, while calcium reacts with cold water at a moderate rate. Based on this information, predict the reactivity of () beryllium and (i) barium towards cold water. (e) What is the gaseous product formed from the reaction between calcium and water? Suggest a test for this gas. Metallic bonding and ionic bonding ® Metallic bonding As mentioned in Chapter 6, all metals conduct electricity. Do you know any | Bord = attraction — special feature in their structures that make them good conductors of electricity? = theclresate (4/-) | Consider a piece of sodium. The sodium atoms in the metal pack closely | ‘ogether. A sodium atom has the electronic arrangement 2,8,1. This single | Cutermost shell electron is far away from the nucleus and is not strongly attracted, so it can escape easily to leave a positively charged sodium ion, ‘The outermost shell electrons of all sodium atoms move freely and randomly among the sodium ions, These are delocalized electrons, each electron is no longer held by the nucleus of its original atom. since earning tip Refer to Section 7.2 for more details about the term ‘ion’, We can say that the metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of delocalized electrons (Figure 7.1). The movement of delocalized electrons Pe wy makes metals good conductors of electricity. metals can conduct electricity in Section 92. metal ions (Positively charged) D tetattie Bord. ~ Mefalion <5 delocalized € (+) ()) @iowie band a cation oS ane teat aecor Figure 7.4 In a metal, positvely charged metal ions are surrounded bya “sea! of negatively charged delocalized electrons. Learning tip «. Metalic bondis on-directional. It 2ctsn all directions, Metallic bond refers to the elect ‘trostatic attraction (ie. attraction. between opposite charges) between negatively charged delocalized electrons and positively charged metal ions. localized electron RRS metalic bond at ‘ectostatcatraction FMS eee - Microscopic World | _ 70) cation UE chemical bond (C28 Covalent bond 3856 Magnesium has the electronic arrangement of 2, 8, 2. (2) How many outermost shell electrons does each magnesium atom hava? () How many outermost shell electrons does each magnesium atom contribute to the formation of metallic bond? (©) What type of electrostatic attraction exists between delocalized electrons and magnesium ions? What is a chemical bond? In the microscopic world, atoms or ions are held together by chemic: bonds, A chemical bond refers to the electrostatic attraction that hold atoms or ions together. Metallic bond is a type of chemical bond. Apart from metallic bond, ionic bond and covalent bond are tw other types of chemical bond. * Tonic bond is mainly found in compounds formed between metals ar non-metals, * Covalent bond is mainly found in non-metals and in compoun formed from non-metals only. In the coming sections we will discuss ionic bonding. Then we w discuss covalent bonding in ( 8 Atoms of elements other than tine noble gases are usually n stable. In chemical reactions, these atoms tend to attain a stab electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gas atoms by gaining losing outermost shell electrons. When an atom gains or loses one or mo electrons, an ion forms. Formation of positive ions A metal atom has few outermost shell electrons (usually 1 to 3). To atti the electronic arrangement of a noble gas atom, the easiest way is to lo these electrons, forming a cation (positively charged ion). fon ton $8 lonlebond Rat charge ‘ow many protons and ectrons are there in a fagnesium ion respectively? Metallic bonding and ionic bonding A sodium atom has an electronic arrangement 2,8,1. It tends to lose one electron to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom (2,8). Thus, a sodium ion (2,8) forms. See Figure 7.2. Sodium atom (Na) ‘sodium fon (Na’) 28,1 28 Figure 7.2 Formation of sodium ion from sodium atom In a sodium atom (Na), there are 11 protons and 11 electrons. It is overall electrically neutral. When it loses one electron, a sodium ion forms. A sodium ion contains 11 protons and 10 electrons, so it has an overall charge of 1+. See Table 7.1 Naatom Na’ ion | Number of protons il ib . 5 e i 11 10 j 0 1+ Table 7.1 The number of protons and the number of electrons in a sodium ‘atom and a sodium ion respectively Formation of magnesium ions The electronic arrangement ofa magnesium atom (Mg) is 2,8,2,Ittends to lose two electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of aneon atom 28). Thus, a magnesium fon (2,8) forms, The magnesium ion has an overall charge of 2+. See Figure 7.3, ‘magnesium atom (Mg) ‘magnesium lon (Mg) 20.2 28 Figure 7.3 Formation of magnesium jon from magnesium atom Metallic bonding and ionie bonding © 3 0 3+ Formation of negative ions Compared with a metal atom, a non-metal atom has more outermost shell electrons. To attain the electronic arrangement of a noble gas atom, the casiest way is to gain electrons, forming an anion (negatively charged ion). Formation of chloride ions A chlorine atom has an electronic arrangement 2,8,7. It tends to gain one clectron to attain the electronic arrangement of an argon atom (2,8,8). ‘Thus, a chloride ion (2,8,8) forms. See Figure 7.4. Chlorine atom (Ch) ‘chloride fon (Cr) 287 288 Figure 7.4 Formation of chloride lon from chlorine atom. * Learning tip--- Refer to Section 7.4 for the names of negative Ina chlorine atom (Ci), there are 17 protons and 17 electrons, When it gains one electron, a chloride ion forms. A chlor ride ion contains 17 protons and 18 electrons, so it has an overall charge of 1-. See Table 7.2. Clatom Pion ‘Number of protons 17 17 Number of electrons 17 18 Overall charge 0 L ‘Table 7.2 The number of protons and the number of electrons i ‘atom and a chloride lon respectively - onion Microscopic World | Formation of oxide ions ‘The electronic arrangement of an oxygen atom (O) is 2,6. It tends tg two electrons to attain the electronic arrangement of a neon atom, i ‘Thus, an oxide ion (2,8) forms. An oxide ion has an overall charge ora Figure 7.5. ‘ Prnink about it — How many protons and 5 ans 26 ‘electrons are there in an ee ©} — |© oxide ion respectively? ‘oxygen atom (0) ‘oxide fon (0%) 26 28 Figure 7.5 Formation of oxide ion from oxygen atom Drawing electron diagrams to represent anions Note the following points when drawing the electron diagram of «: @ Write the correct symboi ot 2h e'orn! @ Draw the correct number of electron sholis) © Usually,‘ and are used to indicate the electrons from @ the atom itself and ® the other atoms) respectively However this fs NOT a must because the electrons of the atoms itself and those from the ther atoms are indistinguishable ‘© Wite the charge of the ion on the to right-hand comer outside the brack Omit the number “1 ifthe over age of the anion is 1-, Le. overall charge of the ania ‘or than 1, write the wnbar of the charge, follow by the sign e.g. 2-, 3- (© Draw a pair of square brackets = aq Simple ions and polyatomic ions So far, we have seen several simple ions like sodium ion, magnesium i chloride ion and oxide ion. A simple ion is derived from a single atom: A polyatomic ion is derived from a group of atoms. Examples polyatomic ions include ammonium ion, hydroxide ion, sulphate ion # carbonate ion. See Figure 7.6. semontim on HE palytomilon SEF : 74 Sonate lon nei Simple on BOHR . Spare on a ‘phason RLM Learning tip atoms in these Tasatomiclons are held together by covalent pond, whichis another type of chemical bond. More details about Covalent bond will be discussed n Chapter 8. B yinaes wrong 2 ae ©) Metallic bonding and ionic bonding MY [@) ‘ammonium ion (NH. hydroxide fon (0), Figure 7.6 Models of some ‘sulphate ion ($0.4) ‘carbonate ion (CO;") polyatomic ions In an ammonium ion, there are one nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms. It has an overall charge of 1+. Can you find out the number and type of atoms in other polyatomic ions shown in Figure 7.6? the following table by filing in the numbers of protons, adi electrons in each of the following ions. lon. (@) “Be” wo)" © How many electrons and neutrons are there in 2 doubly charged cation formed from a Zn atom? Tg Which of the following statements concerning the formation of a fluoride ion from a fluorine atom is correct? ‘A. The atomic number of fluorine increases by 1. 8. The number of neutrons increases by 1. C. The number of electrons decreases by 1. D. The number of occupied electron shells in a fluoride ion is equal to that in a fluorine atom. Microscopic World | Flipped classroom Formation of ionic bonds Figure 7.7 The transfer of an electron from a sodium atom. to a chlorine atom when sodium reacts with chlorine. < Learning tip: + We will ook atthe structure of NaClin greater detail in Section 9.3, p.138, + lonic bond extends inall directions, soit is non-directional. Ionicbond RFR 6) transfer of electron G9 lonic bonding and ionic compounds Formation of ionic bond between sodium ang chlorine When sodium reacts with chlorine (Figure 2.6 in Book 1A), each Sodiug atom loses one electron and each chlorine atom gains one electron. As, result of the transfer of electron, sodium ions and chloride ions form, Figure 7.7 shows the transfer of an electron from a sodium atom to chlorine atom forming a sodium ion and a chloride ion respectively. ©r@ +|® sodium atom (Na) chlorine atom (C) sodium fon (Na‘) chloride ion (7) (oses one electron) (gains one elecror) {both unstable, therefore reactive) (both stable) The sodium and chloride ions fo: © opposite charges, so th attract each other strongly. The eles: estraction which holds t ic bond. oppositely charged ions together is ms of sodium ar e ions. The io! In the reaction between so: chlorine atoms are converted ints pack closely and regularly to form a hex sional giant structu (igure 7.8). In the structure of sodiuin: chic ns and chloris ions are held together by ionic bonds. sodium chloride crystal Figure 7.8. Anionic erystal of sodium chloride consists of sodium ions and chloride hheld together by ionic bonds. (Note: this figure just shows several Na’ and CI ions. E¥@! single sodium chloride crystal contains trilions of ions.) tron ae Key point In the reaction between sodium and chlorine, only the outermost shell electrons are involved. This is true for most chemical reactions. For simplicity, electron diagrams in the latter part of this book will show the outermost shells only. Thus, Figure 7.7 can be simplified as: Fi : ae eye Sab (3) ae 28 288 or even more simply, Forman ond between magnesium and fluorine When magnesium reacts with fluorine, a magnesium atom loses two electrons, while a fluorine atom gains o1 ne electron. As a result of the transfer of electrons, magnesium ions and fluoride ions form, Microscopic World | Formation of ionic bond between lithium oxygen nq When lithium reacts with oxygen, a lithium atom loses one electron, whi, an oxygen atom gains two electrons, As a result of the transfer of electron, lithium ions and oxide ions form. Figure 7.10 shows the transfer of electrons from two lithium atom, to an oxygen atom to form two lithium ions and one oxide ion respective, u oxide lon 2a 28 2 lithium atom oxygen atom lithium ion (unstable atoms) se lone) Figure 7.10 The transfer of electr ‘oxygen atom when lithium reacts With ows ‘haum atoms to one lonic compounds the electron diagrams of ‘ magnesium fluoride and In the above examples, the positively «++: sore lithium oxide as: negatively charged ions by ionic bonds spats fe (sodiur E a chloride, magnesium fluoride and_lithine> eu led ioni Pl Me G) compounds. They all consist of ions. From the electron diagrams of ionic compounds (Figure 7.11), it a * a ‘ (e) clear that the charges on the positively charged ions balance those on th negatively charged ions. Thus, ionic compounds are electrically neutral 2 Re - 2+ - + 2 m1 [me] i@y fu ©) @ ©) © Figure 7.11 Electron diagrams of lonie compounds: (a) sodium chloride, (o) magnesium fot? and (c) lithium oxide fonic compound MF 229 ihium oxide St Metallic bonding and ionic bonding Key point EY Bee Drawing electron diagrams of ionic compounds W,X and Y are three different elements. The ions formed from W and X, W™* and X™, have the same electronic arrangement as a neon atom. (Note: W, X and Yare NOT symbols of elements.) (a) Suggest what W and X are. (®) Draw the electron diagram for the compound formed between W and X, showing electrons in the ‘outermost shells only. (©) Y belongs to the same period as W and the same group as X in the Periodic Table. Suggest what Y ra itn | GD a. Solhtion Al 35 AD" sansa LES 5 0 ae : nitrogen 2.88) 23 be 2do 282, 2: 3— 3 a KV 9 A) a 2 Bieewia | 21% x, 2 DDG G) UY “a9 W2WL_.—- 338 (©) Phosphorus For each ofthe following pairs of elements, draw the electron diagram for the compound formed, showing electrons in the outermost shells only (2) Sodium and iodine (6) Potassium and sulphur (€) Aluminium and oxygen (©) Magnesium and oxygen (@) Calcium and bromine Names and formulae of cations We can refer to an element, a compound or an ion by its name. Alternatively, we can refer to it by its formula (plural: formulae). The names and formulae of some common cations are shown in Table 7.3. fools Learning tips ‘elements tend to with positive charge). barium fon SR ‘alco ton BR

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